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We live on one level of existence.
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But there are others.
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These hidden dimensions
of reality are everywhere...
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far away, across the light-years,
beneath our feet...
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and even inside you and me.
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We are made of atoms.
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There are more atoms in your eye...
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than there are stars in all the galaxies
of the known universe.
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The same is true of any solid object
larger than the tip of your little finger.
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I'm a collection of 3
billion billion billion...
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intricately arranged atoms
called Neil deGrasse Tyson.
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You're a similar collection
with a different name.
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We don't usually think of ourselves
this way, because that level of reality...
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lies beyond the realm of our senses.
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But we're not gonna let that stop us.
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We can go deeper into the wonder.
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Atoms let matter do funny things.
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To understand water, you need to know
what its atoms are doing.
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Every molecule of water is composed
of two tiny hydrogen atoms...
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attached to a larger oxygen atom.
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That's why we call it H20.
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If it's not too hot or too cold...
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the molecules can slide
and tumble past each other.
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There's stickiness between the molecules...
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but not enough to lock them
into a rigid solid.
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That's what makes something a liquid.
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The sun warms the water.
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And with more energy,
the molecules move faster.
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That's all that temperature is.
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Those molecules are moving fast enough...
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to break the weak bonds
that hold them to their neighbors.
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That's evaporation.
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The air we breathe is made
of nitrogen and oxygen molecules...
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with a scattering of water vapor
and carbon dioxide.
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Incoming!
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That's condensation.
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A dewdrop is the momentary triumph...
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of condensation over evaporation.
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And while it lasts...
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it's a little cosmos with its own worlds...
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creatures, drama.
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To explore the far-flung realms
of this dewdrop...
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we're gonna need a ship.
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One with twin engines...
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science and imagination.
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That's a single-celled
paramecium...
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one of a multitude
of skilled hunter-warriors...
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that roam the dewdrop.
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But they too are hunted.
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The Dileptus...
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the paramecium's mortal enemy.
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The paramecium might get lucky
and score a direct hit.
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Even if it doesn't...
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the recoil from the barrage
will put some distance...
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between the paramecium
and its attacker.
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What can I say?
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That's life in the dewdrop.
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That little guy is a tardigrade...
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an animal smaller than the head of a pin.
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Don't underestimate them.
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Tardigrades have been living on this planet
a lot longer than we have.
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About 500 million years.
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For every one of us...
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there's at least a billion of them.
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They can make a living
anywhere on Earth...
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in the frigid peaks
of the tallest mountains...
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in the cauldrons
of erupting volcanoes...
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the deep ocean vents
at the bottom of the sea.
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Tardigrades are so tough...
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they can survive naked
in the vacuum of space.
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They've survived all five...
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of the most recent
mass extinctions on this planet.
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A visitor from another world
could be forgiven...
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for thinking of Earth
as the planet of the tardigrades.
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If we're ever gonna get to the bottom
of this dewdrop, better get a move on.
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Every leaf and tiny clump of moss
has hundreds of thousands...
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of microscopic mouths called stomata.
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Plants breathe through them,
taking in carbon dioxide...
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and exhaling the oxygen
that we need to live.
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The plants can survive without us.
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But we and all the other animals...
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we d be toast without them.
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The plants make food out of sunlight.
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We animals can't do that.
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To see how they do it...
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we have to go deeper...
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make ourselves
about a thousand times smaller...
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to get into their treasure house...
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the place where they keep
the good stuff, the chlorophyll.
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That's the molecule
that converts sunlight into energy.
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Every one of those rectangles
is a plant cell.
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And those tiny green vehicles...
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are its energy factories.
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If we could steal their trade secrets, it
would trigger a new Industrial Revolution.
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But to spy on them,
we're gonna need to go deeper still.
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What alien world has the Ship
of the Imagination carried us to this time?
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It's the cosmos...
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contained within a dewdrop.
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We're on an industrial espionage mission.
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If we can penetrate the trade secrets...
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of the manufacturing process
in that chloroplast...
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let's just say our whole future
hangs in the balance.
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This chloroplast is using sunlight...
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to break water molecules
into atoms of hydrogen and oxygen.
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It combines the hydrogen
with carbon dioxide to make sugar...
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and releases the oxygen
as a waste product.
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To see how it happens,
we have to go even deeper...
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get even smaller.
109
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We're talking atomic scale.
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Bingo.
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This assembly line is the heart...
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of the molecular industrial complex.
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At the molecular level...
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things happen too fast for us to see...
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so we'll have to slow them down
about a billion times.
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Those larger molecules are carbon dioxide.
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Each one of them is made
of one carbon and two oxygen atoms.
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When sunlight strikes
a green molecule of chlorophyll...
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it sets in motion a series
of chemical reactions...
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breaking apart water molecules...
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and freeing energetic electrons.
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00:08:09,577 --> 00:08:11,056
And that's just the day shift...
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when sunlight supplies
the incoming stream of energy.
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There's a second shift
that works day and night...
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using the solar energy kept in reserve.
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The energy of the free electrons
is put to work...
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combining carbon dioxide
with hydrogen from the water.
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The end product is sugar...
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which stores the solar energy.
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The chloroplast is a 3-billion-year-old
solar energy collector.
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This submicroscopic solar battery...
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is what drives all the forests
and the fields...
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and the plankton of the seas...
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and the animals, including us.
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The solar-powered biosphere
collects and processes...
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six times more power
than our entire civilization.
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We understand on a chemical level
how photosynthesis works.
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We can re-create the process
in a laboratory...
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00:09:02,094 --> 00:09:04,654
but we re not as good at it as plants are.
140
00:09:04,814 --> 00:09:05,973
And that's not surprising...
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considering nature's been at this
for billions of years...
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and we've only just started.
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00:09:10,854 --> 00:09:14,334
But if we could figure out
the trade secrets of photosynthesis...
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every other source of energy
we depend on today...
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coal, oil, natural gas...
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would become obsolete.
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Photosynthesis is the ultimate green power.
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It doesn't pollute the air...
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and is, in fact, carbon neutral.
150
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Artificial photosynthesis,
on a big enough
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scale, could reduce
the greenhouse effect...
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that's driving climate change
in a dangerous direction.
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Uh-oh. Place is evaporating.
Time to get out of here.
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How fleeting is the life of a dewdrop.
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It condenses from thin air
in the cool of the night...
156
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only to vanish with the heat
of the day.
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And what of its inhabitants,
the tardigrades?
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They'll be fine.
159
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They can go without water for years.
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00:10:00,091 --> 00:10:03,451
It's hard to imagine, but plants
covered the surface of the Earth...
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for hundreds of millions of years...
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before they put forth their first flower.
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That was about
a hundred million years ago...
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shortly before the dinosaurs
were wiped out.
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Our world must've been a relatively
drab-looking place back then...
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dominated by shades of green and brown.
167
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Yeah, there were giant trees
and ferns and other plant life...
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but not the purple of an iris...
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00:10:27,690 --> 00:10:30,370
or the crimson of a red, red rose.
170
00:10:37,529 --> 00:10:41,889
Orchids were among the first
flowering species to appear on Earth...
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and they're the most diverse.
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Darwin was particularly fascinated
by the comet orchid of Madagascar...
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a flower whose pollen is hidden
at the bottom...
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of a very long, thin spur.
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There can be no stronger test
of an idea than its predictive power.
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On the basis of his theory of evolution
through natural selection...
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00:11:05,288 --> 00:11:09,168
Darwin speculated that somewhere
on the island of Madagascar...
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there must live flying insects...
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with extraordinarily lengthy tongues...
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ones long enough to reach the pollen.
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No one had ever seen such a beast there...
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but Darwin insisted that an animal
fitting this description must exist.
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Few people at the time believed him.
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It wasn't until more than 50 years later...
185
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that Darwin was proven right.
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In 1903, a huge hawk moth
called the Morgan's sphinx...
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was discovered in Madagascar.
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Attracted by the comet orchid's scent...
189
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the moth slurps its pollen
with its foot-long tongue...
190
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exactly as Darwin expected it would.
191
00:11:53,246 --> 00:11:56,646
It's even more amazing
that the Morgan's sphinx was discovered...
192
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when you consider that more than
90 percent of Madagascar's rain forests...
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have been destroyed.
194
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In the years
since Darwin's famous prediction...
195
00:12:04,965 --> 00:12:09,445
this moth species could have easily
become extinct with all the others...
196
00:12:09,604 --> 00:12:13,405
every one of them a unique phrase
of life's poetry...
197
00:12:13,565 --> 00:12:17,245
written in the atoms by eons of evolution.
198
00:12:22,924 --> 00:12:25,204
Ah, the fragrance of lilacs.
199
00:12:25,365 --> 00:12:29,404
It's one of those scents that triggers
a whole constellation of associations...
200
00:12:29,564 --> 00:12:32,404
all those Junes of long ago.
201
00:12:32,564 --> 00:12:33,844
But how does that happen?
202
00:12:34,004 --> 00:12:37,603
How does a smell prompt a movie
to start running in your head?
203
00:12:37,763 --> 00:12:39,403
It's not something we can see.
204
00:12:39,563 --> 00:12:42,084
Could it be a wave of energy, like light?
205
00:12:42,243 --> 00:12:44,923
Or is it some kind of microscopic particle?
206
00:12:45,083 --> 00:12:46,483
It's actually a molecule.
207
00:12:46,963 --> 00:12:51,442
Every odor we can sense, whether
it comes from burnt toast, gasoline...
208
00:12:51,603 --> 00:12:53,762
or a field of lilacs...
209
00:12:53,922 --> 00:12:55,682
it's a cloud of molecules.
210
00:12:56,522 --> 00:12:59,923
These molecules have particular shapes.
211
00:13:00,082 --> 00:13:01,082
When I inhale them...
212
00:13:01,242 --> 00:13:05,322
they stimulate a particular set
of receptor cells in my nose.
213
00:13:06,162 --> 00:13:08,802
An electrical signal
then travels to my brain...
214
00:13:08,962 --> 00:13:12,482
which identifies this scent as lilac.
215
00:13:15,402 --> 00:13:19,281
Other scents are carried by different
molecules with different shapes.
216
00:13:19,441 --> 00:13:21,042
But when I smell a flower...
217
00:13:21,201 --> 00:13:24,322
or the smoke from a campfire,
or the grease of a motor gear...
218
00:13:24,481 --> 00:13:27,081
I'm often flooded with memories.
219
00:13:28,281 --> 00:13:31,841
Why is it that a simple thing,
such as the scent of a flower...
220
00:13:32,001 --> 00:13:34,721
can trigger powerful memories?
221
00:13:37,120 --> 00:13:40,641
It has to do with the way
our brains have evolved.
222
00:13:40,800 --> 00:13:42,480
Our sense of smell kicks in...
223
00:13:42,640 --> 00:13:46,120
when the olfactory nerve
in our brain is stimulated.
224
00:13:47,040 --> 00:13:50,280
That nerve is located
very close to the amygdala...
225
00:13:50,440 --> 00:13:53,600
a structure that is integral
to our experience of emotion.
226
00:13:55,680 --> 00:13:58,000
It's also very close to the hippocampus...
227
00:13:58,160 --> 00:14:00,719
which helps us form memories.
228
00:14:03,239 --> 00:14:05,639
The network of neurons
that carry the scent signal...
229
00:14:05,799 --> 00:14:08,479
from my nose to my brain
has been fine-tuned...
230
00:14:08,639 --> 00:14:12,119
over hundreds of millions
of years of evolution.
231
00:14:13,479 --> 00:14:14,999
It's a survival mechanism...
232
00:14:15,159 --> 00:14:18,639
that can alert us to danger
or guide us to safety.
233
00:14:21,158 --> 00:14:25,079
If you can detect the predator
before he's near enough to strike...
234
00:14:25,518 --> 00:14:27,918
or the fire before it
traps you in the forest...
235
00:14:28,078 --> 00:14:31,198
you have a much better chance
to survive and pass on your genes...
236
00:14:31,358 --> 00:14:33,438
to the next generation.
237
00:14:38,277 --> 00:14:40,678
That lovely scent from
this field of flowers...
238
00:14:40,838 --> 00:14:43,998
sets off a unique combination
of nerve signals.
239
00:14:44,157 --> 00:14:47,397
Only that exact combination
can crack the safe...
240
00:14:47,557 --> 00:14:51,517
where the memory of lilacs
is stored inside my brain.
241
00:14:55,676 --> 00:14:57,717
Wonder who they're for.
242
00:14:58,276 --> 00:14:59,917
Maybe we'll find out later.
243
00:15:00,076 --> 00:15:04,596
But first, there's another hidden cosmos
waiting for us.
244
00:15:25,435 --> 00:15:28,195
The plants are softly breathing...
245
00:15:28,355 --> 00:15:30,636
inhaling molecules of carbon dioxide...
246
00:15:30,795 --> 00:15:33,115
and exhaling molecules of oxygen.
247
00:15:33,275 --> 00:15:35,275
And I'm doing the opposite.
248
00:15:35,435 --> 00:15:37,995
Unlike snowflakes and fingerprints...
249
00:15:38,155 --> 00:15:42,594
atoms or molecules of the same kind
are utterly identical to one another.
250
00:15:42,754 --> 00:15:44,154
With every breath we take...
251
00:15:44,315 --> 00:15:47,114
we inhale as many molecules
as there are stars...
252
00:15:47,274 --> 00:15:49,754
in all the galaxies in
the visible universe.
253
00:15:49,914 --> 00:15:53,274
And every breath we exhale
is circulated through the air...
254
00:15:53,434 --> 00:15:55,753
and, mixed gradually
across the continents...
255
00:15:55,914 --> 00:15:58,674
becomes available for others
to breathe.
256
00:15:59,193 --> 00:16:00,794
Breathe with me.
257
00:16:10,873 --> 00:16:13,993
We all just inhaled
about a hundred million molecules...
258
00:16:14,153 --> 00:16:17,993
that once passed through the lungs
of everyone who ever lived before us.
259
00:16:18,153 --> 00:16:21,313
Think of it.
This kind of atomic reincarnation...
260
00:16:21,473 --> 00:16:23,833
is another link
to our distant ancestors...
261
00:16:23,992 --> 00:16:26,752
including those who first
launched us on our explorations...
262
00:16:26,912 --> 00:16:28,832
of the unseen universes.
263
00:16:28,992 --> 00:16:32,472
These universes are as real
as you or me...
264
00:16:32,632 --> 00:16:34,352
and they surround us.
265
00:16:38,712 --> 00:16:43,992
There was a moment when we awakened
to a new way of thinking and seeing.
266
00:16:44,151 --> 00:16:46,992
It happened about 2500 years ago...
267
00:16:47,152 --> 00:16:50,511
on the Greek islands that lie
between the empires of the East...
268
00:16:50,671 --> 00:16:52,191
and the West.
269
00:16:52,351 --> 00:16:55,791
There, merchants, tourists
and sailors freely mingled...
270
00:16:55,951 --> 00:16:59,110
exchanging tales of
great kings and gods.
271
00:16:59,271 --> 00:17:03,311
In Ionian cities and towns like Miletus,
in what is now Turkey...
272
00:17:03,471 --> 00:17:06,670
the most fundamental elements
of the way we live now...
273
00:17:06,830 --> 00:17:07,831
first appeared.
274
00:17:11,310 --> 00:17:15,270
Here, for the first time,
reenactments of aspects of life...
275
00:17:15,790 --> 00:17:18,070
created and executed by professionals...
276
00:17:18,230 --> 00:17:22,549
with the expectation of touching something
deep within the hearts of the audience...
277
00:17:22,950 --> 00:17:24,229
or just making them laugh.
278
00:17:25,550 --> 00:17:29,670
The first plays, dramas and comedies
were performed.
279
00:17:29,829 --> 00:17:32,629
Here also was born a radical new idea...
280
00:17:32,789 --> 00:17:34,709
government by the people.
281
00:17:34,869 --> 00:17:38,669
The first inklings, imperfect then as now,
of a democracy...
282
00:17:38,829 --> 00:17:42,748
and the notion that the ordinary citizen
might possess certain rights...
283
00:17:42,909 --> 00:17:46,188
come to us from this time and place.
284
00:17:47,349 --> 00:17:50,548
But in my view,
the most revolutionary innovation of all...
285
00:17:50,708 --> 00:17:52,948
to come to us from this ancient world...
286
00:17:53,109 --> 00:17:55,388
was the idea that natural events...
287
00:17:55,548 --> 00:17:57,588
were neither punishment nor reward...
288
00:17:57,748 --> 00:17:59,868
from the capricious gods.
289
00:18:00,308 --> 00:18:02,548
The workings of nature
could be explained...
290
00:18:02,708 --> 00:18:05,548
without invoking the supernatural.
291
00:18:06,027 --> 00:18:09,907
The first person to express this thought
was a man named Thales.
292
00:18:10,067 --> 00:18:12,107
When the thunder clapped
or the earth quaked...
293
00:18:12,507 --> 00:18:15,547
it was not because something you did
had somehow displeased...
294
00:18:15,707 --> 00:18:17,707
the very demanding gods. No.
295
00:18:17,867 --> 00:18:20,067
It was the result of natural processes...
296
00:18:20,227 --> 00:18:22,707
that we were capable of understanding.
297
00:18:22,867 --> 00:18:25,827
Though none of the books
he is said to have written survive...
298
00:18:25,987 --> 00:18:29,746
Thales kindled a flame
that still burns to this day.
299
00:18:29,906 --> 00:18:32,826
The very idea of cosmos out of chaos...
300
00:18:32,986 --> 00:18:35,746
a universe governed
by the order of natural laws...
301
00:18:35,907 --> 00:18:38,386
that we could actually figure out...
302
00:18:38,546 --> 00:18:40,466
this is the epic adventure...
303
00:18:40,626 --> 00:18:42,946
that began in the mind of Thales.
304
00:18:44,466 --> 00:18:46,745
Only a century following Thales death...
305
00:18:46,905 --> 00:18:48,585
another genius came along.
306
00:18:48,746 --> 00:18:50,306
And he, more than any other...
307
00:18:50,465 --> 00:18:52,505
was the first to discover the existence...
308
00:18:52,665 --> 00:18:55,825
of the hidden universes that surround us.
309
00:18:56,225 --> 00:18:59,545
Democritus of Abdera
was a true scientist...
310
00:18:59,705 --> 00:19:02,664
a man with a passionate desire
to know the cosmos...
311
00:19:02,825 --> 00:19:04,505
and to have fun.
312
00:19:04,665 --> 00:19:07,825
This is the man who once said,
"A life without parties...
313
00:19:07,985 --> 00:19:10,865
would be like
an endless road without an inn."
314
00:19:11,224 --> 00:19:12,944
You mean, that's it?
315
00:19:13,104 --> 00:19:14,144
That's all there is?
316
00:19:14,305 --> 00:19:16,584
Just a bunch of atoms in a void?
317
00:19:16,744 --> 00:19:17,744
Yep.
318
00:19:19,504 --> 00:19:22,064
Well, think about it.
The world has to be made...
319
00:19:22,224 --> 00:19:25,464
of countless indivisible particles
in a void.
320
00:19:25,624 --> 00:19:28,063
Otherwise, nothing could
move or grow...
321
00:19:28,223 --> 00:19:30,823
be divided or changed.
322
00:19:31,503 --> 00:19:34,383
Without atoms and empty space
for them to move in...
323
00:19:34,543 --> 00:19:38,023
the world would be
solid, static and dead.
324
00:19:38,183 --> 00:19:40,143
So don't be sad, my friend.
325
00:19:40,303 --> 00:19:42,583
Just think of the infinite possibilities...
326
00:19:42,743 --> 00:19:47,063
that arise from different
arrangements of those atoms.
327
00:19:50,463 --> 00:19:53,542
Here's to the atoms in this cup...
328
00:19:53,702 --> 00:19:55,822
and in this wine...
329
00:19:55,983 --> 00:19:58,702
and to the laughter they make possible.
330
00:20:00,982 --> 00:20:05,142
Dispersed through the clay of the
cup are microscopic mineral grains...
331
00:20:05,302 --> 00:20:06,861
different kinds of crystals...
332
00:20:07,022 --> 00:20:10,701
each with its own distinctive
atomic architecture.
333
00:20:11,342 --> 00:20:13,341
Mineral structures are exquisite...
334
00:20:13,501 --> 00:20:15,941
but they have a limited repertoire.
335
00:20:16,101 --> 00:20:19,901
A grain of quartz is a lattice
of the same three atoms repeated...
336
00:20:20,061 --> 00:20:23,501
without variation, over and over again.
337
00:20:25,100 --> 00:20:28,421
Even a relatively complex
mineral lattice like topaz...
338
00:20:28,581 --> 00:20:30,420
composed of 10 or so atoms...
339
00:20:30,580 --> 00:20:33,261
can only repeat the identical
atomic structure...
340
00:20:33,421 --> 00:20:35,420
again and again.
341
00:20:39,140 --> 00:20:41,220
To lift matter to another dimension...
342
00:20:41,380 --> 00:20:44,460
to free it from the lattice prison
of endless repetition...
343
00:20:44,620 --> 00:20:47,220
you need an atom that can bond
in all directions...
344
00:20:47,380 --> 00:20:51,979
with other atoms like itself,
as well as with atoms of different kinds.
345
00:20:58,739 --> 00:21:01,179
Behold, the carbon atom.
346
00:21:01,339 --> 00:21:04,219
The essential element for life on Earth.
347
00:21:04,379 --> 00:21:05,779
Why?
348
00:21:06,659 --> 00:21:11,139
Carbon is special because it can bond
with up to four other atoms at a time.
349
00:21:11,298 --> 00:21:13,859
It can connect with many
different kinds of atoms...
350
00:21:14,019 --> 00:21:16,619
was well as other carbon atoms.
351
00:21:17,098 --> 00:21:20,378
It can curl into rings
and string together into chains...
352
00:21:20,538 --> 00:21:25,017
building molecules
far more complex than any crystal.
353
00:21:27,658 --> 00:21:30,377
No other atom has the same flexibility.
354
00:21:30,537 --> 00:21:34,217
Even atoms that have similar
chemical properties, like silicon...
355
00:21:34,377 --> 00:21:38,577
can't form the amazing variety
of molecules built on carbon.
356
00:21:38,737 --> 00:21:41,097
The carbon-based molecules
we call proteins...
357
00:21:41,257 --> 00:21:42,617
the molecules of life...
358
00:21:42,777 --> 00:21:47,177
contain literally hundreds of thousands
of atoms.
359
00:21:47,577 --> 00:21:49,897
Carbon atoms are the backbone
of the molecules...
360
00:21:50,057 --> 00:21:54,416
that make every living thing on Earth,
including us.
361
00:21:54,656 --> 00:21:58,256
That's the difference between
rocks and living things.
362
00:21:59,336 --> 00:22:03,936
Life can make enormous molecules
of stunning size and complexity...
363
00:22:04,096 --> 00:22:10,616
freeing matter to improvise, evolve
and even love.
364
00:22:41,214 --> 00:22:43,014
Take it easy, Dad.
365
00:22:43,174 --> 00:22:45,094
He never actually touched her.
366
00:22:45,254 --> 00:22:47,494
In everyday life on our world...
367
00:22:47,654 --> 00:22:48,933
on the scale of atoms...
368
00:22:49,093 --> 00:22:52,533
material objects never really touch.
369
00:22:53,053 --> 00:22:55,853
Each atom has a tiny nucleus
at its center...
370
00:22:56,014 --> 00:22:59,813
surrounded by an electron cloud
of lines of force.
371
00:22:59,973 --> 00:23:01,733
As the atoms approach each other...
372
00:23:01,893 --> 00:23:05,253
the boy's electron clouds
push away the girl's.
373
00:23:05,413 --> 00:23:08,773
More than 99.9 percent
of the matter of any atom...
374
00:23:08,933 --> 00:23:11,452
is concentrated in its nucleus.
375
00:23:12,053 --> 00:23:14,572
The nucleus is surrounded
by an electron cloud...
376
00:23:14,732 --> 00:23:19,292
which produces an invisible field of force
and acts like a shock absorber.
377
00:23:19,452 --> 00:23:23,692
The configuration of the electron cloud
determines the nature of an element.
378
00:23:23,852 --> 00:23:28,252
In the ordinary course of things
here on Earth, the nuclei never touch.
379
00:23:28,412 --> 00:23:30,052
We have a sensation of touching...
380
00:23:30,211 --> 00:23:32,702
but that's really just
our invisible force
381
00:23:32,713 --> 00:23:35,331
fields overlapping and
repelling each other.
382
00:23:50,611 --> 00:23:54,370
The nucleus is very small
compared to the rest of the atom.
383
00:23:55,811 --> 00:23:59,170
If an atom were the size
of this cathedral, its nucleus...
384
00:23:59,330 --> 00:24:03,170
would be the size of that mote of dust.
385
00:24:05,250 --> 00:24:08,690
An atom is mostly empty space.
386
00:24:09,569 --> 00:24:11,610
To understand the nature of matter...
387
00:24:11,769 --> 00:24:13,450
we have to go deeper still...
388
00:24:13,610 --> 00:24:17,210
to a place 100,000 times smaller
than the atom:
389
00:24:17,370 --> 00:24:18,489
its nucleus.
390
00:24:21,569 --> 00:24:25,449
The simplest and most plentiful atom
in the cosmos is hydrogen.
391
00:24:25,609 --> 00:24:27,969
It's nucleus is a single proton...
392
00:24:28,129 --> 00:24:30,889
which makes hydrogen
element number one.
393
00:24:31,049 --> 00:24:32,449
The clouds that surround it...
394
00:24:32,608 --> 00:24:37,209
are the realms where this atom's
lone electron is permitted to roam.
395
00:24:37,448 --> 00:24:40,529
What happens when you have
a nucleus with two protons?
396
00:24:40,689 --> 00:24:42,169
Protons repel each other.
397
00:24:42,329 --> 00:24:44,328
In order to hold them together
in a nucleus...
398
00:24:44,488 --> 00:24:47,768
you need other particles called neutrons.
399
00:24:47,928 --> 00:24:51,488
Their job is to keep the proton
from getting out of line.
400
00:24:51,648 --> 00:24:56,327
They overwhelm the protons
with their strong attractive nuclear force.
401
00:24:56,487 --> 00:24:59,367
A nucleus with two protons
is element number two...
402
00:24:59,527 --> 00:25:01,567
otherwise known as helium.
403
00:25:01,727 --> 00:25:05,088
A nucleus with six protons
is element number six...
404
00:25:05,247 --> 00:25:09,327
which is carbon,
the fundamental building block of life.
405
00:25:09,487 --> 00:25:12,567
The nucleus of a gold atom has 79 protons.
406
00:25:12,727 --> 00:25:16,327
They attract 79 electrons
in clouds around it.
407
00:25:16,486 --> 00:25:21,206
The way light interacts with those
electrons is what makes gold glitter.
408
00:25:21,646 --> 00:25:24,055
Every additional
proton in the nucleus
409
00:25:24,067 --> 00:25:27,046
requires enough neutrons
to bind them together.
410
00:25:27,206 --> 00:25:28,286
Up to a point.
411
00:25:28,606 --> 00:25:32,125
There's an upper limit to the number
of neutrons you can stuff into a nucleus...
412
00:25:32,286 --> 00:25:34,725
before it becomes unstable.
413
00:25:34,885 --> 00:25:37,852
I know a place where
the nuclei of different
414
00:25:37,863 --> 00:25:40,245
atoms actually do
touch each other.
415
00:25:59,485 --> 00:26:01,965
The sun looks like a solid object...
416
00:26:02,125 --> 00:26:03,884
but it's not.
417
00:26:04,124 --> 00:26:08,284
It's so hot that all its atoms
are always in their gaseous state.
418
00:26:08,444 --> 00:26:11,644
The bonds that join atoms
to make solids and liquids on Earth...
419
00:26:11,804 --> 00:26:16,324
are not strong enough to withstand
the heat of the broiling sun.
420
00:26:16,764 --> 00:26:20,884
Those arcing streams of incandescent gas
that dwarf the Earth...
421
00:26:21,044 --> 00:26:23,244
are guided by magnetic lines of force...
422
00:26:23,404 --> 00:26:26,523
that emanate from below
the surface of the sun.
423
00:26:26,843 --> 00:26:28,563
Why is the sun so hot?
424
00:26:28,723 --> 00:26:33,763
Because its own stupendous gravity
is squeezing its atoms together.
425
00:26:35,482 --> 00:26:39,882
The energy of gravity is being transformed
into the energy of moving atoms.
426
00:26:40,042 --> 00:26:42,362
That's what heat is.
427
00:26:42,522 --> 00:26:44,282
The deeper we go into the sun...
428
00:26:44,442 --> 00:26:48,162
the greater the squeezing
and the higher the temperature.
429
00:26:48,322 --> 00:26:49,682
In the heart of the sun...
430
00:26:49,842 --> 00:26:54,122
the atoms are moving so fast
that when they collide, they fuse.
431
00:26:54,281 --> 00:26:56,642
Their nuclei touch.
432
00:26:57,682 --> 00:27:00,481
The sun is a nuclear fusion reactor...
433
00:27:00,642 --> 00:27:02,801
held together by its own gravity.
434
00:27:02,961 --> 00:27:06,042
It's balanced between
the inward pull of gravity...
435
00:27:06,201 --> 00:27:09,561
and the outward push of its hot gases.
436
00:27:12,401 --> 00:27:15,201
That balance has
lasted billions of years...
437
00:27:15,361 --> 00:27:18,801
providing stability that made possible
the evolution of life on Earth.
438
00:27:19,561 --> 00:27:21,121
In the sun's core...
439
00:27:21,280 --> 00:27:26,000
the fusion of hydrogen into helium releases
nuclear energy in the form of photons.
440
00:27:26,160 --> 00:27:29,400
These particles of light
slowly work their way to the surface...
441
00:27:29,560 --> 00:27:31,480
where they're seen as sunlight.
442
00:27:31,640 --> 00:27:34,840
Helium is the ash
of the sun's nuclear furnace.
443
00:27:36,799 --> 00:27:38,719
The sun is a medium-sized star.
444
00:27:38,880 --> 00:27:42,039
It's core is only a lukewarm
10 million degrees.
445
00:27:42,200 --> 00:27:45,240
Hot enough to fuse hydrogen,
but too cold to fuse helium.
446
00:27:46,159 --> 00:27:48,799
There are many stars in the galaxy
that get much hotter...
447
00:27:48,960 --> 00:27:52,079
because they're more massive
and have more gravity.
448
00:27:52,239 --> 00:27:57,239
Such stars fuse helium into heavier
elements, like carbon and oxygen.
449
00:27:57,399 --> 00:28:01,399
In their old age, they gently
diffuse these elements into space.
450
00:28:03,718 --> 00:28:07,798
Other stars, more massive yet,
live fast and die young...
451
00:28:07,958 --> 00:28:09,998
in cataclysmic supernova
explosions.
452
00:28:10,639 --> 00:28:14,438
In our galaxy, such stars
go supernova about once a century.
453
00:28:16,118 --> 00:28:19,877
Those explosions are far hotter
than the core of the sun.
454
00:28:20,038 --> 00:28:24,517
Hot enough to transform elements
like iron into all the heavier ones...
455
00:28:24,677 --> 00:28:27,437
and spew them into space.
456
00:28:27,597 --> 00:28:28,957
The Large Magellanic Cloud...
457
00:28:29,117 --> 00:28:31,397
is a neighboring galaxy
of our Milky Way.
458
00:28:31,557 --> 00:28:33,877
It's visible in the skies
of the southern hemisphere.
459
00:28:34,557 --> 00:28:36,436
When a supernova explodes...
460
00:28:36,597 --> 00:28:40,597
its brightness rivals that
of its entire galaxy.
461
00:28:50,796 --> 00:28:56,036
But all that light is only about 1 percent
of the energy liberated in the explosion.
462
00:28:56,196 --> 00:28:58,956
The rest of the energy is carried off
by the most common...
463
00:28:59,116 --> 00:29:01,796
and the most mysterious particles
in the cosmos.
464
00:29:01,955 --> 00:29:04,555
There are trillions of them
passing through you right now.
465
00:29:04,715 --> 00:29:07,035
And yet tracking down
even one of them...
466
00:29:07,195 --> 00:29:10,515
will take us to one of
the strangest places on Earth.
467
00:29:19,634 --> 00:29:23,514
Stalking the wild neutrino
is the rarest of sport.
468
00:29:23,675 --> 00:29:27,474
The lengths one must go to track them down
is nothing short of astonishing.
469
00:29:28,515 --> 00:29:31,114
Welcome to Super-Kamioka...
470
00:29:31,275 --> 00:29:34,634
the subterranean Japanese
neutrino-detection chamber...
471
00:29:34,794 --> 00:29:37,474
more than a half mile
beneath Earth's surface.
472
00:29:37,634 --> 00:29:39,714
You might ask,
"Well, who in their right mind...
473
00:29:39,874 --> 00:29:42,953
would bury an astronomical observatory
so far underground?"
474
00:29:43,154 --> 00:29:46,354
Those who hunt the most elusive prey
in the cosmos:
475
00:29:46,833 --> 00:29:48,033
the neutrino.
476
00:29:48,193 --> 00:29:50,531
This enormous
array of light detectors
477
00:29:50,543 --> 00:29:53,313
surrounding 50,000
tons of distilled water...
478
00:29:53,473 --> 00:29:56,513
is a trap designed to catch neutrinos only.
479
00:29:56,833 --> 00:29:58,992
Other particles, such as cosmic rays...
480
00:29:59,153 --> 00:30:01,953
mostly protons and electrons
that rain down from space...
481
00:30:02,113 --> 00:30:04,792
cannot get through all that rock
above us.
482
00:30:04,953 --> 00:30:07,473
But matter poses no obstacle
to a neutrino.
483
00:30:08,153 --> 00:30:10,668
A neutrino could pass
through a hundred
484
00:30:10,680 --> 00:30:13,712
light-years of steel
without even slowing down.
485
00:30:13,992 --> 00:30:16,232
Neutrinos hardly interact
with matter at all.
486
00:30:16,392 --> 00:30:19,472
That's why you need so much of it
to catch even one of them.
487
00:30:19,712 --> 00:30:20,712
On those rare occasions...
488
00:30:20,872 --> 00:30:24,472
when a neutrino actually does collide
with a particle of ordinary matter...
489
00:30:24,631 --> 00:30:28,192
it produces a ghostly
ring-shaped flash of light.
490
00:30:28,791 --> 00:30:33,911
We're lying in wait for a particle
that weighs next to nothing.
491
00:30:34,071 --> 00:30:35,872
Even the miniscule electron...
492
00:30:36,031 --> 00:30:39,151
has more than a million times its mass.
493
00:30:39,310 --> 00:30:40,751
There!
494
00:30:41,111 --> 00:30:45,031
When the supernova in the Large
Magellanic Cloud blew its top in 1987...
495
00:30:45,191 --> 00:30:47,590
this is what it would have looked like
in here.
496
00:30:47,751 --> 00:30:50,990
Now remember, the Large Magellanic
Cloud is in our southern hemisphere...
497
00:30:51,150 --> 00:30:54,430
so the neutrinos didn't come through
that half-mile of rock above us.
498
00:30:54,590 --> 00:30:58,030
They had to pass through the thousands
of miles of rock and iron below us...
499
00:30:58,190 --> 00:30:59,750
to reach this detector.
500
00:30:59,910 --> 00:31:01,030
But the coolest thing...
501
00:31:01,190 --> 00:31:03,070
was that those neutrinos hit Earth...
502
00:31:03,230 --> 00:31:06,670
three hours before
the light from the supernova did.
503
00:31:06,830 --> 00:31:08,910
If nothing can travel faster than light...
504
00:31:09,069 --> 00:31:11,749
how could that possibly be?
505
00:31:17,029 --> 00:31:20,109
This is a dead star walking.
506
00:31:20,269 --> 00:31:25,029
It may look normal, but deep within it,
something cataclysmic is happening.
507
00:31:25,189 --> 00:31:27,269
This blue supergiant star...
508
00:31:27,429 --> 00:31:31,628
has already begun to explode inside.
509
00:31:35,389 --> 00:31:37,908
Like rats deserting a sinking ship...
510
00:31:38,068 --> 00:31:41,028
the neutrinos produced in the heart
of the exploding star...
511
00:31:41,188 --> 00:31:43,507
race outward at near the speed of light...
512
00:31:43,668 --> 00:31:47,268
through the overlying mass
in only a few seconds.
513
00:31:47,428 --> 00:31:52,187
But the shock wave of the exploding gas
plods along from the center of the star...
514
00:31:52,347 --> 00:31:55,668
at one ten-thousandth the speed of light...
515
00:31:55,867 --> 00:31:58,267
until it finally reaches
the star's surface...
516
00:31:58,428 --> 00:32:02,027
turning it into Supernova 1987A.
517
00:32:08,027 --> 00:32:09,895
It took hours for the
explosion to reach the
518
00:32:09,907 --> 00:32:11,786
surface of the star
and blow it wide-open...
519
00:32:11,946 --> 00:32:13,986
exposing the superhot core.
520
00:32:14,146 --> 00:32:17,067
The neutrinos had
an insurmountable head start.
521
00:32:17,226 --> 00:32:19,776
That's why the flash
of light arrived on Earth
522
00:32:19,787 --> 00:32:22,186
so much later than
the shower of neutrinos.
523
00:32:22,506 --> 00:32:26,106
Before anyone had ever snared
the wild neutrino...
524
00:32:26,266 --> 00:32:30,186
it existed in the mind
of a theoretical physicist.
525
00:32:30,665 --> 00:32:34,746
Just as Charles Darwin knew there must be
an extremely long-nosed creature...
526
00:32:34,906 --> 00:32:37,185
flying around somewhere
in Madagascar...
527
00:32:37,345 --> 00:32:41,465
a 20th-century physicist
named Wolfgang Pauli...
528
00:32:43,305 --> 00:32:45,308
was desperately
seeking a particle to
529
00:32:45,319 --> 00:32:47,704
rescue one of the
pillars of modern physics.
530
00:32:47,865 --> 00:32:50,584
The law of the conservation
of energy.
531
00:32:59,384 --> 00:33:00,944
So why didn't I flinch?
532
00:33:01,104 --> 00:33:03,224
Because the laws of science
differ fundamentally...
533
00:33:03,384 --> 00:33:05,544
from those of
other human endeavors.
534
00:33:05,704 --> 00:33:08,304
In order for an idea
to become a scientific law...
535
00:33:08,464 --> 00:33:10,623
it has to be unbreakable.
536
00:33:10,784 --> 00:33:15,583
That's why I was willing to bet this face
on the laws of conservation of energy.
537
00:33:16,343 --> 00:33:18,383
Now, if you try this at home...
538
00:33:18,543 --> 00:33:20,823
take care not to give
the Cannonball a push.
539
00:33:20,984 --> 00:33:22,183
That's adding energy...
540
00:33:22,343 --> 00:33:25,102
and the ball will surely
come back and do some damage.
541
00:33:25,263 --> 00:33:28,422
You just have to let it go, like this:
542
00:33:29,023 --> 00:33:30,023
By lifting the ball...
543
00:33:30,182 --> 00:33:31,943
you give it gravitational energy...
544
00:33:32,102 --> 00:33:34,663
which is the potential
to fall and accelerate.
545
00:33:35,103 --> 00:33:38,182
The Cannonball is going fastest
when it's at the bottom of its arc.
546
00:33:38,342 --> 00:33:40,659
At that moment, it's
converted all of its
547
00:33:40,671 --> 00:33:43,222
gravitational energy
to the energy of motion.
548
00:33:43,382 --> 00:33:44,422
As it swings...
549
00:33:44,581 --> 00:33:48,581
the cannonball is constantly exchanging one
of these two kinds of energy for the other.
550
00:33:48,742 --> 00:33:51,301
But the total amount of energy
remains constant.
551
00:33:51,461 --> 00:33:55,181
That's an example
of the law of conservation of energy.
552
00:33:55,341 --> 00:33:57,022
Once the cannonball is released...
553
00:33:57,182 --> 00:34:00,421
it can never gain more energy
than it had to begin with.
554
00:34:00,581 --> 00:34:03,461
It has no way to fly up
and break my nose.
555
00:34:03,621 --> 00:34:07,181
The energy accounting books
are always strictly balanced.
556
00:34:07,340 --> 00:34:09,181
There's no such thing as cheating.
557
00:34:09,341 --> 00:34:10,780
So in the 20th century...
558
00:34:10,940 --> 00:34:14,340
when physicists first calculated
the energy of atoms precisely...
559
00:34:14,500 --> 00:34:18,820
they were startled to discover
an apparent violation of this law.
560
00:34:19,941 --> 00:34:22,421
They found that
in some radioactive atoms...
561
00:34:22,580 --> 00:34:26,340
the nucleus can spontaneously
eject an electron.
562
00:34:26,500 --> 00:34:29,540
This transforms the atom
into a different element.
563
00:34:29,699 --> 00:34:31,619
The physicists were mystified.
564
00:34:31,779 --> 00:34:35,420
The energy of the escaped electron
plus that of the new element...
565
00:34:35,580 --> 00:34:38,499
adds up to less than the energy
in the original nucleus.
566
00:34:38,899 --> 00:34:43,499
But the law says, "Thou shalt not
destroy or create energy."
567
00:34:43,659 --> 00:34:45,939
So where did the missing energy go?
568
00:34:46,499 --> 00:34:52,659
In 1930, Wolfgang Pauli predicted
there must be an undiscovered particle.
569
00:34:52,819 --> 00:34:55,419
One that makes off
with the missing energy.
570
00:34:55,579 --> 00:34:56,578
At the time...
571
00:34:56,738 --> 00:35:02,698
Pauli lamented that such a phantom particle
might be so minute, swift and evasive...
572
00:35:02,858 --> 00:35:05,698
as to forever defy detection.
573
00:35:05,858 --> 00:35:09,498
But that was a rare failure
of his imagination.
574
00:35:09,658 --> 00:35:12,897
Because science is always searching
for a way to go deeper still.
575
00:35:13,217 --> 00:35:14,417
A generation later...
576
00:35:14,577 --> 00:35:17,457
Pauli's neutrinos were actually
detected for the first time...
577
00:35:17,617 --> 00:35:20,018
in radiation from a nuclear reactor.
578
00:35:20,177 --> 00:35:24,337
And we've been finding them,
with difficulty, ever since.
579
00:35:24,737 --> 00:35:26,097
There are scientists today...
580
00:35:26,257 --> 00:35:29,577
who are trying to find a way
to ride those neutrinos...
581
00:35:29,737 --> 00:35:32,577
all the way back
to the beginning of time.
582
00:35:34,137 --> 00:35:40,136
We'll go as far as they have gone
to come up against the wall of forever.
583
00:35:48,736 --> 00:35:51,096
The wall of forever is nothing new.
584
00:35:51,256 --> 00:35:56,535
Our ancestors came up against it almost
as soon as they first started imagining it.
585
00:35:56,695 --> 00:36:00,495
A million dawns ago,
in the 13th century BC...
586
00:36:00,655 --> 00:36:03,415
the Egyptians built this temple
at Abu Simbel...
587
00:36:03,575 --> 00:36:08,895
to honor the pharaoh Ramses II,
depicted here in four colossal statues.
588
00:36:09,495 --> 00:36:11,734
Reigning even above this mighty king...
589
00:36:11,895 --> 00:36:16,534
is the falcon-headed Ra-Harakhte,
god of the sun.
590
00:36:21,614 --> 00:36:24,814
The temple was designed
so that the light from the rising sun...
591
00:36:24,974 --> 00:36:28,894
could only enter the sanctuary
on two days every year.
592
00:36:30,214 --> 00:36:31,774
As the rays enter the temple...
593
00:36:31,934 --> 00:36:35,294
they burnish the statues of the gods
with their golden light...
594
00:36:35,453 --> 00:36:38,493
before penetrating the sanctuary.
595
00:36:39,293 --> 00:36:42,974
Even then, one god remains in shadow...
596
00:36:43,133 --> 00:36:45,573
Ptah, lord of creation...
597
00:36:45,733 --> 00:36:50,293
as if the origin of the universe
must forever be concealed.
598
00:36:54,532 --> 00:36:57,692
Feel the sun on your face.
599
00:36:57,852 --> 00:37:02,612
The energy that warms you began
its journey some 10 million years ago...
600
00:37:02,772 --> 00:37:04,932
in the heart of the sun.
601
00:37:06,492 --> 00:37:07,812
Unlike neutrinos...
602
00:37:07,972 --> 00:37:11,692
the photons needed that long to work
their way out from the core to the surface.
603
00:37:12,852 --> 00:37:18,011
Why? Because they were colliding billions
of times per second with the sun's atoms...
604
00:37:18,172 --> 00:37:21,611
every collision sending them off
in a random direction.
605
00:37:21,772 --> 00:37:23,931
Once they finally reached the surface...
606
00:37:24,091 --> 00:37:27,451
they were free to dash nonstop
at the speed of light...
607
00:37:27,771 --> 00:37:31,291
in a mere eight minutes
and 20 seconds from the sun to you.
608
00:37:33,211 --> 00:37:37,211
Ten-mi/lion-year-old light on your face.
609
00:37:39,250 --> 00:37:43,731
What was happening
when that light left the heart of the sun?
610
00:37:49,730 --> 00:37:52,171
The cosmic calendar
compresses the entire
611
00:37:52,182 --> 00:37:54,810
13.8-billion-year
history of the universe...
612
00:37:54,970 --> 00:37:56,529
into a single year.
613
00:37:56,690 --> 00:37:59,450
Every month represents
about a billion years.
614
00:37:59,610 --> 00:38:02,449
Every day, about 40 million years.
615
00:38:02,609 --> 00:38:05,530
The universe is so old
that on the cosmic calendar...
616
00:38:05,689 --> 00:38:09,009
10 million years ago
only takes us back as far as...
617
00:38:09,689 --> 00:38:15,288
6 p.m. on the last evening
of the last day of the year.
618
00:38:15,448 --> 00:38:16,889
And what about us?
619
00:38:17,049 --> 00:38:19,049
Humans had yet to evolve.
620
00:38:19,209 --> 00:38:20,489
Ten million years ago...
621
00:38:20,648 --> 00:38:22,568
our ancestors were anthropoid apes...
622
00:38:22,728 --> 00:38:25,048
swinging through the trees of Africa.
623
00:38:25,208 --> 00:38:28,088
To us, 10 million years
seems like a long time...
624
00:38:28,248 --> 00:38:33,488
but it's only the length of an afternoon
on the timescale of the cosmos.
625
00:38:36,168 --> 00:38:41,048
The sun began fusing hydrogen
4500 million years ago.
626
00:38:41,207 --> 00:38:44,087
August 31st on the cosmic calendar.
627
00:38:44,407 --> 00:38:49,047
Our Milky Way Galaxy
is about 10,000 million years old.
628
00:38:49,207 --> 00:38:53,406
The first galaxies
formed a few billion years earlier.
629
00:38:54,087 --> 00:38:57,686
And something keeps me from going
any further back in time.
630
00:38:58,287 --> 00:39:00,247
What is this?
631
00:39:03,286 --> 00:39:05,727
It's the nature of light and time.
632
00:39:05,886 --> 00:39:08,566
Because light travels at a finite speed...
633
00:39:08,726 --> 00:39:10,166
to look across space...
634
00:39:10,326 --> 00:39:12,886
is to look back in time.
635
00:39:15,806 --> 00:39:20,406
So the farther we see,
the older the light.
636
00:39:20,926 --> 00:39:25,645
This is as far back in the history
of the cosmos as we can see with light.
637
00:39:25,805 --> 00:39:30,325
It's a baby picture of the universe
when it was only 380,000 years old.
638
00:39:30,885 --> 00:39:35,845
That's 15 minutes into January 1st
on the cosmic calendar.
639
00:39:36,405 --> 00:39:40,884
If we look as far as we can see in any
direction using microwave telescopes...
640
00:39:41,044 --> 00:39:42,644
this is what we see...
641
00:39:42,804 --> 00:39:45,365
the glow left over from the Big Bang.
642
00:39:45,524 --> 00:39:49,004
Imagine that all the matter and energy
of the observable universe...
643
00:39:49,164 --> 00:39:53,444
was concentrated into something
no larger than this.
644
00:39:55,004 --> 00:39:57,043
That's the size of the universe...
645
00:39:57,204 --> 00:40:02,644
when it was a trillionth of a trillionth
of a trillionth of a second old.
646
00:40:02,803 --> 00:40:05,644
All the matter and energy
of the hundred billion galaxies...
647
00:40:05,804 --> 00:40:09,003
now splayed out across
the billions of light-years...
648
00:40:09,163 --> 00:40:13,483
were once pent up
in something the size of a marble.
649
00:40:13,643 --> 00:40:16,403
Can you imagine how tightly packed
that marble must have been?
650
00:40:16,563 --> 00:40:19,443
Far too dense for any kind of light
to move through it...
651
00:40:19,603 --> 00:40:22,842
but no obstacle for the likes
of neutrinos.
652
00:40:23,002 --> 00:40:26,042
The Big Bang must have produced
stupendous numbers of neutrinos...
653
00:40:26,203 --> 00:40:29,842
which flew unhindered through
that inconceivable crush of matter.
654
00:40:30,002 --> 00:40:32,922
The very thing that makes them
almost impossible to detect...
655
00:40:33,082 --> 00:40:36,151
is what allows neutrinos
to sail through the
656
00:40:36,163 --> 00:40:39,242
curtain that conceals
the beginning of time.
657
00:40:39,402 --> 00:40:40,442
Where are they now?
658
00:40:40,602 --> 00:40:44,121
They're here, they're there,
everywhere throughout the universe.
659
00:40:44,282 --> 00:40:47,762
Neutrinos from creation
are within you.
660
00:40:48,081 --> 00:40:52,241
From a marble to the cosmos.
661
00:41:02,360 --> 00:41:07,960
This is the road that Thales and Democritus
put us on some 2500 years ago.
662
00:41:08,120 --> 00:41:10,080
A road of endless searching.
663
00:41:10,241 --> 00:41:13,360
A relentless, systematic hunt
for new worlds...
664
00:41:13,520 --> 00:41:17,000
and an ever-deepening
understanding of nature.
665
00:41:17,480 --> 00:41:24,200
Who among you will pick up that torch
and take us down that next stretch of road?
56460
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