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♪
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♪
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DAVID POGUE:
What's it take to make our
modern world?
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Ah!
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(Pogue shouts)
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That's amazing!
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I'm David Pogue.
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{\an1}Join me on a high-speed chase
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{\an1}through the elements...
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and beyond.
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(explosions)
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Oh, my God!
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{\an1}As we smash our way into
the materials,
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molecules,
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and reactions...
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AMANDA CAVANAGH: It's a really cool enzyme
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{\an1}because it makes life on Earth
possible.
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POGUE: that make the places we live,
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the bodies we live in,
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{\an1}and the stuff we can't seem
to live without.
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{\an1}The only thing between me and
certain death...
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{\an1}(explosions boom,
glass shatters)
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is chemistry?
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{\an1}From killer snails...
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MANDEË HOLFORD: Just when
you think you've heard of everything,
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{\an1}nature will surprise you.
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POGUE:
and exploding glass
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{\an1}to the price a pepper-eating
Pogue pays.
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{\an1}There's got to be some easier
way to learn about molecules.
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♪
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{\an1}In this hour, we'll dig into
the surprising ways
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{\an1}different elements
combine together
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and blow apart.
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{\an7}(explosion echoes)
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{\an1}Come for the chemistry,
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{\an1}but stay for the bacon
blowtorch.
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The power of bacon!
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(laughter)
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{\an1}"Beyond the Elements:
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Reactions"...
Right now on "NOVA."
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♪
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♪
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DAVID POGUE:
Imagine that you're about
to take your first shot
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{\an1}in a game of pool... the break.
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{\an1}(chalk sound on cue)
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{\an1}But when the cue ball hits
the other balls...
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(rat squeaks)
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{\an1}...they all turn into a rat.
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{\an1}Or imagine you snap a pencil
in two...
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{\an1}and it becomes a flower...
and a fork.
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{\an1}That's how weird and surprising
some chemical reactions are.
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{\an1}You can take something
asdangerous as the element sodium,
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which explodes
on contact with water...
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(explosion)
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{\an1}combine it with a lethal gas,
the element chlorine,
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{\an1}and end up with something
utterly different:
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{\an7}sodium chloride...
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{\an7}table salt for your fries.
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{\an7}Transformative chemical
reactions are everywhere,
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{\an7}they're going on all the time.
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(explosion)
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{\an1}They put the bang in
explosives...
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That's a reaction!
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ANNOUNCER:
Round 2.
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POGUE:
and the "heat" in hot
peppers.
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What am I doing?
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{\an7}Learning how to harness them
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{\an7}has given us some control over
our world
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{\an7}and maybe even helped
to make us human.
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{\an8}♪
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{\an7}And few folks know more about
chemical reactions...
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{\an7}This is not normal fire.
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POGUE: than my old friend Theo Gray.
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(flames billowing)
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{\an1}Today, I've come to his
mad scientist lair in Illinois
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{\an1}to find out more about one of
the most powerful weapons
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{\an1}in our reaction arsenal...
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Oh ho, ho, ho!
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Fire.
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Fire is a chemical reaction,
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plain and simple.
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It happens to be the
mostimportant chemical reaction
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ever, times ten... bar none.
(chuckles)
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♪
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GRAY:
When you think about the
importance of fire
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to human beingsbecoming who we are,
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it's kind of the start
ofcivilization almost,
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discovering how to controlthis
amazing thing... feeds us,
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chases away the bears,
it lights up the night.
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There's almost nothingyou could name
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that's more importantthan fire.
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POGUE:
So what is fire, anyway?
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{\an7}You may have learned
this in school.
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{\an8}To make fire,
a kind of combustion,
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{\an7}you need fuel plus heat
plus oxygen.
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{\an7}That formula is simple...
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{\an7}but what's happening isn't.
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{\an1}And what's actually happening
here is kind of subtle.
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{\an1}The wood itselfisn't really burning.
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{\an1}You see the flames?
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{\an5}Yeah... Most of the reactionis happening
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{\an5}up in the airabove the wood
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because it needs
to mix with air.
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{\an1}Like, there's no air
in the wood.
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{\an1}And what's happeningis
the heat of the flames here
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{\an1}are breaking down
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{\an1}and evaporating compoundsin the wood,
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{\an1}bringing them up into the air.
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{\an8}POGUE:
Those gases from the wood
are complex molecules
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{\an7}made mostly of hydrogen,
carbon, and oxygen.
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{\an7}When the rising gases enter
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{\an7}the high temperature
area of the flames,
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{\an8}they're joined
by oxygen from the air
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{\an7}in a swirling cauldron
of complicated reactions.
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{\an7}The gases break down,
and their atoms rearrange.
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{\an7}If the gases burn completely,
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{\an7}they'll form water
and carbon dioxide.
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{\an8}More often,
incomplete burning produces
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{\an7}a variety of other molecules.
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{\an7}Importantly for us, thereactions
also release energy...
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{\an7}the light you see
and the heat you feel.
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{\an7}And that, at its heart, is
whathappens in chemical reactions...
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The breaking and making of bonds
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{\an1}and the shuffling around
of atoms.
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{\an1}You take two different things,
you smash them together,
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{\an1}they rearrange themselves,
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{\an1}and then you get...
something else comes out.
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{\an1}And one of the big-time players
in the game...
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♪
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Is oxygen.
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You ready?
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POGUE:
With enough heat it reacts
with just about anything,
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{\an1}as Theo soon shows me
in his barn.
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{\an1}(thermic lance igniting)
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{\an1}This powerful cutting tool
is called a thermic lance.
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{\an1}It uses pressurized oxygen
fed through a metal rod.
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{\an1}This one's made of iron.
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{\an1}We don't normally think of iron
as something that can burn,
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{\an1}but when lit in the flow
of oxygen,
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{\an8}it does,
generating so much heat...
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{\an3}Wow!
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{\an1}...that you can cut through
a brick or concrete.
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{\an1}Demolition crews use large
thermic lances
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{\an1}to slice up all sorts of big,
unwieldy things...
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{\an1}from bridges to ships
to machinery.
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{\an1}But does the rod that burns in
the stream of oxygen
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{\an1}need to be metal?
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{\an1}I shudder to ask...
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{\an1}why you've gotplates of bacon here.
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{\an1}Well, because bacon is thefunniest thing
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{\an1}that you can form into a
tubeand shoot oxygen through.
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(laughing)
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Unfortunately actualAmerican-style bacon
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doesn't hold togetherwell enough.
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{\an1}We need the engineering grade.
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{\an1}This is Italian prosciutto.
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POGUE:
Theo has already baked
some tubes of prosciutto.
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{\an1}The next step is to wrap them
in yet another piece
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{\an1}to create one large hollow tube,
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{\an1}which he hooks up to his oxygen
tank.
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Okay, so now, what can we dowith this?
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The same thing you do
with anysort of thermic lance.
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You cut something with it.
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Uh, we're goingto cut steel...
(laughs)
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because, why not?
No!
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{\an1}You're going to cut steel
with bacon?
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{\an1}THEO GRAY: Yes, a steel baking pan.
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{\an5}Wow. You just haveto get it hot enough.
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♪
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The power of bacon!
(laughs)
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That's amazing!
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Yeah, I mean that's, that'sa
good amount of cutting there.
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{\an1}I've heard of steel-cut oatmeal
for breakfast, but...
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{\an1}Bacon-cut steel?
(laughs)
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♪
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POGUE:
Gaining control over fire
has had an immeasurable impact
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{\an1}on human civilization.
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{\an1}In fact, the most popular
construction material
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{\an1}in the world has its roots
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{\an1}in one of the oldest pyro
technologies:
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{\an1}roasting a certain kind of rock.
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{\an1}We know it as concrete.
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♪
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Modern concrete
is a mixture of aggregate...
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{\an1}materials like sand, gravel,
and crushed stone...
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With a binder...
These days, most often cement.
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And that's key.
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{\an1}Because people are always
confusing concrete...
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and cement.
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{\an1}Cement is the glue,
concrete is the end product.
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{\an1}Cement sidewalks?
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{\an1}No, that's concrete!
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Cement trucks?
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{\an1}Uh-uh, they carry concrete!
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But cement is
the key ingredient.
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{\an1}And that's why I head to the
LafargeHolcim Cement Plant,
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{\an1}the largest in the U.S., located
outside St. Louis, Missouri.
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We shoot rock every day.
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00:09:06,438 --> 00:09:08,605
POGUE:
My day with plant manager
John Goetz
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00:09:08,638 --> 00:09:11,671
{\an1}begins with a bang.
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{\an1}VOICE OVER RADIO:
Fire in the hole!
202
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Is it safe to go down there?
203
00:09:16,371 --> 00:09:18,738
JOHN GOETZ (chuckling): Not quite.
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00:09:18,771 --> 00:09:22,338
{\an1}(explosions echo)
205
00:09:31,971 --> 00:09:33,671
{\an1}How's that for you?
(laughing)
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00:09:33,705 --> 00:09:36,371
That's a reaction. That's awesome, huh?
207
00:09:36,405 --> 00:09:38,271
Do it again!
(laughs)
208
00:09:38,305 --> 00:09:42,305
Now that, my friends,
is a lot of limestone.
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GOETZ:
That's a lot of rock.
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POGUE:
Before long, this will be
holding together
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00:09:46,105 --> 00:09:48,305
America's buildingsand sidewalks and...
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00:09:48,338 --> 00:09:49,538
That's right,
213
00:09:49,571 --> 00:09:51,671
we're going to turn this
limestone into cement.
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POGUE:
But what exactly is limestone?
215
00:09:57,338 --> 00:10:01,338
It's mostly calcium carbonate...
A compound that,
216
00:10:01,371 --> 00:10:05,105
{\an7}as its name says, has two parts.
217
00:10:05,138 --> 00:10:09,105
{\an7}There's a calcium atom that has
given up two of its electrons,
218
00:10:09,138 --> 00:10:12,938
{\an7}making it a positively charged
ion.
219
00:10:12,971 --> 00:10:17,071
{\an7}The other part is carbonate,
made up of three oxygen atoms
220
00:10:17,105 --> 00:10:20,738
{\an7}that are sharing electrons
with a carbon atom.
221
00:10:20,771 --> 00:10:25,371
{\an7}Sharing electrons is called
covalent bonding.
222
00:10:25,405 --> 00:10:28,238
{\an7}The two electrons from the
calcium have joined the party,
223
00:10:28,271 --> 00:10:32,205
{\an7}making the carbonate
a negative ion.
224
00:10:32,238 --> 00:10:36,738
{\an7}The positive calcium ion and
thenegative carbonate ion attract,
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00:10:36,771 --> 00:10:42,338
{\an7}forming... surprise...
An ionic bond.
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00:10:43,905 --> 00:10:45,238
From the quarry,
227
00:10:45,271 --> 00:10:47,671
{\an1}the limestone rock gets
gradually crushed down,
228
00:10:47,705 --> 00:10:50,538
{\an1}along with some clay
and other ingredients,
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00:10:50,571 --> 00:10:52,738
{\an1}into a fine powder called
230
00:10:52,771 --> 00:10:54,471
"raw meal,"
231
00:10:54,505 --> 00:10:57,005
in preparation
to enter the centerpiece
232
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{\an1}of this whole operation:
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00:10:58,971 --> 00:11:03,705
a rotary kiln,
about 22 feet in diameter
234
00:11:03,738 --> 00:11:06,638
{\an1}and about 100 yards long.
235
00:11:06,671 --> 00:11:10,105
♪
236
00:11:10,138 --> 00:11:12,005
GOETZ:
It's a big kiln,
largest in the world.
237
00:11:12,038 --> 00:11:13,738
Kiln, as in, like, an oven?
Kiln.
238
00:11:13,771 --> 00:11:16,005
{\an7}Correct, gas temperatures
inside the kiln
239
00:11:16,038 --> 00:11:18,571
{\an7}right here is about 2,000
degrees Fahrenheit.
240
00:11:20,105 --> 00:11:21,871
{\an8}POGUE: Just before it enters the kiln,
241
00:11:21,905 --> 00:11:24,538
{\an8}the powdery raw meal is dropped
down
242
00:11:24,571 --> 00:11:27,771
{\an1}through the kiln's hot exhaust
gases.
243
00:11:27,805 --> 00:11:29,538
{\an8}By the time
it reaches the bottom
244
00:11:29,571 --> 00:11:31,138
{\an7}and the entrance to the kiln,
245
00:11:31,171 --> 00:11:34,338
{\an7}the heat has transformed
the calcium carbonate
246
00:11:34,371 --> 00:11:39,738
{\an7}from the limestone into carbon
dioxide gas and calcium oxide,
247
00:11:39,771 --> 00:11:43,538
{\an7}also known as quicklime.
248
00:11:43,571 --> 00:11:48,438
{\an7}Normally the kiln rotates at
aspeed of about 4 times a minute.
249
00:11:48,471 --> 00:11:50,414
{\an1}And ordinarily this whole
thing would be turning...
250
00:11:50,438 --> 00:11:52,505
{\an1}But it was shut down for
maintenance.
251
00:11:53,971 --> 00:11:57,105
{\an1}Oh man... the mouth of the dragon!
252
00:11:57,138 --> 00:12:00,171
{\an1}Giving us a chance to see it
from the inside.
253
00:12:00,205 --> 00:12:01,771
{\an1}So the whole thingis turning.
254
00:12:01,805 --> 00:12:04,014
{\an1}The whole thing is turning over
four revolutions a minute.
255
00:12:04,038 --> 00:12:05,971
{\an1}As the material comesdown the kiln,
256
00:12:06,005 --> 00:12:07,638
{\an1}there's a burner pipewith a flame
257
00:12:07,671 --> 00:12:09,471
{\an1}right here, inside the kiln.
258
00:12:09,505 --> 00:12:12,338
GOETZ:
And heating the material
to 2,600 degrees,
259
00:12:12,371 --> 00:12:15,438
{\an1}the flame temperature is about
3,000 degrees Fahrenheit.
260
00:12:15,471 --> 00:12:18,205
{\an1}At this point it looks like
dark baby powder?
261
00:12:18,238 --> 00:12:20,205
{\an1}At this pointit looks like lava.
262
00:12:20,238 --> 00:12:22,538
Oh, it does? Yes, it's red hot lava.
263
00:12:22,571 --> 00:12:24,405
♪
264
00:12:24,438 --> 00:12:27,405
{\an8}POGUE:
As the main ingredient,
calcium oxide,
265
00:12:27,438 --> 00:12:30,805
{\an7}journeys down the kiln
getting hotter and hotter,
266
00:12:30,838 --> 00:12:34,005
{\an7}it reacts with the other
ingredients in the raw meal,
267
00:12:34,038 --> 00:12:37,971
{\an7}creating complex synthetic
compounds.
268
00:12:38,005 --> 00:12:40,538
{\an7}By the time the whole mix
reaches the end,
269
00:12:40,571 --> 00:12:42,705
{\an7}it has a new name...
270
00:12:43,971 --> 00:12:45,205
GOETZ:
Clinker.
271
00:12:45,238 --> 00:12:46,205
POGUE:
This stuff is called clinker?
272
00:12:46,238 --> 00:12:47,438
JOHN GOETZ:
It's clinker.
273
00:12:47,471 --> 00:12:48,914
You couldn't call it
something dignified...
274
00:12:48,938 --> 00:12:50,671
Oh, I didn't name it.
Like calcium carbonate
275
00:12:50,705 --> 00:12:52,505
or sulfur trioxide... clinker?
276
00:12:52,538 --> 00:12:53,771
Clinker.
(laughs)
277
00:12:53,805 --> 00:12:55,371
Coming out ofthe kiln process,
278
00:12:55,405 --> 00:12:56,705
before it goesinto the cooler.
279
00:12:56,738 --> 00:12:59,938
{\an8}And clinker just refers
to that limestone brew
280
00:12:59,971 --> 00:13:01,871
{\an8}that's been cooked.Correct.
281
00:13:03,205 --> 00:13:05,371
POGUE:
But it still isn't cement!
282
00:13:05,405 --> 00:13:07,371
♪
283
00:13:07,405 --> 00:13:10,738
{\an1}In the final stage, they
add a little more limestone
284
00:13:10,771 --> 00:13:13,871
{\an1}and hydrated calcium sulfate...
285
00:13:13,905 --> 00:13:17,238
{\an1}a common mineral known
as gypsum.
286
00:13:17,271 --> 00:13:20,005
{\an1}Conveyer belts seem to
reallybe a thing around here.
287
00:13:20,038 --> 00:13:25,438
{\an1}And the whole thing gets ground
back down to a fine powder.
288
00:13:25,471 --> 00:13:26,938
{\an1}And here it is, at last,
289
00:13:26,971 --> 00:13:29,171
{\an1}no more grinding, no more ingredients,
290
00:13:29,205 --> 00:13:30,314
{\an1}this is thefinished product.
291
00:13:30,338 --> 00:13:32,271
{\an8}This is cement. This is cement.
292
00:13:32,305 --> 00:13:35,071
{\an8}From the virgin
limestonebluffs of Missouri.
293
00:13:35,105 --> 00:13:37,038
There it is.
294
00:13:37,071 --> 00:13:39,171
(explosion)
295
00:13:39,205 --> 00:13:41,038
POGUE:
This LafargeHolcim plant
296
00:13:41,071 --> 00:13:45,538
produces up to about 4.4 million
tons of cement a year.
297
00:13:45,571 --> 00:13:48,205
{\an1}But that's just a small
percentage
298
00:13:48,238 --> 00:13:51,738
{\an1}of the 97 million tons produced
in the U.S.,
299
00:13:51,771 --> 00:13:55,971
{\an1}and the 4.5 billion tons
300
00:13:56,005 --> 00:13:57,671
{\an1}produced internationally.
301
00:13:57,705 --> 00:14:01,505
{\an1}Virtually all of it
ends up in concrete
302
00:14:01,538 --> 00:14:04,605
{\an1}that mixture of cement,
water, and rock
303
00:14:04,638 --> 00:14:07,071
{\an1}that is second only to water
304
00:14:07,105 --> 00:14:10,771
{\an1}as the most-consumed resource
on the planet.
305
00:14:10,805 --> 00:14:13,405
♪
306
00:14:13,438 --> 00:14:15,305
{\an1}That comes at a price though...
307
00:14:15,338 --> 00:14:19,271
{\an1}a massive carbon footprint.
308
00:14:19,305 --> 00:14:24,438
{\an1}In 2016, cement production
emitted about 8%
309
00:14:24,471 --> 00:14:28,371
{\an1}of the global total
of greenhouse gases,
310
00:14:28,405 --> 00:14:32,705
{\an1}over half of that from
the production of clinker.
311
00:14:32,738 --> 00:14:34,871
{\an1}Proposed solutions
to this problem
312
00:14:34,905 --> 00:14:37,805
{\an1}range from using wood to build
high-rises,
313
00:14:37,838 --> 00:14:41,371
{\an1}like this 18-story one
in Norway,
314
00:14:41,405 --> 00:14:46,471
{\an1}to injecting CO2 back
into concrete as it cures,
315
00:14:46,505 --> 00:14:50,871
{\an1}like this company in New Jersey
making pavers.
316
00:14:50,905 --> 00:14:55,738
{\an1}And even growing cement using
bacteria,
317
00:14:55,771 --> 00:15:00,305
{\an1}though scaling up those ideas
remains a challenge.
318
00:15:00,338 --> 00:15:02,705
{\an7}Maybe the solution,
or part of the solution,
319
00:15:02,738 --> 00:15:05,638
{\an7}to greenhouse gas emissions
and global warming will come
320
00:15:05,671 --> 00:15:08,338
{\an7}from a breakthrough
in chemistry.
321
00:15:08,371 --> 00:15:10,671
{\an1}That may sound foolishly
optimistic,
322
00:15:10,705 --> 00:15:13,238
{\an1}but the discovery of a chemical
reaction
323
00:15:13,271 --> 00:15:14,971
{\an1}over a hundred years ago
324
00:15:15,005 --> 00:15:17,305
{\an1}changed the trajectory
of humanity,
325
00:15:17,338 --> 00:15:19,871
{\an1}though few know the story.
326
00:15:19,905 --> 00:15:23,138
♪
327
00:15:23,171 --> 00:15:24,738
At the start
of the 20th century,
328
00:15:24,771 --> 00:15:28,338
{\an1}farmlands like these didn't
look so verdant.
329
00:15:28,371 --> 00:15:30,238
{\an1}And with populations rising,
330
00:15:30,271 --> 00:15:33,438
{\an1}scientists wondered whether,
in the near future,
331
00:15:33,471 --> 00:15:35,438
{\an1}there would be enough food.
332
00:15:38,071 --> 00:15:40,571
{\an7}The problem was nitrogen.
333
00:15:40,605 --> 00:15:43,838
{\an1}Animals need nitrogen to grow.
334
00:15:43,871 --> 00:15:46,338
So do plants.
335
00:15:46,371 --> 00:15:49,738
{\an1}But before the 20th century,
farmers mainly depended
336
00:15:49,771 --> 00:15:54,305
{\an1}on compost and manure to supply
it to their crops,
337
00:15:54,338 --> 00:15:58,005
{\an1}essentially recycling nitrogen
from dead plants and animals.
338
00:15:58,038 --> 00:16:02,438
{\an1}But there was only so much
nitrogen in that cycle.
339
00:16:02,471 --> 00:16:05,005
Eventually,
the growing population
340
00:16:05,038 --> 00:16:08,105
{\an1}would exceed the farmlands'
capacity to grow food,
341
00:16:08,138 --> 00:16:10,638
{\an1}leading to mass starvation.
342
00:16:12,638 --> 00:16:17,071
{\an1}But there was a solution in the
air... literally.
343
00:16:17,105 --> 00:16:20,838
{\an1}Our atmosphere is almost
80% nitrogen
344
00:16:20,871 --> 00:16:24,038
{\an1}but that doesn't do plants
any direct good.
345
00:16:24,071 --> 00:16:27,905
{\an1}That's because it's in the form
of N2,
346
00:16:27,938 --> 00:16:31,771
{\an7}two nitrogen atoms sharing
in a triple bond.
347
00:16:31,805 --> 00:16:37,038
{\an7}Three electrons from each atom
are fully shared between them,
348
00:16:37,071 --> 00:16:41,005
{\an7}which as Ed Cussler, a
chemicalengineer and professor emeritus
349
00:16:41,038 --> 00:16:43,371
{\an1}at the University of Minnesota
explains,
350
00:16:43,405 --> 00:16:47,671
{\an1}makes the nitrogen molecule
one tough cookie.
351
00:16:47,705 --> 00:16:50,338
{\an8}So the atmosphere
is 78% nitrogen.
352
00:16:50,371 --> 00:16:53,905
{\an7}Why can't the plants just take
the nitrogen out of the air?
353
00:16:53,938 --> 00:16:56,171
{\an7}Because you can't
breakthis little bastard in half.
354
00:16:56,205 --> 00:16:58,705
(laughs)You take the nitrogen,
355
00:16:58,738 --> 00:16:59,981
you have to break
this triple bond,
356
00:17:00,005 --> 00:17:01,438
between the two nitrogen atoms.
357
00:17:01,471 --> 00:17:03,871
It's almostthe hardest bond,
358
00:17:03,905 --> 00:17:06,438
{\an1}the most difficult bond
that we know.
359
00:17:06,471 --> 00:17:08,905
{\an1}Basically it's almost inert.
360
00:17:08,938 --> 00:17:10,838
♪
361
00:17:10,871 --> 00:17:13,605
POGUE: So the scientific challenge was
for someone to find a way
362
00:17:13,638 --> 00:17:16,938
{\an1}to take that stubborn nitrogen
molecule from the air,
363
00:17:16,971 --> 00:17:21,405
{\an1}and bust it apart to create
something plants could use...
364
00:17:21,438 --> 00:17:24,371
{\an8}to invent
a synthetic fertilizer.
365
00:17:24,405 --> 00:17:26,005
♪
366
00:17:26,038 --> 00:17:27,671
Around 1910,
367
00:17:27,705 --> 00:17:31,305
{\an1}German Chemist Fritz Haber
and his team found the answer,
368
00:17:31,338 --> 00:17:35,638
{\an1}which they demonstrated using
this table-top machine.
369
00:17:35,671 --> 00:17:38,505
{\an1}From nitrogen gas
and hydrogen gas,
370
00:17:38,538 --> 00:17:42,538
{\an1}he could produce NH3...
ammonia.
371
00:17:42,571 --> 00:17:44,371
{\an1}A fertilizer itself,
372
00:17:44,405 --> 00:17:48,305
{\an7}and a starting point
to produce others.
373
00:17:48,338 --> 00:17:52,105
{\an1}German chemist Carl Bosch
brought Haber's work
374
00:17:52,138 --> 00:17:54,871
{\an1}to an industrial scale.
375
00:17:54,905 --> 00:17:58,738
{\an1}Which is why it is known as the
Haber-Bosch process.
376
00:17:58,771 --> 00:18:00,271
{\an1}Ed and his colleague,
377
00:18:00,305 --> 00:18:03,171
{\an1}Joe Franek, show me
their table-top version.
378
00:18:03,205 --> 00:18:05,505
POGUE:
Joe, maybe you can show us
379
00:18:05,538 --> 00:18:06,738
a little more hands-on
380
00:18:06,771 --> 00:18:09,038
how the Haber-Bosch
process works?
381
00:18:09,071 --> 00:18:12,938
All right, we're going to
puta quantity of nitrogen
382
00:18:12,971 --> 00:18:15,371
in this syringe, then
we'regoing to put three times
383
00:18:15,405 --> 00:18:18,438
that amount of hydrogenin this syringe,
384
00:18:18,471 --> 00:18:20,538
we're going to lightour Bunsen burner
385
00:18:20,571 --> 00:18:22,281
and we're going to
passthat mixture of gasses
386
00:18:22,305 --> 00:18:24,371
over what willbe our hot catalyst,
387
00:18:24,405 --> 00:18:27,971
which is iron in this
case, and that will facilitate
388
00:18:28,005 --> 00:18:33,205
the conversion of the nitrogenand
hydrogen into ammonia.
389
00:18:33,238 --> 00:18:36,238
{\an1}Okay, so one syringe full
of nitrogen
390
00:18:36,271 --> 00:18:38,671
and three times as much hydrogen
391
00:18:38,705 --> 00:18:41,371
because the formula
for ammonia is NH3?
392
00:18:41,405 --> 00:18:43,505
There you go.
It all makes sense.
393
00:18:43,538 --> 00:18:44,871
♪
394
00:18:44,905 --> 00:18:47,771
{\an8}POGUE:
Joe passes the mixture
over some steel wool
395
00:18:47,805 --> 00:18:50,038
{\an7}heated by a Bunsen burner.
396
00:18:50,071 --> 00:18:52,238
{\an7}The steel wool acts
as a catalyst,
397
00:18:52,271 --> 00:18:54,871
{\an7}a material that helps
a reaction along
398
00:18:54,905 --> 00:18:58,171
{\an1}while not getting consumed
by it.
399
00:18:58,205 --> 00:19:00,338
{\an1}After six minutes,
400
00:19:00,371 --> 00:19:02,738
{\an1}it's time to see if it worked.
401
00:19:02,771 --> 00:19:04,405
{\an1}FRANEK: So we now have
402
00:19:04,438 --> 00:19:08,171
{\an1}all of our gases, our
unreactednitrogen and hydrogen
403
00:19:08,205 --> 00:19:10,905
{\an1}and the ammonia we
producedin this one syringe,
404
00:19:10,938 --> 00:19:14,071
{\an1}and what I'm going to do
is flush all of these gases
405
00:19:14,105 --> 00:19:17,005
{\an1}through our indicator tube.
406
00:19:17,038 --> 00:19:19,371
{\an1}If we flush some ammonia through
these yellow beads,
407
00:19:19,405 --> 00:19:21,938
{\an1}they'll turn blue... yeah, bravo.
408
00:19:21,971 --> 00:19:23,905
POGUE:
I see blue!
409
00:19:26,571 --> 00:19:28,838
So how much ammonia
do you think we got?
410
00:19:28,871 --> 00:19:31,138
Well, our indicator on the tube
411
00:19:31,171 --> 00:19:34,271
{\an1}says that we have just
slightly less than
412
00:19:34,305 --> 00:19:36,371
{\an1}two parts per million
of ammonia.
413
00:19:36,405 --> 00:19:38,005
Two parts per million?
414
00:19:38,038 --> 00:19:39,638
{\an1}So out of every million
molecules,
415
00:19:39,671 --> 00:19:42,471
{\an1}we got two of ammonia?
416
00:19:42,505 --> 00:19:44,705
(gas hissing)
At room temperature,
417
00:19:44,738 --> 00:19:47,238
{\an1}this process barely works,
418
00:19:47,271 --> 00:19:50,505
{\an1}and even with our burner heating
things up a bit,
419
00:19:50,538 --> 00:19:52,805
{\an1}nitrogen gas is so inert,
420
00:19:52,838 --> 00:19:55,138
{\an1}the reaction isn't much better.
421
00:19:55,171 --> 00:19:56,905
{\an8}♪
422
00:19:56,938 --> 00:20:01,471
{\an8}Part of the problem is that this
equation is a two-way street.
423
00:20:01,505 --> 00:20:05,171
{\an1}Some reactions are one way...
Irreversible.
424
00:20:05,205 --> 00:20:08,738
{\an1}When you bake a cake,
you can't unbake it.
425
00:20:08,771 --> 00:20:12,771
{\an7}But the Haber-Bosch process,
like many reactions,
426
00:20:12,805 --> 00:20:16,771
{\an7}goes both ways at the same time.
427
00:20:16,805 --> 00:20:18,005
{\an1}So while some of the nitrogen
428
00:20:18,038 --> 00:20:20,171
and hydrogen
are forming ammonia,
429
00:20:20,205 --> 00:20:22,671
{\an1}some of the ammonia
is breaking down,
430
00:20:22,705 --> 00:20:25,971
{\an1}into nitrogen and hydrogen.
431
00:20:26,005 --> 00:20:28,905
{\an1}The trick is to find the optimal
conditions
432
00:20:28,938 --> 00:20:31,705
{\an1}where that balance heads
in the direction you want.
433
00:20:31,738 --> 00:20:34,205
♪
434
00:20:34,238 --> 00:20:36,538
{\an7}One tool is pressure.
435
00:20:36,571 --> 00:20:39,938
{\an7}Bosch's industrialized version
compressed the gases
436
00:20:39,971 --> 00:20:44,205
{\an7}to around 175 times normal
atmospheric pressure.
437
00:20:44,238 --> 00:20:47,738
{\an7}And that huge pressure cooker
ran very hot...
438
00:20:47,771 --> 00:20:53,505
{\an7}550 degrees Celsius, around
1,000 degrees Fahrenheit.
439
00:20:53,538 --> 00:20:55,271
{\an7}Enough to make the hydrogen
and nitrogen
440
00:20:55,305 --> 00:20:57,071
{\an7}react with the catalyst,
441
00:20:57,105 --> 00:21:01,771
{\an7}but not so hot as to break up
a lot of ammonia.
442
00:21:01,805 --> 00:21:05,538
{\an1}Though the process requires
extreme conditions,
443
00:21:05,571 --> 00:21:08,138
{\an1}the discovery of a way
to split apart
444
00:21:08,171 --> 00:21:11,705
{\an1}that stubborn nitrogen molecule
changed the world.
445
00:21:11,738 --> 00:21:14,705
{\an1}It opened the door
to the creation
446
00:21:14,738 --> 00:21:17,471
{\an1}of artificial fertilizers.
447
00:21:17,505 --> 00:21:20,205
{\an1}And it's hard to overstate
the impact
448
00:21:20,238 --> 00:21:26,371
{\an1}of the Haber-Bosch process on
our ability to feed humanity.
449
00:21:26,405 --> 00:21:29,538
{\an1}What were the lasting effects
of this introduction?
450
00:21:29,571 --> 00:21:31,905
{\an1}Two billion more people.
451
00:21:31,938 --> 00:21:34,538
If you lose
this chemical fertilizer,
452
00:21:34,571 --> 00:21:37,805
{\an1}you lose two billion people...
They starve.
453
00:21:37,838 --> 00:21:41,371
{\an1}This is nota hypothetical issue.
454
00:21:41,405 --> 00:21:43,771
{\an1}Haber-Bosch is the chemistry
that you wish for.
455
00:21:43,805 --> 00:21:45,005
{\an1}Because it's the chemistry
456
00:21:45,038 --> 00:21:48,605
{\an1}that improves the amount of food
that you can grow
457
00:21:48,638 --> 00:21:50,971
on our planet.
458
00:21:51,005 --> 00:21:53,205
{\an1}And that makes an enormous
difference
459
00:21:53,238 --> 00:21:56,005
{\an1}to the stability,
the health, the wellbeing
460
00:21:56,038 --> 00:21:57,805
{\an1}of the people on the planet.
461
00:21:57,838 --> 00:22:01,071
{\an1}So one chemical reaction
462
00:22:01,105 --> 00:22:05,705
wound up radically
changing humanity...
463
00:22:05,738 --> 00:22:07,338
Yeah, some people argueit's the most,
464
00:22:07,371 --> 00:22:10,571
it's the most importantsingle
chemical reaction.
465
00:22:10,605 --> 00:22:11,838
{\an3}Wow.
466
00:22:13,071 --> 00:22:16,538
{\an1}But before you go out
and hug your nearest
467
00:22:16,571 --> 00:22:18,905
{\an1}ammonia-producing
chemical plant,
468
00:22:18,938 --> 00:22:21,705
{\an1}you may want to consider
the downsides.
469
00:22:21,738 --> 00:22:26,971
{\an1}Now that fertilizer is abundant,
growers often apply too much.
470
00:22:27,005 --> 00:22:31,771
{\an1}Runoff fertilizer has led
to giant algae blooms
471
00:22:31,805 --> 00:22:34,805
{\an1}and dead zones in oceans.
472
00:22:34,838 --> 00:22:39,538
{\an1}Also, making ammonia uses a lot
of fossil fuel.
473
00:22:39,571 --> 00:22:44,205
{\an1}Annually, the industry as a
whole accounts for one percent
474
00:22:44,238 --> 00:22:48,071
{\an1}of global CO2 emissions.
475
00:22:48,105 --> 00:22:51,071
♪
476
00:22:51,105 --> 00:22:53,638
{\an1}Ed Cussler is part of
a team of scientists
477
00:22:53,671 --> 00:22:55,438
{\an1}at the University of Minnesota
478
00:22:55,471 --> 00:22:58,571
{\an1}working on a greener approach
to producing ammonia.
479
00:23:01,705 --> 00:23:04,338
{\an1}This is the industrial
Haber-Bosch process
480
00:23:04,371 --> 00:23:05,905
{\an1}in a smaller package.
481
00:23:05,938 --> 00:23:07,881
ERIC BUCHANAN:
This ammonia reactor here is
making about
482
00:23:07,905 --> 00:23:09,838
{\an1}25 tons of ammonia a year.
483
00:23:09,871 --> 00:23:11,305
{\an8}A standard commercial
ammonia plant
484
00:23:11,338 --> 00:23:13,138
{\an8}is making thousands
of tons a day.
485
00:23:13,171 --> 00:23:15,138
{\an8}Oh.
So this is
a much smaller scale.
486
00:23:15,171 --> 00:23:18,671
POGUE:
It still depends on high
temperature and pressure
487
00:23:18,705 --> 00:23:22,971
but it's powered
by nearby wind turbines.
488
00:23:23,005 --> 00:23:26,271
You're taking nitrogenout of the air.
489
00:23:26,305 --> 00:23:28,305
You're making hydrogenout of the water.
490
00:23:28,338 --> 00:23:29,671
You're making itout of nature.
491
00:23:29,705 --> 00:23:31,338
{\an7}Yup, right here in this room.
492
00:23:31,371 --> 00:23:33,105
POGUE:
The long-term vision
493
00:23:33,138 --> 00:23:35,871
{\an1}is that small facilities
like this pilot plant
494
00:23:35,905 --> 00:23:38,738
{\an1}could make enough
"green" ammonia
495
00:23:38,771 --> 00:23:41,705
{\an1}for a county's worth of farms...
In this area,
496
00:23:41,738 --> 00:23:45,338
{\an1}about 130,000 acres.
497
00:23:45,371 --> 00:23:49,171
CUSSLER:
We are making fertilizer
from air and water.
498
00:23:49,205 --> 00:23:50,771
{\an1}It's just straight alchemy.
499
00:23:50,805 --> 00:23:53,738
{\an1}You're not going to get rich
doing it in the new green way,
500
00:23:53,771 --> 00:23:55,371
{\an1}but you can sure make a
difference
501
00:23:55,405 --> 00:23:57,405
{\an1}in the way the planet is.
502
00:23:57,438 --> 00:24:00,271
♪
503
00:24:00,305 --> 00:24:03,605
POGUE: Scientists estimate
that50 percent of the nitrogen atoms
504
00:24:03,638 --> 00:24:07,838
{\an1}in any person alive today
at one point
505
00:24:07,871 --> 00:24:10,438
passed through
the Haber-Bosch process.
506
00:24:10,471 --> 00:24:14,471
{\an1}Yet Fritz Haber's legacy
is mixed.
507
00:24:14,505 --> 00:24:18,038
{\an1}He won the Nobel Prize in
chemistry for his discovery
508
00:24:18,071 --> 00:24:22,605
{\an1}but is also considered the
"Father of Chemical Warfare,"
509
00:24:22,638 --> 00:24:26,805
{\an1}having proposed and supervised
its use in World War I
510
00:24:26,838 --> 00:24:29,138
{\an1}by the German army.
511
00:24:29,171 --> 00:24:31,371
{\an1}Some historians believe that
512
00:24:31,405 --> 00:24:34,438
{\an1}the Haber-Bosch process itself
513
00:24:34,471 --> 00:24:36,771
{\an1}may have extended that war
by years,
514
00:24:36,805 --> 00:24:41,871
{\an1}because it gave Germany a
newsource of nitrogen compounds...
515
00:24:41,905 --> 00:24:44,471
{\an8}(explosion)
516
00:24:44,505 --> 00:24:48,638
{\an7}key ingredients in explosives.
517
00:24:48,671 --> 00:24:50,471
{\an7}What makes them "key"?
518
00:24:50,505 --> 00:24:54,505
{\an7}It all goes back to that
stubborn nitrogen molecule.
519
00:24:54,538 --> 00:24:57,271
{\an7}Think of it like a spring.
520
00:24:57,305 --> 00:25:01,305
{\an7}Pulling the atoms apart
takes a lot of energy.
521
00:25:01,338 --> 00:25:05,238
{\an7}And sticking them into
nitrogencompounds keeps them separated.
522
00:25:05,271 --> 00:25:07,071
{\an7}But in explosives,
523
00:25:07,105 --> 00:25:10,371
{\an7}those compounds are designed
to fall apart quickly,
524
00:25:10,405 --> 00:25:13,805
{\an7}freeing the nitrogen atoms to
spring back together...
525
00:25:13,838 --> 00:25:15,205
{\an8}(explosion)
526
00:25:15,238 --> 00:25:19,805
{\an7}...and releasing the storedenergy
from pulling them apart.
527
00:25:19,838 --> 00:25:22,571
♪
528
00:25:22,605 --> 00:25:24,871
{\an1}Seems like a good place
to blow stuff up
529
00:25:24,905 --> 00:25:26,771
{\an1}without risking hitting
anything.
530
00:25:26,805 --> 00:25:28,305
{\an1}Yeah, that's why we like
531
00:25:28,338 --> 00:25:29,771
{\an1}having our surroundingmountains.
532
00:25:29,805 --> 00:25:31,805
POGUE:
To better understand the role
533
00:25:31,838 --> 00:25:34,371
{\an1}of nitrogen compounds in
explosives,
534
00:25:34,405 --> 00:25:37,471
{\an1}I've decided to return to see
some old friends,
535
00:25:37,505 --> 00:25:39,905
{\an1}the engineers and scientists
536
00:25:39,938 --> 00:25:43,038
{\an1}at the Energetic Materials
Research and Testing Center
537
00:25:43,071 --> 00:25:45,705
{\an1}at New Mexico Tech.
538
00:25:45,738 --> 00:25:48,505
{\an1}We've had some fun in the
past...
539
00:25:48,538 --> 00:25:53,938
{\an8}(explosions)
540
00:25:55,238 --> 00:25:57,938
{\an8}Well this is the most
funtailgate you'll ever come to.
541
00:25:57,971 --> 00:25:59,071
(Pogue laughs)
542
00:25:59,105 --> 00:26:00,271
POGUE:
So let's see
543
00:26:00,305 --> 00:26:01,905
{\an1}what ordinance tech
Jonathan Myrkle
544
00:26:01,938 --> 00:26:03,871
{\an1}and chemist Tom Pleva
545
00:26:03,905 --> 00:26:07,271
{\an1}have in store for me today.
546
00:26:07,305 --> 00:26:09,505
It's... cotton?
547
00:26:09,538 --> 00:26:10,605
Cotton balls?
548
00:26:10,638 --> 00:26:12,271
That's correct.
Like, cotton balls?
549
00:26:12,305 --> 00:26:13,738
{\an3}Yep.
550
00:26:13,771 --> 00:26:17,405
POGUE:
Now you might think that
cotton balls don't explode...
551
00:26:18,338 --> 00:26:20,771
{\an1}And you'd be right.
552
00:26:20,805 --> 00:26:22,071
{\an1}MYRKLE: That was underwhelming.
553
00:26:22,105 --> 00:26:23,871
(laughter)
554
00:26:23,905 --> 00:26:27,905
{\an1}Cotton fiber is about
90 percent cellulose,
555
00:26:27,938 --> 00:26:30,805
{\an1}a key structural component
in green plants
556
00:26:30,838 --> 00:26:36,771
{\an1}composed of carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen, but no nitrogen.
557
00:26:36,805 --> 00:26:40,138
{\an1}So our cotton balls will burn...
558
00:26:40,171 --> 00:26:44,038
Eventually... though not explode.
559
00:26:44,071 --> 00:26:46,305
{\an8}The spores are erupting!
560
00:26:46,338 --> 00:26:50,438
{\an1}But back in the mid-1800s,
chemists discovered
561
00:26:50,471 --> 00:26:55,138
{\an1}that they could add to
cellulosewhat are called "nitro groups,"
562
00:26:55,171 --> 00:26:58,871
each a nitrogen
and two oxygen atoms.
563
00:26:58,905 --> 00:27:01,705
{\an7}That turned it into
nitrocellulose,
564
00:27:01,738 --> 00:27:04,238
{\an7}also called gun cotton.
565
00:27:04,271 --> 00:27:07,138
{\an7}Those nitro groups made
something
566
00:27:07,171 --> 00:27:08,771
{\an7}that burns like this...
567
00:27:08,805 --> 00:27:11,805
{\an7}into something that burns
like this...
568
00:27:11,838 --> 00:27:14,338
{\an8}flash paper.
569
00:27:15,238 --> 00:27:17,905
{\an1}But nitrocellulose is no joke.
570
00:27:17,938 --> 00:27:22,205
{\an1}In a confined space, like a gun
barrel, it can be powerful.
571
00:27:22,238 --> 00:27:24,805
{\an1}It was the propellant
the military used to launch
572
00:27:24,838 --> 00:27:29,271
{\an1}the shells out of these 16-inchguns
on Iowa-class battleships.
573
00:27:29,305 --> 00:27:31,371
(loud blast)
574
00:27:31,405 --> 00:27:34,105
{\an1}And it's still a propellant
today
575
00:27:34,138 --> 00:27:37,138
{\an1}in 155-millimeter artillery.
576
00:27:37,171 --> 00:27:39,438
(loud blast)
577
00:27:39,471 --> 00:27:41,971
♪
578
00:27:42,005 --> 00:27:42,971
Our next test...
579
00:27:43,005 --> 00:27:44,405
MYRKLE:
Okay.
580
00:27:44,438 --> 00:27:48,138
POGUE:
is 50 pounds of
nitrocellulose propellant,
581
00:27:48,171 --> 00:27:51,171
{\an1}the kind used in those
large-bore guns.
582
00:27:51,205 --> 00:27:54,671
{\an1}We give you 50 pounds
of gun cotton.
583
00:27:54,705 --> 00:27:58,505
{\an1}Since the sphere container isn't
sealed, it won't explode.
584
00:27:58,538 --> 00:28:00,338
Delivered unto the earth.
585
00:28:00,371 --> 00:28:01,338
{\an1}But what will happen?
586
00:28:01,371 --> 00:28:04,605
{\an1}After Jonathan wires it up,
we head
587
00:28:04,638 --> 00:28:08,371
{\an1}to a nearby bunker to find out.
588
00:28:08,405 --> 00:28:09,571
{\an1}MYRKLE: Here we go.
589
00:28:09,605 --> 00:28:11,505
{\an1}Three, two, one...
590
00:28:11,538 --> 00:28:14,138
{\an8}♪
591
00:28:14,171 --> 00:28:17,838
{\an8}POGUE:
Compared to plain cotton,
this is a show.
592
00:28:17,871 --> 00:28:19,238
{\an7}The burning nitrocellulose
593
00:28:19,271 --> 00:28:23,771
{\an7}generates rapidly expandinggases,
including carbon dioxide,
594
00:28:23,805 --> 00:28:27,971
{\an7}carbon monoxide, water vapor,
and, of course, nitrogen.
595
00:28:28,005 --> 00:28:29,705
It's pretty.
596
00:28:29,738 --> 00:28:32,905
{\an7}Packed behind a shell
in the barrel of a gun,
597
00:28:32,938 --> 00:28:35,738
{\an7}the pressure from the
expanding gases would hurl
598
00:28:35,771 --> 00:28:37,905
{\an7}the shell forward.
599
00:28:37,938 --> 00:28:40,738
{\an7}In our open bowl,
it's more like fireworks,
600
00:28:40,771 --> 00:28:44,638
{\an7}with the gases sending
burning pellets up in the air.
601
00:28:44,671 --> 00:28:45,714
{\an8}PLEVA:
That's just a propellant.
602
00:28:45,738 --> 00:28:47,238
{\an7}That's a low grade here.
603
00:28:47,271 --> 00:28:49,871
{\an7}We're going to move
onto actual explosives now.
604
00:28:49,905 --> 00:28:50,938
{\an8}Oh yeah? Yeah.
605
00:28:50,971 --> 00:28:52,138
{\an8}What's first up?
606
00:28:52,171 --> 00:28:53,847
{\an8}So we're going to start offwith ANFO.
ANFO?
607
00:28:53,871 --> 00:28:56,071
{\an8}That is the biggest
miningexplosive that we have.
608
00:28:56,105 --> 00:28:57,071
Oh, cool!
609
00:28:57,105 --> 00:28:59,138
♪
610
00:28:59,171 --> 00:29:04,138
POGUE: ANFO is an industrial
explosiveused in mining and construction.
611
00:29:04,171 --> 00:29:08,471
It accounts for about 80%
of all the explosives used
612
00:29:08,505 --> 00:29:09,638
{\an1}in North America.
613
00:29:09,671 --> 00:29:11,938
(loud explosion)
614
00:29:11,971 --> 00:29:15,305
{\an1}Probably no chemical
showsbetter the intimate relationship
615
00:29:15,338 --> 00:29:19,438
{\an1}between fertilizer
and explosives.
616
00:29:19,471 --> 00:29:24,038
{\an1}Though the name ANFO stands for
ammonium nitrate and fuel oil,
617
00:29:24,071 --> 00:29:27,271
{\an7}it's over 90% ammonium nitrate...
618
00:29:27,305 --> 00:29:31,605
{\an8}the same stuff
as synthetic fertilizer.
619
00:29:31,638 --> 00:29:34,605
{\an8}Ammonium nitrate is built around
nitrogen atoms
620
00:29:34,638 --> 00:29:38,871
{\an7}so it packs way more nitrogen
than nitrocellulose.
621
00:29:40,038 --> 00:29:44,271
{\an1}That means ammonium nitrate
can be very dangerous.
622
00:29:44,305 --> 00:29:48,338
{\an1}This is the aftermath of the
deadliest industrial accident
623
00:29:48,371 --> 00:29:51,805
in U.S. history,
the explosion of over
624
00:29:51,838 --> 00:29:55,405
{\an1}2,000 tons of ammonium nitrate
625
00:29:55,438 --> 00:30:02,038
{\an1}aboard a ship in Texas City,
Texas, in 1947.
626
00:30:02,071 --> 00:30:06,238
{\an1}In 2020 in Beirut, Lebanon,
there was similar explosion.
627
00:30:06,271 --> 00:30:09,705
(loud explosion)
628
00:30:09,738 --> 00:30:12,638
{\an1}A waterfront warehouse
containing thousands of tons
629
00:30:12,671 --> 00:30:17,371
{\an1}of ammonium nitrate caught fire
and detonated.
630
00:30:17,405 --> 00:30:19,438
(loud explosion)
631
00:30:19,471 --> 00:30:23,305
{\an1}The blast killed over
200 people, injured thousands,
632
00:30:23,338 --> 00:30:28,138
{\an1}and left an estimated 300,000
homeless.
633
00:30:31,905 --> 00:30:35,271
{\an1}Our ANFO test will be just
50 pounds of the stuff.
634
00:30:35,305 --> 00:30:36,305
MYRKLE:
50 pounds.
635
00:30:36,338 --> 00:30:38,738
POGUE:
To get a reaction going,
636
00:30:38,771 --> 00:30:40,971
{\an1}even one that will release
a lot of bang,
637
00:30:41,005 --> 00:30:43,371
{\an1}you need to put some energy
into it first
638
00:30:43,405 --> 00:30:46,371
{\an1}to get some of the bonds
to break.
639
00:30:46,405 --> 00:30:50,105
{\an1}That's called activation energy.
640
00:30:50,138 --> 00:30:53,005
{\an7}This is nitrogen triiodide,
641
00:30:53,038 --> 00:30:54,705
{\an7}an explosive whose existence
642
00:30:54,738 --> 00:30:56,138
{\an7}is so precarious...
643
00:30:56,171 --> 00:30:57,705
{\an8}(muffled puff)
644
00:30:57,738 --> 00:31:00,838
{\an7}...minimal activation energy
is needed.
645
00:31:00,871 --> 00:31:03,371
{\an7}Even just the touch
of a feather.
646
00:31:03,405 --> 00:31:07,005
{\an8}(muffled puff)
647
00:31:07,038 --> 00:31:11,405
In contrast,
ANFO is hard to set off.
648
00:31:11,438 --> 00:31:16,005
So Jonathan hooks up a booster...
A smaller explosive.
649
00:31:16,038 --> 00:31:17,505
♪
650
00:31:17,538 --> 00:31:21,005
{\an1}Since much of EMRTC's
researchand training involves explosions
651
00:31:21,038 --> 00:31:23,371
{\an1}in human-occupied environments,
652
00:31:23,405 --> 00:31:26,405
{\an1}they typically add
a wooden dummy for scale
653
00:31:26,438 --> 00:31:30,038
{\an1}and to demonstrate
an explosive's effect.
654
00:31:30,071 --> 00:31:31,971
{\an5}MYRKLE:
You good?
Good.
655
00:31:32,005 --> 00:31:32,971
Okay here we go.
656
00:31:33,005 --> 00:31:34,005
Three, two, one...
657
00:31:34,038 --> 00:31:37,271
{\an8}(loud explosion)
658
00:31:37,305 --> 00:31:39,205
{\an8}(Pogue laughing)
659
00:31:39,238 --> 00:31:41,471
That, my friend,
is a firecracker.
660
00:31:41,505 --> 00:31:42,805
{\an1}That was like seven stories.
661
00:31:42,838 --> 00:31:44,205
{\an1}So, what just happened?
662
00:31:44,238 --> 00:31:48,338
{\an1}(tape rewinding sound)
663
00:31:48,371 --> 00:31:51,405
{\an1}Jonathan ignites the booster...
664
00:31:51,438 --> 00:31:53,038
{\an8}(loud explosion)
665
00:31:53,071 --> 00:31:55,238
{\an7}...that's the black smoke
you see.
666
00:31:55,271 --> 00:31:58,538
{\an7}The pressure wave fromthe
exploding booster, in turn,
667
00:31:58,571 --> 00:32:00,538
{\an7}detonates the ANFO,
668
00:32:00,571 --> 00:32:03,838
{\an7}breaking the bonds holding
the ANFO atoms together.
669
00:32:03,871 --> 00:32:06,805
{\an1}They rearrange into more
stable gases...
670
00:32:06,838 --> 00:32:09,471
{\an1}nitrogen, carbon dioxide
and water vapor,
671
00:32:09,505 --> 00:32:14,605
{\an1}along with some carbon monoxide
and nitrogen oxides.
672
00:32:14,638 --> 00:32:16,938
{\an1}The hot gases rapidly expand,
673
00:32:16,971 --> 00:32:19,238
{\an1}creating a supersonic shockwave
674
00:32:19,271 --> 00:32:23,005
{\an1}traveling at about two miles
per second.
675
00:32:23,038 --> 00:32:26,238
{\an1}If you look at justthe
nitrogen atoms of the ANFO,
676
00:32:26,271 --> 00:32:29,071
{\an1}it's like the un-Haber process.
677
00:32:29,105 --> 00:32:32,805
{\an1}Most of the nitrogens from the
ammonium ions and nitrate ions
678
00:32:32,838 --> 00:32:38,905
{\an1}reunite into their more stable
preferred state, N2.
679
00:32:38,938 --> 00:32:41,705
{\an8}(loud explosion)
680
00:32:41,738 --> 00:32:44,771
{\an8}In fact, about half of the power
of the ANFO explosion
681
00:32:44,805 --> 00:32:46,705
{\an1}comes from nitrogen atoms
682
00:32:46,738 --> 00:32:49,005
reforming into
nitrogen molecules.
683
00:32:49,038 --> 00:32:50,938
♪
684
00:32:50,971 --> 00:32:54,438
{\an1}Here we are, what,
a quarter of a mile away?
685
00:32:54,471 --> 00:32:56,471
{\an1}And you could feelthe ground shaking.
686
00:32:56,505 --> 00:32:58,471
{\an3}Yup. And that's 50 pounds.
687
00:32:58,505 --> 00:32:59,938
{\an1}That's only 50 pounds, yes.
688
00:32:59,971 --> 00:33:03,538
POGUE:
Next up: you've seen it
in movies...
689
00:33:03,571 --> 00:33:06,505
(explosions)
690
00:33:06,538 --> 00:33:09,071
{\an1}...and you probably even know
its name.
691
00:33:09,105 --> 00:33:10,971
{\an1}What's that?
That's C-4.
692
00:33:11,005 --> 00:33:15,071
{\an1}(gunshot, loud explosions)
693
00:33:15,105 --> 00:33:17,938
POGUE:
And just one look
at its active ingredient
694
00:33:17,971 --> 00:33:20,538
should tell you
we've upped our game.
695
00:33:20,571 --> 00:33:23,338
Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine...
696
00:33:23,371 --> 00:33:27,438
{\an7}commonly known as RDX.
697
00:33:27,471 --> 00:33:29,338
{\an7}While it has three nitro groups,
698
00:33:29,371 --> 00:33:33,005
{\an7}there's even more nitrogen
built into its ring.
699
00:33:33,038 --> 00:33:35,238
And even though
the nitrogen triple bond
700
00:33:35,271 --> 00:33:37,671
{\an1}is one of the strongest
in nature,
701
00:33:37,705 --> 00:33:40,905
{\an1}the single bonds between
the nitrogen in the ring
702
00:33:40,938 --> 00:33:44,338
{\an1}and the nitro groups
are rather weak,
703
00:33:44,371 --> 00:33:47,571
{\an1}often the first to fail
when detonated.
704
00:33:47,605 --> 00:33:49,338
♪
705
00:33:49,371 --> 00:33:53,738
Oh my...
706
00:33:53,771 --> 00:33:55,138
The last one for the day for us.
707
00:33:55,171 --> 00:33:57,638
Ah, yeah, 50 pounds of C-4.
708
00:33:57,671 --> 00:33:58,671
POGUE: All right.
709
00:33:58,705 --> 00:34:00,005
(chuckles)
710
00:34:00,038 --> 00:34:03,338
Should I be offended that...
they've dressed him like me?
711
00:34:03,371 --> 00:34:05,838
(laughing): Is there a
hidden messagein that?
712
00:34:05,871 --> 00:34:08,438
{\an1}I wouldn't take it personal
but... you know.
713
00:34:08,471 --> 00:34:09,471
{\an1}(chuckling): All right.
714
00:34:09,505 --> 00:34:14,638
(whip cracking,
Western music playing)
715
00:34:14,671 --> 00:34:15,705
(record scratch)
716
00:34:15,738 --> 00:34:19,071
Oh wait, I've gotta go do that...
717
00:34:19,105 --> 00:34:20,305
{\an1}Oh, but it looked so cool!
718
00:34:20,338 --> 00:34:22,205
{\an7}I know, I know...
719
00:34:22,238 --> 00:34:24,538
MYRKLE:
Charging.
720
00:34:24,571 --> 00:34:25,871
Okay, here we go.
721
00:34:25,905 --> 00:34:27,838
Three, two, one.
722
00:34:27,871 --> 00:34:29,571
(loud explosion)
723
00:34:31,005 --> 00:34:32,871
{\an1}(distant explosion echoes)
724
00:34:32,905 --> 00:34:34,605
{\an1}(laughing):
Oh, my God!
725
00:34:34,638 --> 00:34:37,771
{\an8}(loud explosion)
726
00:34:37,805 --> 00:34:41,038
POGUE:
When the detonation pressure
wave hits the RDX molecule,
727
00:34:41,071 --> 00:34:45,371
{\an1}the ring compresses
and then flies apart.
728
00:34:45,405 --> 00:34:49,071
{\an1}The atoms recombine into
carbon monoxide, water vapor,
729
00:34:49,105 --> 00:34:50,871
{\an1}and nitrogen gas.
730
00:34:50,905 --> 00:34:54,371
{\an1}Those reactions produce
far more heat than ANFO does,
731
00:34:54,405 --> 00:34:57,171
{\an1}which makes the gases expand
much more rapidly,
732
00:34:57,205 --> 00:35:03,338
{\an1}giving RDX over twice
the explosive power.
733
00:35:03,371 --> 00:35:06,038
PLEVA: So we have more heat and energy
in there.
734
00:35:06,071 --> 00:35:08,105
And there's more nitrogenin there.
735
00:35:08,138 --> 00:35:09,938
Exactly.
736
00:35:09,971 --> 00:35:12,171
{\an8}(loud explosion)
737
00:35:12,205 --> 00:35:15,505
POGUE:
Does that mean that the future
is just all nitrogen?
738
00:35:15,538 --> 00:35:16,738
That is the goal.
739
00:35:16,771 --> 00:35:20,138
We are trying to make
entirely nitrogen-composed
740
00:35:20,171 --> 00:35:21,638
explosive molecules.
741
00:35:21,671 --> 00:35:24,838
POGUE:
Here's one from the drawing
boards with a great name:
742
00:35:24,871 --> 00:35:27,138
{\an8}octaazacubane.
743
00:35:27,171 --> 00:35:28,438
{\an7}Entirely made of nitrogen,
744
00:35:28,471 --> 00:35:31,705
{\an1}it is predicted to havea
faster velocity of detonation
745
00:35:31,738 --> 00:35:34,938
{\an1}than any known non-nuclear
explosive...
746
00:35:34,971 --> 00:35:40,138
{\an1}if someone can just figure out
how to make it.
747
00:35:40,171 --> 00:35:44,371
{\an1}I think that's all that's left.
748
00:35:44,405 --> 00:35:48,805
{\an1}And so ends our day of the
un-Haber-Bosch process.
749
00:35:48,838 --> 00:35:49,938
♪
750
00:35:49,971 --> 00:35:52,105
{\an1}Much of the nitrogen
in our explosives
751
00:35:52,138 --> 00:35:54,338
{\an1}has returned to its happy,
752
00:35:54,371 --> 00:35:57,205
{\an1}or at least extremely inert,
state,
753
00:35:57,238 --> 00:36:01,771
{\an1}as N2 molecules in the
atmosphere over New Mexico.
754
00:36:01,805 --> 00:36:04,405
{\an1}(Western music playing)
755
00:36:04,438 --> 00:36:08,671
{\an7}In chemistry, reactions tend
to consume other ingredients,
756
00:36:08,705 --> 00:36:10,938
{\an7}transforming them
into something new.
757
00:36:10,971 --> 00:36:13,538
{\an1}That's the process that
chemical equations
758
00:36:13,571 --> 00:36:15,338
{\an1}are designed to explain.
759
00:36:15,371 --> 00:36:19,271
{\an1}But in biology, moleculescan
sometimes bind to each other
760
00:36:19,305 --> 00:36:22,671
{\an1}without consuming or producing
anything new.
761
00:36:22,705 --> 00:36:25,405
{\an1}They can act as triggers
or messengers.
762
00:36:25,438 --> 00:36:31,938
{\an1}Or, as it's sometimes described,
like a key fitting into a lock.
763
00:36:33,605 --> 00:36:36,271
♪
764
00:36:36,305 --> 00:36:38,114
{\an1}To learn more about molecular
"locks and keys,"
765
00:36:38,138 --> 00:36:41,871
{\an1}I've come to experience them
viscerally.
766
00:36:41,905 --> 00:36:43,138
Mmm...
(laughing)
767
00:36:43,171 --> 00:36:44,771
(coughs)
Oh! Wow!
768
00:36:44,805 --> 00:36:48,138
Here at the Berks Pepper Jam,
in Bethel, Pennsylvania.
769
00:36:48,171 --> 00:36:49,838
{\an8}Smell that! Mm!
770
00:36:49,871 --> 00:36:51,738
{\an8}POGUE:
An annual festival of food,
771
00:36:51,771 --> 00:36:55,205
{\an1}entertainment, and contests...
772
00:36:55,238 --> 00:36:58,638
{\an1}all centered on chili peppers.
773
00:36:58,671 --> 00:37:00,171
Reaper Evil hot sauce.
774
00:37:00,205 --> 00:37:01,805
{\an1}They do have an ambulance
on hand, right?
775
00:37:01,838 --> 00:37:03,705
They do.
776
00:37:03,738 --> 00:37:06,305
POGUE:
When it comes to peppers,
I'm a novice.
777
00:37:06,338 --> 00:37:09,705
{\an1}But the first thing you needto
know is that the black pepper
778
00:37:09,738 --> 00:37:12,738
{\an1}you see sitting with salt,
and chili peppers,
779
00:37:12,771 --> 00:37:16,405
{\an1}have different chemistries
and histories.
780
00:37:16,438 --> 00:37:18,105
♪
781
00:37:18,138 --> 00:37:20,305
{\an1}Black pepper is the dried
ground-up fruit
782
00:37:20,338 --> 00:37:24,505
{\an1}of a flowering vine
native to Asia.
783
00:37:24,538 --> 00:37:29,471
{\an7}Its kick comes mainly from
the molecule piperine.
784
00:37:29,505 --> 00:37:33,071
{\an1}While one side of the world
had black pepper,
785
00:37:33,105 --> 00:37:34,705
{\an1}the other side had
chili peppers...
786
00:37:34,738 --> 00:37:36,605
{\an1}first domesticated
by Mesoamericans,
787
00:37:36,638 --> 00:37:41,271
{\an1}and then traded around the world
by European explorers.
788
00:37:41,305 --> 00:37:44,671
{\an1}The main active ingredient
in chili peppers
789
00:37:44,705 --> 00:37:47,505
{\an7}is the molecule capsaicin.
790
00:37:47,538 --> 00:37:49,938
{\an7}More on that in a bit.
791
00:37:49,971 --> 00:37:54,271
{\an1}Three, two, one... eat!
792
00:37:54,305 --> 00:37:56,271
POGUE:
The Jam features
a pepper-eating contest...
793
00:37:56,305 --> 00:38:00,405
for kids,
but they wouldn't let me in.
794
00:38:00,438 --> 00:38:03,838
{\an1}So I plan on entering
the one for adults...
795
00:38:03,871 --> 00:38:06,405
{\an1}after I get some advice.
796
00:38:06,438 --> 00:38:09,038
{\an1}I've actually never eaten
a pepper by itself.
797
00:38:09,071 --> 00:38:10,905
{\an1}Bow out when you feel
you should.
798
00:38:10,938 --> 00:38:12,038
Really?
799
00:38:12,071 --> 00:38:14,405
A raw pepper is a
completely different deal.
800
00:38:14,438 --> 00:38:15,538
I can't do it.
801
00:38:15,571 --> 00:38:16,671
You can't eat a reaper?!
802
00:38:16,705 --> 00:38:18,047
POGUE: Is there any wayl can prepare?
803
00:38:18,071 --> 00:38:19,105
{\an1}Well, drink water...
804
00:38:19,138 --> 00:38:20,614
{\an1}You got your will made out?(David laughs)
805
00:38:20,638 --> 00:38:23,438
{\an1}You don't have anything to
dofor the next three days, do you?
806
00:38:23,471 --> 00:38:24,881
{\an1}MAN: Yeah, you're going
to feel greatMonday morning.
807
00:38:24,905 --> 00:38:26,471
{\an1}(laughter)
808
00:38:26,505 --> 00:38:27,947
EMCEE:
A big round of applause
for Lizzie.
809
00:38:27,971 --> 00:38:29,405
Well done!
810
00:38:29,438 --> 00:38:31,171
{\an1}(cheers and applause)
811
00:38:31,205 --> 00:38:34,005
{\an8}POGUE:
Time to put my tongue
to the test.
812
00:38:34,038 --> 00:38:36,738
{\an8}MAN: Long hots, red Fresno...
813
00:38:36,771 --> 00:38:38,338
POGUE:
Here's how the contest works:
814
00:38:38,371 --> 00:38:41,471
{\an7}there are ten rounds of
increasingly hot peppers...
815
00:38:41,505 --> 00:38:44,105
{\an7}Peach Copenhagen...
816
00:38:44,138 --> 00:38:45,338
Big Red Mama.
817
00:38:45,371 --> 00:38:47,671
POGUE:
their spiciness measured
on a scale
818
00:38:47,705 --> 00:38:52,205
{\an1}invented in 1912 by pharmacist
Wilbur Scoville.
819
00:38:52,238 --> 00:38:56,471
{\an1}It estimates the amount
of capsaicin in each pepper.
820
00:38:56,505 --> 00:39:00,771
{\an1}Contestants have to eat
a pepper...
821
00:39:00,805 --> 00:39:03,038
{\an1}and then wait two-and-a-half
minutes
822
00:39:03,071 --> 00:39:04,705
{\an1}to allow the burn to grow.
823
00:39:04,738 --> 00:39:06,671
{\an1}If they drink the milk
in front of them...
824
00:39:06,705 --> 00:39:09,771
{\an1}a popular way to douse a tongue
on fire...
825
00:39:09,805 --> 00:39:11,538
They are eliminated.
826
00:39:11,571 --> 00:39:12,938
POGUE:
They're out.
827
00:39:12,971 --> 00:39:16,738
{\an1}My competitors includesome
rugged-looking characters.
828
00:39:16,771 --> 00:39:17,771
{\an1}And Leah...
829
00:39:17,805 --> 00:39:18,814
LEAH:
I've never done this before.
830
00:39:18,838 --> 00:39:20,738
{\an1}I figured this out
two hours ago.
831
00:39:20,771 --> 00:39:23,305
POGUE:
a 15-year-old who entered
with the permission
832
00:39:23,338 --> 00:39:25,571
of her parents.
(cheers and applause)
833
00:39:25,605 --> 00:39:27,105
{\an1}Whoo! Bring it on!
834
00:39:27,138 --> 00:39:28,438
EMCEE:
We begin our contest
835
00:39:28,471 --> 00:39:29,838
{\an1}with the long hots...
836
00:39:31,071 --> 00:39:32,705
{\an1}Let's turn up the heat!
837
00:39:32,738 --> 00:39:34,338
{\an9}Eat!
838
00:39:34,371 --> 00:39:37,338
POGUE:
And we're off!
839
00:39:37,371 --> 00:39:39,638
{\an1}Zesty, with just a hint
of poison.
840
00:39:39,671 --> 00:39:41,605
{\an1}EMCEE: Round two we're going to
start
841
00:39:41,638 --> 00:39:43,705
{\an1}with the red Fresno pepper.
842
00:39:43,738 --> 00:39:45,871
{\an1}Eat! Eat! Eat! Eat! Eat! Eat!
843
00:39:45,905 --> 00:39:48,538
{\an1}There's got to be some easier
way to learn about molecules.
844
00:39:48,571 --> 00:39:52,805
{\an5}EMCEE:
All right, are we ready? Eat!
845
00:39:52,838 --> 00:39:55,871
{\an5}That was not designed
for human consumption.
846
00:39:55,905 --> 00:39:59,071
{\an4}EMCEE: Round number four:
habanero peppers.
847
00:40:00,105 --> 00:40:01,705
{\an4}POGUE:
Parts of my body
848
00:40:01,738 --> 00:40:03,571
{\an4}I didn't know I had are on fire.
849
00:40:03,605 --> 00:40:04,714
EMCEE:
Ten more seconds.
You got this.
850
00:40:04,738 --> 00:40:05,771
POGUE:
I can't, I can't.
851
00:40:05,805 --> 00:40:10,171
EMCEE::
No! Don't do it! No!
852
00:40:10,205 --> 00:40:13,971
{\an5}EMCEE:
The orange Copenhagen pepper.
853
00:40:14,005 --> 00:40:15,871
{\an5}Eat!
854
00:40:15,905 --> 00:40:18,971
{\an1}What am I doing?!
855
00:40:19,005 --> 00:40:20,171
Oh man...
856
00:40:20,205 --> 00:40:21,405
Oh my God!
857
00:40:21,438 --> 00:40:22,371
(coughing)
858
00:40:22,405 --> 00:40:23,938
Don't do it!
I want it!
859
00:40:23,971 --> 00:40:27,005
{\an1}Wherever you are, Scoville...
I hope you rot!
860
00:40:28,105 --> 00:40:29,771
{\an1}(steam whistling)
861
00:40:29,805 --> 00:40:33,405
Cheers!
No!
862
00:40:33,438 --> 00:40:35,038
POGUE:
So I'm the first to fall...
863
00:40:35,071 --> 00:40:36,938
{\an1}(cheers and applause)
Thank you.
864
00:40:36,971 --> 00:40:38,771
Is there a Port-A-Potty?
865
00:40:38,805 --> 00:40:40,271
But there's a bigger mystery...
866
00:40:40,305 --> 00:40:45,438
{\an1}How does a pepper's
capsaicinconvince my mouth it's on fire?
867
00:40:45,471 --> 00:40:47,205
{\an1}Not recommended.
868
00:40:48,538 --> 00:40:50,571
{\an1}I think I'll find
the answer here
869
00:40:50,605 --> 00:40:54,938
{\an1}at Penn State University's
Department of Food Science.
870
00:40:54,971 --> 00:40:56,105
{\an1}We all study food.
871
00:40:56,138 --> 00:40:57,714
{\an1}So you have psychologists,
and microbiologists...
872
00:40:57,738 --> 00:41:00,671
POGUE:
I'm here to see John Hayes.
873
00:41:00,705 --> 00:41:03,505
{\an1}He knows a thing or two
about the active ingredient
874
00:41:03,538 --> 00:41:05,871
in these.
875
00:41:05,905 --> 00:41:09,171
HAYES:
So when you went and tasted
them, what did you experience?
876
00:41:09,205 --> 00:41:10,171
Oh, man.
877
00:41:10,205 --> 00:41:12,038
My gut twisted,
878
00:41:12,071 --> 00:41:13,771
{\an1}my tongue burned,
879
00:41:13,805 --> 00:41:15,138
{\an1}my flesh burned, I cried,
880
00:41:15,171 --> 00:41:17,171
{\an1}I got red, my nose ran.
881
00:41:17,205 --> 00:41:21,305
(echoing): It's like putting your
tongue onthe stove and leaving it there.
882
00:41:21,338 --> 00:41:23,338
HAYES:
That was an aversive response.
883
00:41:23,371 --> 00:41:27,971
{\an7}This plant has evolved a
chemical called capsaicin.
884
00:41:28,005 --> 00:41:30,005
{\an7}And the reason it makes that
885
00:41:30,038 --> 00:41:33,038
{\an7}is to keep animalsfrom
eating the chili pepper.
886
00:41:33,071 --> 00:41:36,771
{\an8}(laughing):
Oh man, the chili festival
people never got that message.
887
00:41:36,805 --> 00:41:38,671
And we're just a
really stupid species?
888
00:41:38,705 --> 00:41:39,871
{\an1}Exactly.
889
00:41:39,905 --> 00:41:42,205
{\an1}We're one of the only
speciesthat learns to like
890
00:41:42,238 --> 00:41:43,705
{\an1}that sensation.
891
00:41:43,738 --> 00:41:47,471
POGUE: Ultimately, pepper
plantsare playing a pretty good trick
892
00:41:47,505 --> 00:41:49,438
on humans as well.
893
00:41:49,471 --> 00:41:53,671
{\an1}Capsaicin really is a "key"
ingredient.
894
00:41:53,705 --> 00:41:57,371
{\an1}It has a long spindly tail
attached to a ring.
895
00:41:57,405 --> 00:42:01,238
HAYES:
That ring end fits into
a specific receptor
896
00:42:01,271 --> 00:42:03,038
that's expressed all overyour body.
897
00:42:03,071 --> 00:42:04,338
Not just our tongue?
898
00:42:04,371 --> 00:42:06,305
Not just your tongue.
(chuckling):
Oh man.
899
00:42:06,338 --> 00:42:11,038
This receptor, this lock, is
actually a heat pain sensor.
900
00:42:11,071 --> 00:42:16,105
POGUE:
Normally the receptor,
called TRPV1,
901
00:42:16,138 --> 00:42:18,205
{\an1}activates when it comes
in contact with something
902
00:42:18,238 --> 00:42:21,705
{\an1}over 106 degrees.
903
00:42:21,738 --> 00:42:24,471
{\an1}The result is a pain message
to the brain.
904
00:42:24,505 --> 00:42:27,505
{\an1}"Ouch! Something's hot!"
(whistling)
905
00:42:27,538 --> 00:42:30,305
{\an1}It's a warning signal
to tell your body, "Danger."
906
00:42:30,338 --> 00:42:32,971
POGUE:
And here's the tricky part:
907
00:42:33,005 --> 00:42:36,371
{\an1}when you eat peppers,
those capsaicin keys
908
00:42:36,405 --> 00:42:39,638
{\an1}fit into the heat pain receptors
in your mouth,
909
00:42:39,671 --> 00:42:42,605
{\an1}altering their sensitivity.
910
00:42:42,638 --> 00:42:45,505
{\an1}And so, what the
capsaicin doesis it fits into
911
00:42:45,538 --> 00:42:47,138
{\an1}this molecular thermometer,
912
00:42:47,171 --> 00:42:49,738
{\an1}and it lowers the temperatureat
which it activates it.
913
00:42:49,771 --> 00:42:52,838
POGUE:
Like a changed thermostat,
914
00:42:52,871 --> 00:42:56,038
{\an1}they now activate
at body temperature,
915
00:42:56,071 --> 00:42:58,938
{\an1}sending a false signal
that'sidentical to the one your brain
916
00:42:58,971 --> 00:43:04,471
{\an1}would receive if you
atesomething literally burning hot.
917
00:43:04,505 --> 00:43:07,471
{\an1}It lowers the temperatureat
which we feel burning pain...
918
00:43:07,505 --> 00:43:10,205
{\an1}Yes.
but it's not actually
burning us?
919
00:43:10,238 --> 00:43:13,005
Correct.
It's not... I'm not going
to see scar tissue...
920
00:43:13,038 --> 00:43:15,871
{\an4}No.
No matter how hot it is,
it's all a fake-out?
921
00:43:15,905 --> 00:43:17,471
Absolutely.
922
00:43:17,505 --> 00:43:18,471
(applause)
923
00:43:18,505 --> 00:43:19,538
EMCEE:
Up next...
924
00:43:19,571 --> 00:43:21,805
{\an1}the Yellow Seven Pot pepper.
925
00:43:21,838 --> 00:43:24,971
POGUE:
Back in Bethel,
the pepper-eating contest
926
00:43:25,005 --> 00:43:26,871
{\an1}is entering its final rounds.
927
00:43:26,905 --> 00:43:29,438
EMCEE:
Eat!
928
00:43:29,471 --> 00:43:31,871
That was warm.
929
00:43:31,905 --> 00:43:33,638
{\an1}Oh, it's burning now.
930
00:43:33,671 --> 00:43:35,838
{\an1}I'm trying to think
of a happy place.
931
00:43:35,871 --> 00:43:37,071
{\an1}I can't find one.
932
00:43:37,105 --> 00:43:39,671
POGUE:
Evidence that capsaicin's
working on
933
00:43:39,705 --> 00:43:42,005
{\an1}the molecular locks of
everyone's heat pain sensors
934
00:43:42,038 --> 00:43:45,171
is easy to see,
935
00:43:45,205 --> 00:43:48,305
{\an1}as they eat a Big Red Mama,
936
00:43:48,338 --> 00:43:52,271
{\an1}rated at over a million
Scoville heat units.
937
00:43:52,305 --> 00:43:53,805
EMCEE:
Don't tap out now!
938
00:43:53,838 --> 00:43:55,671
Don't tap out!
939
00:43:55,705 --> 00:43:59,071
POGUE:
One more falls.
940
00:43:59,105 --> 00:44:01,705
{\an1}We're down to the final four.
941
00:44:01,738 --> 00:44:03,605
{\an4}(cheers and applause)
EMCEE:
I'm ready to leave.
942
00:44:03,638 --> 00:44:05,771
(laughing):
I can't abuse these people
anymore.
943
00:44:05,805 --> 00:44:10,671
POGUE:
This time, the organizer adds
concentrated pepper extract.
944
00:44:10,705 --> 00:44:15,371
♪
945
00:44:15,405 --> 00:44:18,871
{\an1}How long can this go on?
946
00:44:18,905 --> 00:44:22,071
(crying)
947
00:44:22,105 --> 00:44:25,638
{\an1}Then suddenly a resolution
that no one saw coming.
948
00:44:25,671 --> 00:44:27,238
{\an1}(cheers and applause)
949
00:44:27,271 --> 00:44:28,638
EMCEE:
Whoa!
950
00:44:28,671 --> 00:44:31,138
Leah beat 'em!
951
00:44:31,171 --> 00:44:32,905
{\an1}(cheers and applause)
952
00:44:32,938 --> 00:44:34,838
{\an1}Big round of applause!
953
00:44:34,871 --> 00:44:36,705
{\an1}Big round of applause.
954
00:44:36,738 --> 00:44:38,471
Leah, I am not worthy.
955
00:44:38,505 --> 00:44:40,005
You rock!
956
00:44:40,038 --> 00:44:43,371
{\an1}What does a woman with that
fortitude and strength
957
00:44:43,405 --> 00:44:45,105
{\an1}want to be when she grows up?
958
00:44:45,138 --> 00:44:46,471
A fighter pilot.
(laughs)
959
00:44:46,505 --> 00:44:48,438
Why am I not surprised?
960
00:44:48,471 --> 00:44:50,005
(laughing)
(sighs)
961
00:44:51,638 --> 00:44:55,438
POGUE:
Ultimately, the capsaicin
molecule is an illusionist,
962
00:44:55,471 --> 00:44:57,105
able to trick my nervous system
963
00:44:57,138 --> 00:45:00,305
{\an1}into thinking my mouth
is on fire.
964
00:45:00,338 --> 00:45:04,671
{\an1}But what about the molecules
that pose real danger?
965
00:45:04,705 --> 00:45:09,271
{\an1}Molecules designed by nature
to kill?
966
00:45:09,305 --> 00:45:13,338
{\an1}Time to meet my first professor
of venoms...
967
00:45:13,371 --> 00:45:16,371
Mandeë Holford
of Hunter College.
968
00:45:20,105 --> 00:45:22,271
Now, I couldn't help noticing,
969
00:45:22,305 --> 00:45:24,205
there's a huge, terrifyingtarantula on me.
970
00:45:24,238 --> 00:45:26,171
Is she poisonous?
971
00:45:26,205 --> 00:45:27,171
No, no,
972
00:45:27,205 --> 00:45:29,105
{\an1}she's not poisonous. Oh, whew!
973
00:45:29,138 --> 00:45:33,905
{\an7}She is, however, venomous,
and could still be lethal.
974
00:45:33,938 --> 00:45:36,505
{\an7}Thanks for bringing that up.
(laughing)
975
00:45:36,538 --> 00:45:38,871
{\an7}Poisonous and venomousdon't
mean the same thing?
976
00:45:38,905 --> 00:45:39,971
No, no, no, not at all.
977
00:45:40,005 --> 00:45:43,138
POGUE:
Poisonous versus venomous:
978
00:45:43,171 --> 00:45:45,605
{\an1}it all comes down to
the delivery system.
979
00:45:45,638 --> 00:45:50,105
{\an1}If you bite it and get sick,
it's poisonous.
980
00:45:50,138 --> 00:45:54,805
{\an1}But if it bites youand you
get sick, it's venomous.
981
00:45:54,838 --> 00:45:59,438
{\an1}In general, the source of their
toxins is different as well.
982
00:45:59,471 --> 00:46:03,771
{\an1}This poison dart frog becomes
poisonous from its diet.
983
00:46:03,805 --> 00:46:07,305
{\an1}If raised in captivity
on different foods,
984
00:46:07,338 --> 00:46:09,671
{\an1}it can become non-toxic.
985
00:46:09,705 --> 00:46:11,538
{\an1}(tail rattling, snake hissing)
986
00:46:11,571 --> 00:46:14,838
{\an1}Whereas this rattlesnake
generates its own venom.
987
00:46:14,871 --> 00:46:17,138
{\an1}It's built into its DNA.
988
00:46:17,171 --> 00:46:19,571
So snakes,
989
00:46:19,605 --> 00:46:21,071
scorpions,
990
00:46:21,105 --> 00:46:22,971
spiders...
991
00:46:23,005 --> 00:46:26,571
{\an1}which fearsome creature is the
focus of Mandeë's work?
992
00:46:26,605 --> 00:46:28,438
Killer...
993
00:46:28,471 --> 00:46:31,938
snails?
994
00:46:31,971 --> 00:46:35,138
{\an1}Is it accurate to say that you
study killer snails?
995
00:46:35,171 --> 00:46:36,938
{\an1}(imitating stabbing sound)
996
00:46:36,971 --> 00:46:40,105
{\an7}Killer snails are actually
my affectionate term
997
00:46:40,138 --> 00:46:42,171
{\an7}for venomous marine snails.
998
00:46:42,205 --> 00:46:44,371
{\an7}And so these are snails
that live in the sea,
999
00:46:44,405 --> 00:46:45,371
{\an1}and they have a venom,
1000
00:46:45,405 --> 00:46:48,905
{\an1}like snakes or scorpions
or spiders,
1001
00:46:48,938 --> 00:46:52,271
{\an1}and the venom can be very lethal
to humans.
1002
00:46:52,305 --> 00:46:55,338
POGUE:
It's true that the snail
can kill you.
1003
00:46:55,371 --> 00:46:58,505
{\an1}But usually it's just
looking for dinner...
1004
00:46:58,538 --> 00:47:00,538
{\an1}a worm or a fish.
1005
00:47:00,571 --> 00:47:01,805
So I'm a fish.
1006
00:47:01,838 --> 00:47:03,138
{\an1}What happens to me?
1007
00:47:03,171 --> 00:47:05,905
Well, what happens is
this guy will smell
1008
00:47:05,938 --> 00:47:07,214
that you're in the water, right?
1009
00:47:07,238 --> 00:47:09,538
{\an1}He puts out something
called a siphon,
1010
00:47:09,571 --> 00:47:12,371
{\an1}and it's a chemosensory organ.
1011
00:47:12,405 --> 00:47:14,271
Smells that, "Hmm,
tasty meal in the water."
1012
00:47:14,305 --> 00:47:16,271
{\an1}Then it sticks out something
like a tongue,
1013
00:47:16,305 --> 00:47:19,238
{\an1}it's called a false tongue,
proboscis.
1014
00:47:19,271 --> 00:47:22,238
{\an1}And on the tip of the tongue,
it has a little tooth,
1015
00:47:22,271 --> 00:47:23,371
{\an1}filled with venom
1016
00:47:23,405 --> 00:47:26,505
{\an1}that then will get injected
into the fish.
1017
00:47:26,538 --> 00:47:29,238
{\an1}The fish instantly will become
paralyzed,
1018
00:47:29,271 --> 00:47:32,538
{\an1}depending on what cocktailof
venom gets injected into it,
1019
00:47:32,571 --> 00:47:34,505
{\an1}the snail will then open
its mouth really wide,
1020
00:47:34,538 --> 00:47:39,671
{\an1}swallow the fish whole and have
a really nice, tasty meal.
1021
00:47:39,705 --> 00:47:41,005
♪
1022
00:47:41,038 --> 00:47:43,038
{\an1}The whole thing sounds
so improbable.
1023
00:47:43,071 --> 00:47:44,638
I love it.(laughs)
1024
00:47:44,671 --> 00:47:46,638
Just when you think you've heard
of everything,
1025
00:47:46,671 --> 00:47:48,938
{\an1}nature will surprise you
with something new.
1026
00:47:48,971 --> 00:47:50,205
♪
1027
00:47:50,238 --> 00:47:53,105
POGUE:
So what's in that
paralyzing venom?
1028
00:47:53,138 --> 00:47:54,538
To find out, Mandeë and her team
1029
00:47:54,571 --> 00:47:57,271
{\an1}collect specimens from around
the world.
1030
00:47:57,305 --> 00:47:59,638
♪
1031
00:47:59,671 --> 00:48:01,138
Back at the lab,
1032
00:48:01,171 --> 00:48:05,305
{\an1}they analyze tissue samples
from the snail's muscular foot
1033
00:48:05,338 --> 00:48:08,138
{\an1}and its venom gland.
1034
00:48:08,171 --> 00:48:10,638
GORSON:
So we're eventually going
to look at the DNA,
1035
00:48:10,671 --> 00:48:13,371
{\an7}so we can make a species
identification.
1036
00:48:13,405 --> 00:48:15,438
{\an7}And that we can use
the foot tissue for.
1037
00:48:15,471 --> 00:48:17,038
{\an7}And then the venom gland tissue,
1038
00:48:17,071 --> 00:48:19,538
{\an1}we can use to look for
the individual
1039
00:48:19,571 --> 00:48:23,038
{\an1}venom toxins within
the venom duct.
1040
00:48:23,071 --> 00:48:24,571
♪
1041
00:48:24,605 --> 00:48:26,638
POGUE: Turns out the cone snail's venom
1042
00:48:26,671 --> 00:48:29,405
isn't one thing, but a cocktail
1043
00:48:29,438 --> 00:48:33,338
{\an1}of as many as 250 short "mini"
proteins,
1044
00:48:33,371 --> 00:48:36,438
{\an1}also called peptides.
1045
00:48:36,471 --> 00:48:37,705
{\an1}So if you think of venom,
1046
00:48:37,738 --> 00:48:42,238
{\an1}think of it not as like
a single bullet, right?
1047
00:48:42,271 --> 00:48:45,005
{\an1}It's more like I like to
describe it as a cluster bomb.
1048
00:48:45,038 --> 00:48:46,771
(laughing)
It's a series of bullets
1049
00:48:46,805 --> 00:48:50,738
{\an1}coming at you and each
individual bullet has a target
1050
00:48:50,771 --> 00:48:52,571
{\an1}in the physiological system.
1051
00:48:52,605 --> 00:48:58,338
POGUE: Each venom peptide has
evolvedto mount a very specific attack,
1052
00:48:58,371 --> 00:49:04,371
{\an1}often acting as keys that fit
a cell's lock-like receptors.
1053
00:49:04,405 --> 00:49:06,471
In the case
of the nervous system,
1054
00:49:06,505 --> 00:49:08,571
that can prevent
a specific neuron
1055
00:49:08,605 --> 00:49:11,205
{\an1}from transmitting an impulse.
1056
00:49:11,238 --> 00:49:13,871
Or, conversely,
jam the neuron open,
1057
00:49:13,905 --> 00:49:17,405
{\an1}generating a flood of signals.
1058
00:49:17,438 --> 00:49:18,671
♪
1059
00:49:18,705 --> 00:49:21,738
In the wild,
all those targeted attacks
1060
00:49:21,771 --> 00:49:23,571
{\an1}paralyze the snail's prey,
1061
00:49:23,605 --> 00:49:26,971
{\an1}but the precision with which
the venom peptides act
1062
00:49:27,005 --> 00:49:32,438
{\an1}also means that they may have
another role as medicines.
1063
00:49:32,471 --> 00:49:35,638
{\an1}And so we study these venoms
to try to figure out
1064
00:49:35,671 --> 00:49:39,305
{\an1}novel medicines for treating
things in pain and cancer.
1065
00:49:39,338 --> 00:49:41,571
{\an1}Actually, they make great drugs
1066
00:49:41,605 --> 00:49:42,714
{\an1}because they're highly specific,
1067
00:49:42,738 --> 00:49:45,738
{\an1}very fast-acting,
and very potent.
1068
00:49:45,771 --> 00:49:50,405
POGUE:
A venom curing
instead of killing?
1069
00:49:50,438 --> 00:49:53,005
{\an1}Wouldn't be the first time.
1070
00:49:53,038 --> 00:49:56,271
{\an1}There are currently at least
seven drugs on the market
1071
00:49:56,305 --> 00:49:59,271
{\an1}developed out of the study
of venoms.
1072
00:49:59,305 --> 00:50:03,505
{\an1}They include an anticoagulant
derived from medicinal leeches
1073
00:50:03,538 --> 00:50:08,138
{\an7}and a diabetes medicine
from gila monsters.
1074
00:50:08,171 --> 00:50:11,105
{\an1}There's even one already
from cone snails,
1075
00:50:11,138 --> 00:50:14,938
{\an1}an analgesic to treat
severe chronic pain.
1076
00:50:14,971 --> 00:50:18,205
HOLFORD: And it's the exact peptide that
you would find in the venom.
1077
00:50:18,238 --> 00:50:21,438
{\an1}It's not a derivative of it,
it's not a small molecule,
1078
00:50:21,471 --> 00:50:23,871
{\an1}it's exactly as nature
expressed it
1079
00:50:23,905 --> 00:50:25,771
in the animal.
1080
00:50:25,805 --> 00:50:28,405
And I'll just runa simple DNA extraction...
1081
00:50:28,438 --> 00:50:32,838
POGUE:
Mandeë's team has already made
some major breakthroughs.
1082
00:50:32,871 --> 00:50:36,005
{\an1}So I could do a nano LCMS
and see what's inside of here.
1083
00:50:36,038 --> 00:50:39,671
POGUE:
In 2014, they identified
a peptide from another
1084
00:50:39,705 --> 00:50:43,638
{\an1}venomous snail that attacks
liver tumor cells,
1085
00:50:43,671 --> 00:50:45,238
{\an1}inhibiting their growth.
1086
00:50:45,271 --> 00:50:50,105
{\an1}It's cutting-edge work
that'sreaping the rewards to be found
1087
00:50:50,138 --> 00:50:55,505
{\an1}at the intersection
of chemistry and biology.
1088
00:50:55,538 --> 00:50:57,538
HOLFORD:
Learning how the venom is used
1089
00:50:57,571 --> 00:51:01,305
{\an1}more in ecological settingshelps
to further us in terms of
1090
00:51:01,338 --> 00:51:04,105
{\an1}how we understand how it can be
applied for medicinal
1091
00:51:04,138 --> 00:51:06,271
{\an1}or therapeutic applications.
1092
00:51:06,305 --> 00:51:08,771
{\an1}And so right now, it's a fun
time to be a venom scientist
1093
00:51:08,805 --> 00:51:10,938
{\an1}because those worlds
are colliding.
1094
00:51:10,971 --> 00:51:12,405
♪
1095
00:51:12,438 --> 00:51:15,038
POGUE:
In both chemistry and biology,
1096
00:51:15,071 --> 00:51:19,705
{\an7}change is a story told
through reactions.
1097
00:51:19,738 --> 00:51:22,238
{\an7}And understanding
those reactions
1098
00:51:22,271 --> 00:51:23,738
{\an1}has given us new insights
1099
00:51:23,771 --> 00:51:26,871
{\an1}into both our world
and ourselves.
1100
00:51:26,905 --> 00:51:29,571
CUSSLER:
If you lose this
chemical reaction,
1101
00:51:29,605 --> 00:51:31,305
two billion people starve.
1102
00:51:31,338 --> 00:51:33,471
This is not
a hypothetical issue.
1103
00:51:33,505 --> 00:51:35,705
♪
1104
00:51:35,738 --> 00:51:37,505
POGUE:
And with that comes a lesson.
1105
00:51:37,538 --> 00:51:39,005
(laughing):
Oh man!
1106
00:51:39,038 --> 00:51:42,405
{\an1}Just as a molecule can act
as both a venom
1107
00:51:42,438 --> 00:51:45,005
{\an1}and a medicine...
1108
00:51:45,038 --> 00:51:49,071
{\an1}or one reaction can both
help feed the world
1109
00:51:49,105 --> 00:51:50,938
{\an1}and blow it to bits...
1110
00:51:50,971 --> 00:51:52,138
(loud explosion)
1111
00:51:52,171 --> 00:51:54,538
{\an1}...our scientific knowledge
is a powerful tool.
1112
00:51:54,571 --> 00:51:57,105
The power of bacon!
1113
00:51:57,138 --> 00:51:59,571
♪
1114
00:51:59,605 --> 00:52:03,138
{\an1}But it's up to us to learn
how to use it well
1115
00:52:03,171 --> 00:52:07,205
{\an1}as we continue to go
"Beyond the Elements."
1116
00:52:07,238 --> 00:52:10,238
♪
1117
00:52:32,905 --> 00:52:38,538
{\an8}♪
1118
00:52:48,805 --> 00:52:53,005
{\an7}To order this program on DVD,
visit ShopPBS
1119
00:52:53,038 --> 00:52:56,305
{\an7}or call 1-800-PLAY-PBS.
1120
00:52:56,338 --> 00:52:59,038
{\an7}Episodes of "NOVA" are available
with Passport.
1121
00:52:59,071 --> 00:53:02,638
{\an7}"NOVA" is also available
on Amazon Prime Video.
1122
00:53:02,671 --> 00:53:07,771
{\an8}♪
88609
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