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Male narrator: In the beginning,
there was darkness,
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and then, bang,
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giving birth to an endless
expanding existence
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of time, space, and matter.
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Every day, new discoveries
are unlocking the mysterious,
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the mind-blowing,
the deadly secrets
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of a place we call
The Universe.
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Did a comet slamming
into the ocean
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cause the biblical flood?
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- The tsunami wave itself
was at least 50 meters high.
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Narrator: Did a fiery
messenger from space
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reverse the fate
of Christianity?
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- Suddenly,
at 70,000 miles per hour,
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this meteor
comes crashing to Earth.
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Narrator:
Did a fireball in the sky
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wipe out the first
North Americans?
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- Space literally has changed
history time and time again.
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Narrator: A maverick group
of scientists is on a quest...
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- Very large comet impacts
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could have changed the course
of human civilization.
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Narrator: A quest
to defy mainstream science
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and prove that human history
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was rocked
with catastrophic moments,
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when space changed history.
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[dramatic music]
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♪ ♪
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40 days and 40 nights
of torrential rains.
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The Bible's great flood
and the Epic of Gilgamesh
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are widespread myths
that depict an event
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that wiped humanity
off the face of the Earth.
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But was it simply a myth,
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or did it really happen?
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And if so, how can science
explain such a catastrophe?
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- There's no reason
that very large comet impacts
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could not have occurred
during the last 15,000 years.
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And there could have been, even,
a globally catastrophic event
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that could have changed
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the course
of human civilization.
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Narrator:
Archaeologist Bruce Masse
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is a member of a small group
of maverick scientists
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called the Holocene Impact
Working Group.
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It's named
for the Holocene Epoch,
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which began
10,000 years ago.
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His group has roiled
the world of astronomy
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by claiming
that catastrophic impacts
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have occurred much more often
than supposed
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and have actually changed
the course of human history.
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Case in point:
the great flood.
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The biblical story of Noah's ark
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is simply one version
of an ancient story
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that's found in dozens
of myths and legends
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across the globe.
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- What I decided to do
is to take a look
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at this worldwide distribution
of flood myths,
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take a sample of those myths,
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and the sample I selected
was 175 locations
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from across the world.
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Narrator:
Most of these flood myths
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contain striking similarities,
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including the common legend
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that just before
the flood began,
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a celestial creature
with impressive tails,
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raced across the sky.
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- Since they didn't have
a science
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to understand what comets
were all about,
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they would try to come up
with a natural solution.
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So therefore,
a comet might be a snake.
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Narrator: Comets are known
to have tails.
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The visible effect
of two by-products:
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dust reflecting sunlight
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and glowing ionized gases
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roaring off the back
like jet contrails.
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- Interestingly enough,
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you can actually have
what's called an anti-tail,
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where, from our point of view,
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it looks like the tail
of the comets
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are actually pointing
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in two totally different
directions.
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So as solar radiation
streams off of our sun,
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it tends to make the material
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that's evaporating
off of the comet
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appear to recede
away from the Sun.
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Narrator: As seen from certain
spots on the Earth,
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the dust tail
can sometimes curve around
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so that it appears to point
in the opposite direction.
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- So observers on Earth
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would see an object
in which it looked like
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there was a head
with a headdress
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or a horn
coming out of its head.
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In North American mythology,
South American mythology,
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it's a serpent
with a horn on it's head.
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In Hindu, it's a fish
with a giant horn on it's head.
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Narrator: In most myths,
the creature's arrival
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was followed
by a watery disaster
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that almost
destroyed the world.
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- If you look at other aspects
of this mythology,
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it's talking about, then,
darkness, hurricane-force winds.
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It's talking
about torrential rainfall.
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Talking about tsunamis.
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Now, if you add all
of that information together...
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These are the properties
that you would get
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from a deep water ocean impact
of a comet.
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- If a comet were to strike
in the open ocean,
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you would really get
a massive amount of energy
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delivered into that part
of the ocean that it hit.
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Narrator:
The amount of water
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injected into the atmosphere
would be colossal.
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- We're here visiting
a forge in a blacksmith shop
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to show what would happen
when a comet comes in
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at high speeds
and impacts the ocean,
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delivering
all that kinetic energy
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into the water.
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Narrator: A typical forge
can heat carbon steel
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to approximately
2,200 degrees Fahrenheit.
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But a hyper velocity
comet strike
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will produce shock temperatures
well over 10,000 degrees,
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hotter than the surface
of the Sun.
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- A comet coming in
from outer space
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would be carrying with it
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an immense amount
of kinetic energy
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because it's moving
at such an extreme velocity.
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When that impacts the ocean,
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that energy is capable
of vaporizing
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up to hundreds
of square kilometers of water,
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sending plumes of steam
up into the outer atmosphere.
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- Normally,
in the upper atmosphere,
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there's only about
a half a percent of water vapor.
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So you get this injection
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of this large amount
of new water vapor.
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Narrator:
As the massive infusion of water
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into the atmosphere
rains down,
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a global deluge
could drown the Earth
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for weeks or months.
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Bruce Masse believed
he had found
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a possible source
of the worldwide flood myth...
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A massive comet strike.
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But he lacked
the physical evidence.
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Columbia University geologist
Dallas Abbott
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investigates
potential cosmic craters.
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- Bruce Masse had compiled
a set of oral histories
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of catastrophic events
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that sounded like they were
some sort of cosmic impact,
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and he found
that the center of them
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was around the Indian Ocean.
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Narrator:
Using bathymetry readings,
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or satellite measurements
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of depth variations
in the ocean floor,
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Abbott was able to pinpoint
a potential impact zone.
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She named it Burkle crater,
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in honor of a colleague
at Columbia University.
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Burkle is a massive depression
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located nearly 1,000 miles
off the coast of Madagascar...
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About 18 miles in diameter,
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Burkle Crater lies at a depth
of approximately 13,000 feet,
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making an extensive study
difficult and expensive.
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But a crater this big
would produce
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another logical fingerprint
of a massive comet impact:
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a mega-tsunami.
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- A comet hitting the ocean
would actually be more damaging
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than a comet
hitting solid ground.
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And that's because it would
send up a gigantic tsunami
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that would slam into the coast
all around it.
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Narrator: When massive tsunamis
strike shorelines,
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the evidence can persist
for centuries.
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Abbott turned her attention
to the shoreline of Madagascar.
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- At the time, I couldn't
get data on Madagascar.
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But the minute
Google Earth came out,
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I went and I looked
at Madagascar.
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And the tsunami deposits there
were phenomenal.
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I immediately found
these huge chevrons,
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which I think are probably
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the biggest chevrons
on the planet.
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Narrator. Chevrons
are symmetrical sand dunes
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found along coastlines
around the world.
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Some believe they form
when massive waves
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slam into the coast
and then recede.
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Their distinctive 4 shape
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may even serve
as a directional marker.
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- The back azimuth is a 4.
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So this is inland.
4 points inland.
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The back azimuth of the 4,
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that tells you
where the source is.
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Narrator: Abbott claims
that source is Burkle crater,
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located
hundreds of miles offshore.
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But others doubt that tsunamis
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have anything to do
with chevron formation.
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- The geologists that actually
go to the sites
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and do fieldwork
and have looked at these,
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they don't associate those
with tsunami.
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They associate those
with windblown dust.
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And so I'm skeptical
that these things
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have anything to do
with tsunami waves.
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Narrator: But when Dallas Abbott
traveled to Madagascar,
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she found surprising evidence
trapped inside the dunes.
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- We found tsunami deposits
over 200 meters high.
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And when we got to the top
of this big hill,
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we found marine fossils
in the sediment.
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And we found it
in all of the locations
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where we looked.
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Hurricanes bring in
marine micro fossils.
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But they only bring the kind
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that live in the top
of the water column,
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whereas the kind
of marine micro fossils
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that live on the ocean bottom,
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they don't get transported
by things like hurricanes.
206
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Well, the Madagascar fossils
are dominated
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by the ones
that live on the bottom.
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And so they absolutely can't be
just windblown fossils.
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Narrator: For members
of the Holocene group,
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the chevrons
and the micro fossil evidence
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are the smoking gun.
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When connected
to the flood myths
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00:12:00,928 --> 00:12:04,264
of ancient societies
around the world,
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00:12:04,264 --> 00:12:08,268
they help paint
a compelling picture.
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But the flood-comet hypothesis
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contradicts the firm beliefs
of many astronomers.
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Cosmic impact astronomers
like Mark Boslough
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believe that
catastrophic impacts
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00:12:24,993 --> 00:12:27,620
during the last 15,000 years
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00:12:27,621 --> 00:12:30,582
simply never happened.
221
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- Anybody who would claim
that there have been
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environmentally damaging impacts
during the Holocene,
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during the era of humans,
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has a very high burden of proof
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because the probability
that such a thing
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even once would have happened
is very small.
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00:12:47,266 --> 00:12:50,352
- The response has been
that extraordinary claims
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00:12:50,352 --> 00:12:52,854
require extraordinary
evidence,
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because nobody believes that
an impact crater is confirmed
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until you actually
go to the crater
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and you've got samples
of the impact melt body.
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00:13:01,822 --> 00:13:04,533
We still, at the moment,
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00:13:04,533 --> 00:13:08,078
don't have the evidence
to prove Burkle Crater.
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00:13:08,078 --> 00:13:09,370
Narrator: In the meantime,
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the Holocene Impact
Working Group
236
00:13:11,540 --> 00:13:16,040
believes it has found evidence
of a far more recent impact.
237
00:13:16,503 --> 00:13:18,129
The evidence, they say,
238
00:13:18,130 --> 00:13:21,258
lies buried in the ice sheets
of Greenland.
239
00:13:21,258 --> 00:13:25,178
And, they say
it points to a comet
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00:13:25,178 --> 00:13:28,472
that helped push Europe
into the barbarism
241
00:13:28,473 --> 00:13:30,308
of the Dark Ages.
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00:13:38,608 --> 00:13:41,110
In the search
for extraterrestrial impacts
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that have changed history,
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00:13:44,448 --> 00:13:48,034
certain facts are not
in dispute.
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[horse whinnies]
246
00:13:49,411 --> 00:13:53,289
Sometime in the year 535 AD.,
247
00:13:53,290 --> 00:13:56,584
something descended
like a gray veil
248
00:13:56,585 --> 00:13:59,254
over planet Earth.
249
00:14:02,174 --> 00:14:05,135
It created the most severe
cooling period
250
00:14:05,135 --> 00:14:09,597
of the last 2,000 years
251
00:14:09,598 --> 00:14:14,098
and plunged humanity
into an unprecedented crisis.
252
00:14:14,603 --> 00:14:16,605
[people sobbing]
253
00:14:16,605 --> 00:14:18,106
- During that time period,
254
00:14:18,106 --> 00:14:20,483
a very, very large
quantity of ash
255
00:14:20,484 --> 00:14:22,903
completely enshrouds
the Earth.
256
00:14:22,903 --> 00:14:26,406
It cuts sunlight off from crops
that are growing on the ground.
257
00:14:26,406 --> 00:14:29,242
It kills off crops
that are under cultivation.
258
00:14:29,242 --> 00:14:32,912
It leads to famine
because it interrupts
259
00:14:32,913 --> 00:14:35,165
the ability to produce food
for the civilizations
260
00:14:35,165 --> 00:14:36,875
that were present
on the planet at the time.
261
00:14:37,876 --> 00:14:42,376
- We know from historical data
that starting early in 536 AD,
262
00:14:43,215 --> 00:14:45,175
the Sun became very dim.
263
00:14:45,175 --> 00:14:49,470
And in Mesopotamia,
the sun was dim for 18 months.
264
00:14:49,471 --> 00:14:51,514
And they said that
during that time period,
265
00:14:51,515 --> 00:14:55,101
the Sun came out
for about four hours a day.
266
00:14:55,102 --> 00:14:59,022
Narrator. The signature
of this year without the Sun
267
00:14:59,022 --> 00:15:01,649
remains to the present day.
268
00:15:06,113 --> 00:15:10,613
Tree ring data
from Ireland and California
269
00:15:10,826 --> 00:15:15,326
shows the unmistakable signs
of dramatic global cooling.
270
00:15:17,165 --> 00:15:19,500
- The tree ring evidence
clearly illustrates
271
00:15:19,501 --> 00:15:21,836
that there was a period
in the sixth century
272
00:15:21,837 --> 00:15:24,464
where nutrients
that make a tree robust,
273
00:15:24,464 --> 00:15:25,798
that make it grow quickly,
274
00:15:25,799 --> 00:15:29,302
those nutrients dwindled
down to a very, very low level.
275
00:15:29,302 --> 00:15:32,138
And so the tree rings
are extremely close together.
276
00:15:35,684 --> 00:15:38,019
Narrator. The accepted theory
277
00:15:38,019 --> 00:15:42,398
blames a massive
volcanic eruption
278
00:15:42,399 --> 00:15:44,859
and a global ash cloud.
279
00:15:48,947 --> 00:15:51,574
But impact researcher
Dallas Abbott
280
00:15:51,575 --> 00:15:54,411
has proposed another culprit,
281
00:15:54,411 --> 00:15:57,705
beginning with evidence
based on chevrons,
282
00:15:57,706 --> 00:15:59,958
the 4-shaped sand dunes
283
00:15:59,958 --> 00:16:04,458
that some believe are evidence
for a mega-tsunami.
284
00:16:06,381 --> 00:16:08,716
One set of chevrons
285
00:16:08,717 --> 00:16:12,762
is located in Australia's
Gulf of Carpentaria.
286
00:16:14,222 --> 00:16:16,224
- I looked in satellite
altimetry
287
00:16:16,224 --> 00:16:18,059
for something
in that part of the gulf,
288
00:16:18,059 --> 00:16:19,518
because the chevrons
were pointing
289
00:16:19,519 --> 00:16:22,188
to a very, very small area.
290
00:16:22,189 --> 00:16:26,109
And immediately,
I found these two round holes
291
00:16:26,109 --> 00:16:28,027
in the bottom of the gulf.
292
00:16:29,696 --> 00:16:30,905
Narrator: The craters measured
293
00:16:30,906 --> 00:16:35,406
7 and 11 miles in diameter,
respectively.
294
00:16:36,161 --> 00:16:38,746
A detailed study of sediments
295
00:16:38,747 --> 00:16:42,041
pointed to
an extraterrestrial invader.
296
00:16:46,421 --> 00:16:48,214
- This is a deep sea
core sample,
297
00:16:48,215 --> 00:16:50,592
like the ones we studied
in the Gulf of Carpentaria.
298
00:16:50,592 --> 00:16:53,553
And when we sieved
the Gulf of Carpentaria samples,
299
00:16:53,553 --> 00:16:55,721
we found little bits of rock,
300
00:16:55,722 --> 00:16:57,515
we found little bits of glass,
301
00:16:57,516 --> 00:17:00,769
and we also found
some shock minerals.
302
00:17:00,769 --> 00:17:04,522
And together, these are
indications of an impact.
303
00:17:05,857 --> 00:17:10,357
And they suggested the event
was about 1,500 years ago.
304
00:17:10,612 --> 00:17:14,907
And I knew about
this climate event in 536 AD.
305
00:17:16,618 --> 00:17:18,494
And I thought,
"Well, it would be really nice
306
00:17:18,495 --> 00:17:21,289
to look at an ice core
to see if we can see something."
307
00:17:23,792 --> 00:17:25,960
Narrator: An ice core
is planet Earth's
308
00:17:25,961 --> 00:17:29,631
frozen filing cabinet
of climate data,
309
00:17:29,631 --> 00:17:33,801
trapping centuries' worth
of airborne particles and algae.
310
00:17:36,263 --> 00:17:38,974
- We found samples
from Greenland,
311
00:17:38,974 --> 00:17:41,977
which is about as far away
as you can get on the planet
312
00:17:41,977 --> 00:17:46,147
from that site
in the Gulf of Carpentaria.
313
00:17:46,147 --> 00:17:49,942
Narrator: The ice cores
yielded startling evidence,
314
00:17:49,943 --> 00:17:54,443
including magnetized melted rock
called spherules
315
00:17:55,490 --> 00:17:59,990
that matched those retrieved
in the Gulf of Carpentaria,
316
00:18:00,537 --> 00:18:03,706
two types of glass that appear
to have formed
317
00:18:03,707 --> 00:18:06,835
in a high-energy impact,
318
00:18:06,835 --> 00:18:08,837
and a misplaced diatom,
319
00:18:08,837 --> 00:18:13,049
a marine micro fossil
that exists only in the tropics.
320
00:18:15,010 --> 00:18:18,722
- So why should you
be getting diatoms
321
00:18:18,722 --> 00:18:22,308
that originated
in the tropics to subtropics
322
00:18:22,309 --> 00:18:23,977
all the way to Greenland?
323
00:18:23,977 --> 00:18:27,355
Nobody has ever found diatoms
in Greenland
324
00:18:27,355 --> 00:18:30,232
that came from the tropics
to subtropics.
325
00:18:32,569 --> 00:18:34,988
Narrator:
The microscopic evidence
326
00:18:34,988 --> 00:18:37,657
pointed to a celestial impact.
327
00:18:43,246 --> 00:18:46,207
- What happens is,
you get a huge explosion,
328
00:18:46,207 --> 00:18:48,709
and then this material
goes up into the air
329
00:18:48,710 --> 00:18:52,714
and travels for hundreds
or even thousands of kilometers.
330
00:18:52,714 --> 00:18:54,924
And then it's—
you know, settles out.
331
00:18:57,719 --> 00:18:59,178
Narrator: For a cosmic impact or
332
00:18:59,179 --> 00:19:02,432
to create a global
atmospheric effect
333
00:19:02,432 --> 00:19:06,932
like the one suspected
in 535 AD,
334
00:19:07,062 --> 00:19:09,939
it must have enough mass
and velocity
335
00:19:09,939 --> 00:19:14,276
to create an epic explosion.
336
00:19:14,277 --> 00:19:15,945
- The difference
between a high-velocity
337
00:19:15,945 --> 00:19:17,363
and a low-velocity impact
338
00:19:17,364 --> 00:19:20,575
is, a low velocity impact
does not create an explosion.
339
00:19:20,575 --> 00:19:22,743
It can make a crater,
340
00:19:22,744 --> 00:19:25,246
but it's not
an explosion crater.
341
00:19:29,542 --> 00:19:31,418
What we're doing here
is setting up
342
00:19:31,419 --> 00:19:34,755
to do a simulation
of a hyper velocity impact
343
00:19:34,756 --> 00:19:36,716
in the formation of a crater.
344
00:19:36,716 --> 00:19:39,760
And we're using ammonium nitrate
mixed with fuel oil,
345
00:19:39,761 --> 00:19:41,304
so when we set it off,
346
00:19:41,304 --> 00:19:44,432
it's gonna explode
and make a huge crater.
347
00:19:51,940 --> 00:19:56,110
It's a massive explosion that
creates a big plume of debris
348
00:19:56,111 --> 00:19:58,863
that gets scattered
for many, many miles around.
349
00:19:58,863 --> 00:20:02,283
And for the biggest impacts,
it's a global phenomenon.
350
00:20:03,118 --> 00:20:06,538
If this crater had been actually
formed by an impact,
351
00:20:06,538 --> 00:20:08,373
it would be an explosion crater,
352
00:20:08,373 --> 00:20:10,375
because the object
coming from the sky
353
00:20:10,375 --> 00:20:13,378
is going so fast
with so much kinetic energy
354
00:20:13,378 --> 00:20:15,463
that it penetrates
below the surface
355
00:20:15,463 --> 00:20:19,300
and heats up, vaporizes,
and explodes.
356
00:20:22,303 --> 00:20:24,221
Narrator: A high-velocity strike
357
00:20:24,222 --> 00:20:26,641
in the shallow waters
off Australia
358
00:20:26,641 --> 00:20:28,434
could have produced an explosion
359
00:20:28,435 --> 00:20:32,439
large enough to launch
sediments and particulates
360
00:20:32,439 --> 00:20:36,025
high into the atmosphere.
361
00:20:36,025 --> 00:20:39,153
- You can imagine that that'll
get kicked up really high
362
00:20:39,154 --> 00:20:41,239
and that you'll have
a lot of particulate matter
363
00:20:41,239 --> 00:20:42,782
up in the high atmosphere,
364
00:20:42,782 --> 00:20:44,742
where it can block out
a lot of the sun.
365
00:20:46,828 --> 00:20:51,328
Narrator: The disastrous events
of 535 AD.
366
00:20:51,374 --> 00:20:54,335
Seem to fit the signature
of an impact
367
00:20:54,335 --> 00:20:58,339
followed by a dimming
of the sun.
368
00:20:58,339 --> 00:21:00,007
But finding the proof
369
00:21:00,008 --> 00:21:02,802
that it all started
with a cosmic impact
370
00:21:02,802 --> 00:21:05,346
is more difficult,
371
00:21:05,346 --> 00:21:09,808
especially when one
glaring question remains.
372
00:21:09,809 --> 00:21:14,271
What massive space rock
could produce two craters
373
00:21:14,272 --> 00:21:16,524
side by side?
374
00:21:20,195 --> 00:21:21,863
They are considered heretics
375
00:21:21,863 --> 00:21:24,949
in the mainstream world
of astronomy.
376
00:21:24,949 --> 00:21:26,659
But the scientists belonging
377
00:21:26,659 --> 00:21:29,244
to the Holocene Impact
Working Group
378
00:21:29,245 --> 00:21:30,871
are determined to prove
379
00:21:30,872 --> 00:21:34,083
that space has changed
human history.
380
00:21:38,129 --> 00:21:42,629
One such event may have happened
in the year 535 AD.,
381
00:21:43,218 --> 00:21:45,637
when a sudden darkening
of the sun
382
00:21:45,637 --> 00:21:47,722
caused crops to fail,
383
00:21:47,722 --> 00:21:49,807
leading to worldwide famine.
384
00:21:51,392 --> 00:21:55,854
Scientific tree ring data
proves the catastrophe happened.
385
00:21:55,855 --> 00:22:00,355
But science has yet to determine
what actually caused it.
386
00:22:01,903 --> 00:22:06,403
In 2008, cosmic impact
researcher Dallas Abbott
387
00:22:06,533 --> 00:22:10,745
discovered what appeared
to be two huge craters
388
00:22:10,745 --> 00:22:14,331
in Australia's
Gulf of Carpentaria.
389
00:22:14,332 --> 00:22:18,711
She believes they were put there
by a comet.
390
00:22:18,711 --> 00:22:22,798
- Well, the mainstream idea
is that impacts are very rare
391
00:22:22,799 --> 00:22:27,136
and that most of the impacts
that happen are asteroidal.
392
00:22:27,136 --> 00:22:29,263
But the data that we're finding
393
00:22:29,264 --> 00:22:32,100
suggest that the impactors
that hit were cometary
394
00:22:32,100 --> 00:22:33,851
rather than asteroids.
395
00:22:35,895 --> 00:22:40,395
Narrator: Composed of rock,
gases, dust, and ice,
396
00:22:40,483 --> 00:22:42,568
comets are known to break apart
397
00:22:42,569 --> 00:22:44,862
when they encounter
the gravitational pull
398
00:22:44,863 --> 00:22:47,615
of large objects
like planets.
399
00:22:49,367 --> 00:22:53,454
In July of 1992,
the Hubble Space Telescope
400
00:22:53,454 --> 00:22:57,416
recorded
exactly this scenario.
401
00:22:59,002 --> 00:23:02,964
As comet Shoemaker-Levy 9
hurtled past Jupiter,
402
00:23:02,964 --> 00:23:05,841
the planet's immense
gravitational pull
403
00:23:05,842 --> 00:23:08,094
tore the comet apart.
404
00:23:09,721 --> 00:23:11,639
- Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9
405
00:23:11,639 --> 00:23:14,308
broke up into several dozen
fragments,
406
00:23:14,309 --> 00:23:17,520
the most massive of which
created an explosion
407
00:23:17,520 --> 00:23:22,020
equivalent
to 6 million megatons of TNT.
408
00:23:22,191 --> 00:23:25,444
Now, the biggest bomb
ever made on Earth
409
00:23:25,445 --> 00:23:27,488
is the Tsar Bomba
by the Soviet Union,
410
00:23:27,488 --> 00:23:29,323
which was 50 megatons.
411
00:23:29,324 --> 00:23:32,201
A single impact
from Shoemaker-Levy 9
412
00:23:32,201 --> 00:23:35,245
was 100,000 times
more powerful.
413
00:23:38,541 --> 00:23:41,669
Narrator: Could
a Shoemaker-Levy 9 type breakup
414
00:23:41,669 --> 00:23:45,422
have created the dual craters
in the gulf of Carpentaria?
415
00:23:50,178 --> 00:23:54,678
The hypothesized dual impacts
appear to fit the comet profile.
416
00:23:57,226 --> 00:24:00,270
But it's not a fit
with mainstream science.
417
00:24:03,566 --> 00:24:06,026
- A comet impact itself
is very rare—
418
00:24:06,027 --> 00:24:08,863
Once every 100 million
to billion years.
419
00:24:08,863 --> 00:24:13,117
A comet cluster would be
much more rare, even, than that,
420
00:24:13,117 --> 00:24:14,868
so rare that you
wouldn't expect it to happen
421
00:24:14,869 --> 00:24:16,328
on the age of the Earth.
422
00:24:18,790 --> 00:24:20,792
Narrator: The search
for positive verification
423
00:24:20,792 --> 00:24:23,795
of an impact
in the Gulf of Carpentaria
424
00:24:23,795 --> 00:24:27,757
continues to generate
scientific controversy.
425
00:24:31,719 --> 00:24:35,597
But no impact hypothesis
is more controversial
426
00:24:35,598 --> 00:24:39,226
than the question of what wiped
a famed North American culture
427
00:24:39,227 --> 00:24:41,854
from the pages of history.
428
00:24:42,855 --> 00:24:45,190
Millennia before
European colonists
429
00:24:45,191 --> 00:24:46,650
claimed it as their own,
430
00:24:46,651 --> 00:24:50,905
another group of immigrants
dominated North America—
431
00:24:50,905 --> 00:24:55,242
That is, until someone
or something
432
00:24:55,243 --> 00:24:57,745
wiped out the Clovis people.
433
00:24:59,497 --> 00:25:02,166
- Clovis were an ancient
Paleo-Indian people
434
00:25:02,166 --> 00:25:04,459
that lived in North America.
435
00:25:04,460 --> 00:25:06,587
Some people believe
that they were the first people
436
00:25:06,587 --> 00:25:07,671
to live in North America
437
00:25:07,672 --> 00:25:10,299
and that they came across
the Bering Land Bridge
438
00:25:10,299 --> 00:25:13,427
and radiated down
into the Americas
439
00:25:13,428 --> 00:25:15,138
from the north,
moving south.
440
00:25:17,390 --> 00:25:19,475
Narrator:
Archaeological evidence,
441
00:25:19,475 --> 00:25:22,853
including their famed
spear points,
442
00:25:22,854 --> 00:25:24,981
reveals
the Clovis people thrived
443
00:25:24,981 --> 00:25:29,318
during the last great ice age
by hunting the mega fauna,
444
00:25:29,318 --> 00:25:33,071
including huge mammoths
and mastodons.
445
00:25:33,823 --> 00:25:37,451
- There was a moment where
the population of the mega fauna
446
00:25:37,452 --> 00:25:39,704
in the Americas changed.
447
00:25:39,704 --> 00:25:43,582
The mega fauna suddenly
began to disappear.
448
00:25:43,583 --> 00:25:45,042
And as they went down,
449
00:25:45,043 --> 00:25:47,045
they brought the Clovis
down with them.
450
00:25:49,630 --> 00:25:53,634
- Approximately
13,000 years ago,
451
00:25:53,634 --> 00:25:55,469
something happened.
452
00:25:55,470 --> 00:25:57,805
Something changed
the environment.
453
00:25:57,805 --> 00:26:01,266
It changed it rapidly
and profoundly.
454
00:26:01,267 --> 00:26:02,643
And all of a sudden,
455
00:26:02,643 --> 00:26:07,143
the planet was thrown
back into a little ice age.
456
00:26:07,148 --> 00:26:11,648
A climatic event we call
the Younger Dryas.
457
00:26:12,862 --> 00:26:15,155
Narrator: After many thousands
of years
458
00:26:15,156 --> 00:26:18,701
of retreating glaciers
and warming temperatures,
459
00:26:18,701 --> 00:26:22,788
the Younger Dryas period
reversed the warming trend
460
00:26:22,789 --> 00:26:27,289
and wreaked havoc
on man and beast.
461
00:26:28,294 --> 00:26:30,170
But scientists argue fiercely
462
00:26:30,171 --> 00:26:34,008
over the reasons
for this climactic U-turn,
463
00:26:34,008 --> 00:26:37,302
especially one hypothesis
that places the blame
464
00:26:37,303 --> 00:26:39,638
squarely on outer space.
465
00:26:42,433 --> 00:26:43,851
- The Clovis hunters
466
00:26:43,851 --> 00:26:47,396
were having to adapt
to new conditions.
467
00:26:47,396 --> 00:26:51,691
And one of those changes
could have been a comet impact
468
00:26:51,692 --> 00:26:53,819
over the Laurentide ice sheet.
469
00:26:57,073 --> 00:26:58,991
Narrator:
The Clovis comet
470
00:26:58,991 --> 00:27:03,120
is perhaps the most
controversial impact hypothesis
471
00:27:03,121 --> 00:27:07,583
championed by the
Holocene Impact Working Group.
472
00:27:07,583 --> 00:27:09,751
It claims that a comet strike
473
00:27:09,752 --> 00:27:11,754
into the North American
ice sheet
474
00:27:11,754 --> 00:27:16,049
allowed large freshwater lakes
to drain into the ocean,
475
00:27:16,050 --> 00:27:18,552
altering the ocean currents
476
00:27:18,553 --> 00:27:22,139
and triggering the Younger Dryas
cooling period.
477
00:27:26,602 --> 00:27:27,936
Ken Tankersley,
478
00:27:27,937 --> 00:27:31,607
a University of Cincinnati
anthropologist,
479
00:27:31,607 --> 00:27:35,777
uncovered cosmic impact evidence
in Sheriden Cave
480
00:27:35,778 --> 00:27:39,031
in northwest Ohio.
481
00:27:39,031 --> 00:27:43,531
- The layer which we found here
is known as the black mat.
482
00:27:43,744 --> 00:27:46,580
It's a very carbon-rich layer,
483
00:27:46,581 --> 00:27:48,416
which, in this case,
484
00:27:48,416 --> 00:27:51,043
is the result
of intense burning.
485
00:27:51,043 --> 00:27:54,921
It's composed of wood charcoal
and the burned remains
486
00:27:54,922 --> 00:27:57,549
of approximately 70 species.
487
00:27:57,550 --> 00:28:01,637
It takes an intense fire,
an intense burning,
488
00:28:01,637 --> 00:28:03,764
almost an explosion,
if you will,
489
00:28:03,764 --> 00:28:07,267
to produce this type
of carbon event.
490
00:28:07,268 --> 00:28:11,522
Narrator: The layer
also contained meteor fragments.
491
00:28:11,522 --> 00:28:13,190
But more importantly,
492
00:28:13,191 --> 00:28:17,691
seemingly indisputable evidence
for a larger cosmic impact.
493
00:28:20,031 --> 00:28:23,701
- We have what's called
impact diamonds.
494
00:28:23,701 --> 00:28:26,578
Impact diamonds,
or shatter diamonds,
495
00:28:26,579 --> 00:28:29,623
occur when some type
of explosion
496
00:28:29,624 --> 00:28:34,003
or sudden impact occurs
with your surface,
497
00:28:34,003 --> 00:28:38,503
compressing carbon material
to create these impact diamonds.
498
00:28:39,634 --> 00:28:41,844
Narrator:
Also called nano diamonds
499
00:28:41,844 --> 00:28:44,221
because of their minuscule size,
500
00:28:44,222 --> 00:28:45,640
they are recognized
501
00:28:45,640 --> 00:28:49,602
as powerful evidence
for cosmic impact.
502
00:28:49,602 --> 00:28:52,980
But their discovery
raises many more questions.
503
00:28:54,774 --> 00:28:56,901
- The supposed presence
of nano diamonds
504
00:28:56,901 --> 00:28:59,320
in certain locations
of North America
505
00:28:59,320 --> 00:29:00,779
isn't compelling evidence
506
00:29:00,780 --> 00:29:03,491
for the Younger Dryas
impact hypothesis,
507
00:29:03,491 --> 00:29:05,993
because in some cases,
it's not even clear
508
00:29:05,993 --> 00:29:08,120
that those are genuine
nano diamonds.
509
00:29:08,120 --> 00:29:10,580
They may be graphite
or graphene compounds
510
00:29:10,581 --> 00:29:12,833
that kind of masquerade
as nano diamonds.
511
00:29:15,836 --> 00:29:18,088
Narrator:
The proposed Clovis comet
512
00:29:18,089 --> 00:29:19,715
also appears to be missing
513
00:29:19,715 --> 00:29:23,427
one physically huge piece
of evidence:
514
00:29:23,427 --> 00:29:25,512
an impact crater.
515
00:29:26,847 --> 00:29:31,268
To date, no telltale crater
has been found.
516
00:29:35,648 --> 00:29:38,942
But space rocks
don't have to impact the Earth
517
00:29:38,943 --> 00:29:40,819
to ignite a catastrophe.
518
00:29:42,029 --> 00:29:46,283
We know because one
very nearly touched off
519
00:29:46,284 --> 00:29:48,869
a thermonuclear war.
520
00:29:55,042 --> 00:29:57,669
In the face
of widespread skepticism,
521
00:29:57,670 --> 00:30:00,673
a small group
of impact researchers
522
00:30:00,673 --> 00:30:05,173
claim that very recent
cosmic catastrophes
523
00:30:05,886 --> 00:30:08,138
have changed human history.
524
00:30:11,851 --> 00:30:15,437
13,000 years ago
in North America,
525
00:30:15,438 --> 00:30:18,566
something suddenly sent
the Clovis culture
526
00:30:18,566 --> 00:30:22,069
into a tailspin.
527
00:30:22,069 --> 00:30:25,363
Some scientists believe
that a comet was to blame.
528
00:30:27,491 --> 00:30:31,991
But to date, no impact crater
has been identified.
529
00:30:32,747 --> 00:30:37,247
But some cosmic projectiles
never reach the Earth.
530
00:30:37,752 --> 00:30:41,380
Yet they can still
rain down destruction
531
00:30:41,380 --> 00:30:44,341
in the form
of an air burst.
532
00:30:45,217 --> 00:30:48,970
- An air burst
is when a meteoroid or a comet
533
00:30:48,971 --> 00:30:51,306
explodes in the atmosphere
534
00:30:51,307 --> 00:30:53,559
before reaching
the Earth's surface.
535
00:30:53,559 --> 00:30:56,687
So it doesn't produce
a visible crater.
536
00:30:56,687 --> 00:30:58,647
A truly excellent example
537
00:30:58,647 --> 00:31:01,107
of what is thought
to have been an air burst
538
00:31:01,108 --> 00:31:04,694
is the Tunguska event
over Siberia in 1908.
539
00:31:04,695 --> 00:31:08,865
It leveled 2,000
square kilometers of forest.
540
00:31:10,284 --> 00:31:12,619
But there's no impact crater.
541
00:31:15,122 --> 00:31:19,167
- When a comet or an asteroid
hits the Earth's atmosphere,
542
00:31:19,168 --> 00:31:21,086
it actually creates a wake
543
00:31:21,087 --> 00:31:23,464
very much like the wake
in front of a boat.
544
00:31:23,464 --> 00:31:25,591
And that shock wave,
the shocked air,
545
00:31:25,591 --> 00:31:28,510
gets to super-high temperatures,
and it radiates.
546
00:31:28,511 --> 00:31:30,971
It radiates light
and infrared radiation.
547
00:31:30,971 --> 00:31:32,889
And then that heats up
the comet or asteroid
548
00:31:32,890 --> 00:31:34,349
and causes it to vaporize.
549
00:31:38,229 --> 00:31:41,065
Narrator: Even a smaller
Tunguska-sized meteor,
550
00:31:41,065 --> 00:31:43,984
around 200 or more feet
in diameter,
551
00:31:43,984 --> 00:31:47,654
can produce an air burst
with 1,000 times more energy
552
00:31:47,655 --> 00:31:51,158
than the atomic bomb
dropped on Hiroshima.
553
00:31:54,286 --> 00:31:58,786
Some 13,000 years
before the Tunguska impact,
554
00:31:59,166 --> 00:32:00,292
the Clovis comet
555
00:32:00,292 --> 00:32:02,335
could have delivered
a similar air burst.
556
00:32:06,298 --> 00:32:08,008
But the North American landscape
557
00:32:08,008 --> 00:32:11,344
would have long ago
swallowed all traces.
558
00:32:13,722 --> 00:32:17,517
Whether it was
a ground-impacting comet,
559
00:32:17,518 --> 00:32:19,478
an air burst,
560
00:32:19,478 --> 00:32:21,062
or neither one,
561
00:32:21,063 --> 00:32:23,231
this climatic event
562
00:32:23,232 --> 00:32:26,193
and its effect
on the Clovis culture
563
00:32:26,193 --> 00:32:29,738
remain a hotly debated topic.
564
00:32:29,738 --> 00:32:32,657
But solving the mystery
is crucial,
565
00:32:32,658 --> 00:32:35,577
since the same thing
could happen today
566
00:32:35,578 --> 00:32:38,038
with little warning.
567
00:32:43,252 --> 00:32:46,171
- Now, an impact
like the Tunguska event,
568
00:32:46,172 --> 00:32:48,257
a 10-megaton air burst,
569
00:32:48,257 --> 00:32:51,385
say at 5,000 meters
over New York City,
570
00:32:51,385 --> 00:32:53,470
if that were to happen today,
571
00:32:53,471 --> 00:32:57,141
would lead to the deaths
of almost 2 million people,
572
00:32:57,141 --> 00:32:59,726
another several million
people injured,
573
00:32:59,727 --> 00:33:03,105
and a couple of trillion dollars
of damage.
574
00:33:03,105 --> 00:33:06,066
So even air bursts,
small events,
575
00:33:06,066 --> 00:33:08,610
are something
that are very destructive.
576
00:33:10,488 --> 00:33:14,074
Narrator: In fact, they are
so potentially destructive
577
00:33:14,074 --> 00:33:18,574
that when a very small meteor
exploded in 2002,
578
00:33:18,621 --> 00:33:22,750
it could have sparked
a thermonuclear war.
579
00:33:24,710 --> 00:33:28,213
- In June of 2002,
an event occurred
580
00:33:28,214 --> 00:33:31,717
that could have changed history
on Earth in a major way.
581
00:33:31,717 --> 00:33:34,302
A rather small meteoroid,
582
00:33:34,303 --> 00:33:36,138
maybe a couple of meters
in diameter
583
00:33:36,138 --> 00:33:38,140
smashed into Earth's atmosphere,
584
00:33:38,140 --> 00:33:42,144
creating an air burst,
an explosion up there.
585
00:33:42,144 --> 00:33:44,437
- And this was
an enormous explosion
586
00:33:44,438 --> 00:33:45,814
over the Eastern Mediterranean,
587
00:33:45,814 --> 00:33:48,399
and it was observed
by satellite.
588
00:33:48,400 --> 00:33:50,902
This was unusual
to be over, you know,
589
00:33:50,903 --> 00:33:52,988
a relatively populated area.
590
00:33:54,573 --> 00:33:56,616
Narrator: At the time
of the air burst,
591
00:33:56,617 --> 00:34:00,287
Pakistan and India,
two nuclear-armed countries,
592
00:34:00,287 --> 00:34:03,832
were embroiled in a hostile
military standoff
593
00:34:03,832 --> 00:34:06,960
over the disputed
Kashmir region.
594
00:34:06,961 --> 00:34:11,006
The world held its breath
as the two nuclear powers
595
00:34:11,006 --> 00:34:15,051
teetered on the hair-trigger
brink of war.
596
00:34:15,052 --> 00:34:19,264
- So had this impact occurred
just a few hours earlier,
597
00:34:19,265 --> 00:34:21,308
it was at about
the right latitude
598
00:34:21,308 --> 00:34:23,727
to have been over Pakistan
or India.
599
00:34:23,727 --> 00:34:26,438
This could have been mistaken
by either country
600
00:34:26,438 --> 00:34:30,024
as a launch against them.
601
00:34:30,025 --> 00:34:32,360
And they then might have pushed
the nuclear button,
602
00:34:32,361 --> 00:34:34,154
launching an all-out war.
603
00:34:34,154 --> 00:34:37,657
A mistake, basically,
caused by an impact.
604
00:34:37,658 --> 00:34:41,787
Narrator: Now known
as the East Mediterranean Event,
605
00:34:41,787 --> 00:34:44,873
the blast convinced
the scientific community
606
00:34:44,873 --> 00:34:48,334
that predicting cosmic intruders
is critical
607
00:34:48,335 --> 00:34:51,087
when nuclear Armageddon
is at stake.
608
00:34:54,049 --> 00:34:58,178
- The vast majority of objects
that hit the Earth's atmosphere
609
00:34:58,178 --> 00:34:59,387
are unexpected.
610
00:35:00,889 --> 00:35:02,432
The big asteroids,
611
00:35:02,433 --> 00:35:05,519
the ones that could create
a global catastrophe,
612
00:35:05,519 --> 00:35:07,896
we've discovered
almost all of those.
613
00:35:07,896 --> 00:35:10,565
They're catalogued.
They're tracked.
614
00:35:10,566 --> 00:35:12,693
And so, we don't expect
one of those
615
00:35:12,693 --> 00:35:15,070
to come out from nowhere
and hit the Earth
616
00:35:15,070 --> 00:35:16,196
because we can see them.
617
00:35:17,531 --> 00:35:20,659
It's the small ones
that can catch us by surprise.
618
00:35:22,536 --> 00:35:24,704
Narrator: But how much notice
can we expect
619
00:35:24,705 --> 00:35:27,040
if one of these
massive space rocks
620
00:35:27,041 --> 00:35:30,210
moves onto a collision course
with the Earth?
621
00:35:32,254 --> 00:35:36,754
That's the question that Mary H.
from Lincoln, Nebraska, wanted
622
00:35:37,509 --> 00:35:39,469
to ask The Universe.
623
00:35:40,387 --> 00:35:42,222
- Mary, that's
an interesting question.
624
00:35:42,222 --> 00:35:45,016
We'd like to know about
incoming comets and asteroids
625
00:35:45,017 --> 00:35:48,729
as far in advance as possible
in order to deflect them.
626
00:35:48,729 --> 00:35:50,522
Now, asteroids might be found
627
00:35:50,522 --> 00:35:53,525
tens or even hundreds of years
before they hit earth,
628
00:35:53,525 --> 00:35:56,236
allowing plenty of time
to do something about them.
629
00:35:56,236 --> 00:35:58,446
Comets might come in
with very little warning,
630
00:35:58,447 --> 00:36:02,909
only a few months
or a year or two at best.
631
00:36:02,910 --> 00:36:05,037
We might not be able
to deflect them.
632
00:36:09,917 --> 00:36:11,543
Narrator:
There is no dispute
633
00:36:11,543 --> 00:36:13,836
that comets
and other cosmic projectiles
634
00:36:13,837 --> 00:36:18,337
have the potential
to cause catastrophes.
635
00:36:18,550 --> 00:36:23,050
But before modern astronomy
began to demystify them,
636
00:36:23,180 --> 00:36:25,682
the mere sighting of a comet
or meteorite
637
00:36:25,683 --> 00:36:29,103
had the potential
to change human history.
638
00:36:32,022 --> 00:36:36,026
The year is 312 AD.
639
00:36:36,026 --> 00:36:40,526
The mighty Roman empire is
embroiled in a bitter civil war.
640
00:36:41,115 --> 00:36:44,493
Marching into battle,
the emperor Constantine
641
00:36:44,493 --> 00:36:48,993
is about to meet the armies
of his arch-rival, Maxentius.
642
00:36:49,832 --> 00:36:53,752
The political fate of the empire
is at stake.
643
00:36:55,921 --> 00:36:57,797
- Constantine
was a Roman emperor
644
00:36:57,798 --> 00:36:59,174
famous for a number of things,
645
00:36:59,174 --> 00:37:00,466
not the least of which
646
00:37:00,467 --> 00:37:03,553
is his conversion
to Christianity.
647
00:37:03,554 --> 00:37:05,681
Constantine's adoption
of the Christian religion
648
00:37:05,681 --> 00:37:08,392
in the fourth century
is instrumental
649
00:37:08,392 --> 00:37:11,561
in the sudden popularity
and the spread of that religion
650
00:37:11,562 --> 00:37:13,313
by suddenly converting
the Roman empire
651
00:37:13,313 --> 00:37:14,480
to a Christian empire.
652
00:37:16,150 --> 00:37:20,487
Narrator: Many believe
Constantine's fateful conversion
653
00:37:20,487 --> 00:37:24,199
occurs when he sees
a fiery cross above the Sun.
654
00:37:25,993 --> 00:37:28,912
Interpreting this as a sign
from the Christian god,
655
00:37:28,912 --> 00:37:31,039
he commands his troops
656
00:37:31,039 --> 00:37:35,539
to paint crosses
on their shields.
657
00:37:35,878 --> 00:37:40,378
Constantine's troops
emerge victorious.
658
00:37:40,424 --> 00:37:44,594
Soon after, the emperor signs
the Edict of Milan,
659
00:37:44,595 --> 00:37:46,763
setting the stage
for the ultimate triumph
660
00:37:46,764 --> 00:37:50,058
of Christianity over paganism.
661
00:37:54,938 --> 00:37:58,775
But some believe
Constantine's vision
662
00:37:58,776 --> 00:38:02,905
has an astronomical
explanation.
663
00:38:02,905 --> 00:38:05,532
- It's believed now that
what he personally observed
664
00:38:05,532 --> 00:38:08,034
was a meteoric impact
against the Earth.
665
00:38:08,035 --> 00:38:11,079
That he's looking skyward
in broad daylight,
666
00:38:11,079 --> 00:38:13,331
and suddenly
at 70,000 miles per hour,
667
00:38:13,332 --> 00:38:16,043
this meteor
comes crashing to Earth.
668
00:38:16,043 --> 00:38:18,587
His vision in seeing that is—
669
00:38:18,587 --> 00:38:22,048
He interprets it
as being a divine signal.
670
00:38:27,304 --> 00:38:29,222
Narrator:
There is one powerful clue
671
00:38:29,223 --> 00:38:33,101
that could help validate
this cosmic event:
672
00:38:33,101 --> 00:38:35,311
a crater.
673
00:38:35,312 --> 00:38:38,898
And a team of geologists
may have found it
674
00:38:38,899 --> 00:38:41,902
in the hills
of central Italy.
675
00:38:48,909 --> 00:38:50,243
Have cosmic impacts
676
00:38:50,244 --> 00:38:53,789
altered the course
of human history?
677
00:38:53,789 --> 00:38:56,917
It's a question that provokes
the world of astronomy
678
00:38:56,917 --> 00:38:59,836
and even the world of religion.
679
00:39:04,424 --> 00:39:07,260
In the year 312 AD.,
680
00:39:07,261 --> 00:39:09,096
the fate of Christianity
681
00:39:09,096 --> 00:39:12,849
may have been decided
by cosmic intervention.
682
00:39:15,477 --> 00:39:17,854
Just before a decisive battle,
683
00:39:17,855 --> 00:39:22,355
the Roman emperor Constantine
experiences a vision.
684
00:39:23,485 --> 00:39:26,446
- He remembers seeing something
in the sky,
685
00:39:26,446 --> 00:39:29,365
and he interprets this
as being a sign from god,
686
00:39:29,366 --> 00:39:31,785
a sign from
the one true Christian god.
687
00:39:34,121 --> 00:39:36,456
Narrator: Some believe
this fateful vision
688
00:39:36,456 --> 00:39:38,040
was a fiery meteor
689
00:39:38,041 --> 00:39:41,878
on a collision course
with the Earth.
690
00:39:41,879 --> 00:39:43,130
- What you would see,
of course,
691
00:39:43,130 --> 00:39:45,340
would depend
on how far away you are.
692
00:39:45,340 --> 00:39:48,176
You would see an extremely
bright meteor
693
00:39:48,176 --> 00:39:49,302
coming through the sky,
694
00:39:49,303 --> 00:39:50,971
and you'd see it
even in the daytime.
695
00:39:50,971 --> 00:39:54,140
It would be blinding,
perhaps as bright as the Sun.
696
00:39:54,141 --> 00:39:55,642
And then it would hit
the ground,
697
00:39:55,642 --> 00:39:57,644
and you would see
a big explosion.
698
00:40:04,818 --> 00:40:07,779
Narrator: According
to a Swedish geology team,
699
00:40:07,779 --> 00:40:12,116
Constantine's meteor
might very well be real.
700
00:40:12,117 --> 00:40:14,828
And there's a crater
to prove it.
701
00:40:14,828 --> 00:40:19,328
In 1999, the team discovered
a mysterious body of water
702
00:40:20,792 --> 00:40:23,294
in the highlands
of central Italy.
703
00:40:25,631 --> 00:40:29,968
They claim the small lake
and some 20 nearby craters
704
00:40:29,968 --> 00:40:34,180
are the results
of meteorite fragments.
705
00:40:36,099 --> 00:40:39,018
But the evidence
is far from conclusive.
706
00:40:39,019 --> 00:40:43,519
Some think the craters are
ancient man made reservoirs.
707
00:40:46,109 --> 00:40:50,363
Others suspect they only
date back to World War ll.
708
00:40:57,663 --> 00:41:00,624
- There's ordinance
from some of the craters
709
00:41:00,624 --> 00:41:03,418
that suggests that they
are actually bomb craters.
710
00:41:06,713 --> 00:41:09,298
- The problem is,
it's in a place
711
00:41:09,299 --> 00:41:11,884
where there have been
a lot of people.
712
00:41:11,885 --> 00:41:15,805
And it was perhaps used
as a watering hole.
713
00:41:15,806 --> 00:41:18,809
It's been so overprinted
by human activity,
714
00:41:18,809 --> 00:41:21,478
and I don't know if that one
will ever be resolved.
715
00:41:21,478 --> 00:41:23,354
But it certainly
could be a crater.
716
00:41:25,232 --> 00:41:26,775
- One of the weakest parts
717
00:41:26,775 --> 00:41:29,694
of the Sirente crater
impact hypothesis
718
00:41:29,695 --> 00:41:32,739
is that the shocked minerals
simply have not been found.
719
00:41:32,739 --> 00:41:33,906
There's no clear evidence
720
00:41:33,907 --> 00:41:36,284
that there was a wham-mo
type impact there.
721
00:41:38,120 --> 00:41:40,622
Narrator:
Cosmic impact or not,
722
00:41:40,622 --> 00:41:42,582
Constantine's vision
is considered
723
00:41:42,582 --> 00:41:46,002
one of the most pivotal events
in human history.
724
00:41:47,879 --> 00:41:50,047
- Had it not been
for this event,
725
00:41:50,048 --> 00:41:53,342
would Christianity have become
the dominant religion of Europe
726
00:41:53,343 --> 00:41:55,178
and then spread
to the Americas?
727
00:41:55,178 --> 00:41:56,596
It's hard to say.
728
00:41:56,596 --> 00:42:00,975
But it's easy to say
that this one event was pivotal
729
00:42:00,976 --> 00:42:03,353
in forcing Constantine
730
00:42:03,353 --> 00:42:06,773
to fully embrace
the Christian religion.
731
00:42:12,112 --> 00:42:14,197
Narrator. We live on a planet
732
00:42:14,197 --> 00:42:16,949
ceaselessly shaped
by the cosmos
733
00:42:16,950 --> 00:42:21,450
and occasionally
by invaders raining down fire.
734
00:42:22,456 --> 00:42:26,001
The power of space
to alter human history
735
00:42:26,001 --> 00:42:28,420
remains controversial.
736
00:42:28,420 --> 00:42:32,920
But the question remains:
how often does it happen?
737
00:42:33,800 --> 00:42:37,178
For members of the
Holocene Impact Working Group,
738
00:42:37,179 --> 00:42:39,472
the answer is:
far more frequently
739
00:42:39,473 --> 00:42:42,642
than mainstream science
currently accepts.
740
00:42:44,352 --> 00:42:48,147
- So impacts over the course
of human civilization
741
00:42:48,148 --> 00:42:51,109
in the last 10,000
to 15,000 years,
742
00:42:51,109 --> 00:42:53,402
there's no question
in our minds,
743
00:42:53,403 --> 00:42:55,154
have played an important role
744
00:42:55,155 --> 00:42:57,407
in the development
of human evolution
745
00:42:57,407 --> 00:43:00,952
and the evolution
of human civilization.
746
00:43:03,371 --> 00:43:07,871
Narrator:
But others hotly disagree.
747
00:43:08,168 --> 00:43:12,338
- There just aren't enough
potential impactors out there
748
00:43:12,339 --> 00:43:14,174
to have hit the Earth.
749
00:43:14,174 --> 00:43:17,218
And the kind of rates
that they're suggesting—
750
00:43:17,219 --> 00:43:21,056
Kilometer-sized objects
hitting the Earth
751
00:43:21,056 --> 00:43:22,474
every few thousand years—
752
00:43:22,474 --> 00:43:24,309
I mean,
if there were enough objects
753
00:43:24,309 --> 00:43:26,185
to hit the Earth at that rate,
754
00:43:26,186 --> 00:43:28,021
we'd be getting
near-misses.
755
00:43:28,021 --> 00:43:29,397
We'd be getting objects
that size
756
00:43:29,397 --> 00:43:30,940
coming between
the Earth and the Moon,
757
00:43:30,941 --> 00:43:32,901
you know, one or two
of those a year.
758
00:43:32,901 --> 00:43:35,904
And we've never seen
anything like that.
759
00:43:35,904 --> 00:43:37,906
The rate just isn't there.
760
00:43:39,866 --> 00:43:43,077
Narrator: The debate
will continue to rage,
761
00:43:43,078 --> 00:43:47,578
perhaps until the very end
of human civilization.
762
00:43:48,667 --> 00:43:53,167
But will that end
be a gradual demise
763
00:43:53,338 --> 00:43:55,965
or a sudden
violent demonstration
764
00:43:55,966 --> 00:43:59,678
of how space can change history?
60405
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