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These are the user uploaded subtitles that are being translated: THE VALMIKI RAMAYANA VOLUME 1 PENGUIN BOOKS Contents Introduction BalaKanda AyodhyaKanda Footnotes Introduction Chapter1(1) Chapter1(2) Chapter1(3) Chapter1(4) Chapter1(5) Chapter1(6) Chapter1(7) Chapter1(8) Chapter1(9) Chapter1(10) Chapter1(11) Chapter1(12) Chapter1(13) Chapter1(14) Chapter1(15) Chapter1(16) Chapter1(17) Chapter1(18) Chapter1(19) Chapter1(20) Chapter1(21) Chapter1(22) Chapter1(23) Chapter1(24) Chapter1(25) Chapter1(26) Chapter1(27) Chapter1(28) Chapter1(29) Chapter1(30) Chapter1(31) Chapter1(32) Chapter 1(33) Chapter 1(34) Chapter 1(35) Chapter 1(36) Chapter 1(37) Chapter 1(38) Chapter 1(39) Chapter 1(40) Chapter 1(41) Chapter 1(42) Chapter 1(43) Chapter 1(44) Chapter 1(45) Chapter 1(46) Chapter 1(47) Chapter 1(48) Chapter 1(49) Chapter 1(50) Chapter 1(51) Chapter 1(52) Chapter 1(53) Chapter 1(54) Chapter 1(55) Chapter 1(56) Chapter 1(57) Chapter 1(58) Chapter 1(59) Chapter 1(60) Chapter 1(61) Chapter 1(62) Chapter 1(63) Chapter 1(64) Chapter 1(65) Chapter 1(66) Chapter 1(67) Chapter 1(68) Chapter 1(69) Chapter 1(70) Chapter 1(71) Chapter 1(72) Chapter 1(73) Chapter 1(74) Chapter 1(75) Chapter 1(76) Chapter 2(1) Chapter 2(2) Chapter 2(3) Chapter 2(4) Chapter 2(5) Chapter 2(6) Chapter 2(7) Chapter 2(8) Chapter 2(9) Chapter 2(11) Chapter 2(12) Chapter 2(13) Chapter 2(14) Chapter 2(15) Chapter 2(16) Chapter 2(17) Chapter 2(18) Chapter 2(19) Chapter 2(20) Chapter 2(21) Chapter 2(22) Chapter 2(23) Chapter 2(24) Chapter 2(26) Chapter 2(27) Chapter 2(28) Chapter 2(29) Chapter 2(30) Chapter 2(31) Chapter 2(32) Chapter 2(33) Chapter 2(34) Chapter 2(35) Chapter 2(36) Chapter 2(37) Chapter 2(38) Chapter 2(39) Chapter 2(40) Chapter 2(41) Chapter 2(42) Chapter 2(43) Chapter 2(44) Chapter 2(45) Chapter 2(46) Chapter 2(47) Chapter 2(48) Chapter 2(49) Chapter 2(50) Chapter 2(51) Chapter 2(52) Chapter 2(53) Chapter 2(54) Chapter 2(55) Chapter 2(56) Chapter 2(57) Chapter 2(58) Chapter 2(59) Chapter 2(60) Chapter 2(62) Chapter 2(63) Chapter 2(64) Chapter 2(65) Chapter 2(66) Chapter 2(67) Chapter 2(68) Chapter 2(69) Chapter 2(70) Chapter 2(71) Chapter 2(72) Chapter 2(73) Chapter 2(74) Chapter 2(75) Chapter 2(76) Chapter 2(77) Chapter 2(78) Chapter 2(79) Chapter 2(80) Chapter 2(81) Chapter 2(82) Chapter 2(83) Chapter 2(84) Chapter 2(85) Chapter 2(86) Chapter 2(87) Chapter 2(88) Chapter 2(89) Chapter 2(90) Chapter 2(91) Chapter 2(92) Chapter 2(93) Chapter 2(94) Chapter 2(95) Chapter 2(96) Chapter 2(97) Chapter 2(98) Chapter 2(99) Chapter 2(100) Chapter 2(101) Chapter 2(102) Chapter 2(103) Chapter 2(104) Chapter 2(105) Chapter 2(106) Chapter 2(108) Chapter 2(109) Chapter 2(110) Chapter 2(111) Acknowledgements Follow Penguin Copyright PENGUIN BOOKS THE VALMIKI RAMAYANA VOLUME 1 Bibek Debroy is a renowned economist, scholar and translator. He has worked in universities, research institutes, industry and for the government. He has widely published books, papers and articles on economics. As a translator, he is best known for his magnificent rendition of the Mahabharata in ten volumes, and additionally the Harivamsha, published to wide acclaim by Penguin Classics. He is also the author of Sarama and Her Children, which splices his interest in Hinduism with his love for dogs. Praise for The Mahabharata ‘The modernization of language is visible, it’s easier on the mind, through expressions that are somewhat familiar. The detailing of the story is intact, the varying tempo maintained, with no deviations from the original. The short introduction reflects a brilliant mind. For those who passionately love the Mahabharata and want to explore it to its depths, Debroy’s translation offers great promise . . .’—Hindustan Times ‘[Debroy] has really carved out a niche for himself in crafting and presenting a translation of the Mahabharata . . . The book takes us on a great journey with admirable ease’—Indian Express ‘The first thing that appeals to one is the simplicity with which Debroy has been able to express himself and infuse the right kind of meanings . . . Considering that Sanskrit is not the simplest of languages to translate a text from, Debroy exhibits his deep understanding and appreciation of the medium’—The Hindu ‘Debroy’s lucid and nuanced retelling of the original makes the masterpiece even more enjoyably accessible’—Open ‘The quality of translation is excellent. The lucid language makes it a pleasure to read the various stories, digressions and parables’—Tribune ‘Extremely well-organized, and has a substantial and helpful Introduction, plot summaries and notes. The volume is a beautiful example of a well thought-out layout which makes for much easier reading’—Book Review ‘The dispassionate vision [Debroy] brings to this endeavor will surely earn him merit in the three worlds’—Mail Today ‘Debroy’s is not the only English translation available in the market, but where he scores and others fail is that his is the closest rendering of the original text in modern English without unduly complicating the readers’ understanding of the epic’—Business Standard ‘The brilliance of Ved Vyasa comes through, ably translated by Bibek Debroy’—Hindustan Times For Professor Shailendra Raj Mehta Introduction The Ramayana and the Mahabharata are known as itihasas. The word itihasa means ‘it was indeed like that’. Therefore, the word is best rendered as legend or history, and not as myth. This does not mean everything occurred exactly as described. In a process of telling and retelling and oral transmission, embellishments are inevitable. However, the use of the word itihasa suggests a core element of truth. There were two great dynasties—surya vamsha and chandra vamsha.1 The first proper king of the surya vamsha was Ikshvaku and the Ramayana is a chronicle of the solar dynasty, or at least a part of its history. Similarly, the first king of the chandra vamsha was Ila and the Mahabharata is a chronicle of the lunar dynasty. The Puranas also describe the histories of the solar and lunar dynasties. Though there are some inconsistencies across genealogies given in different Puranas, the surya vamsha timeline has three broad segments: (1) from Ikshvaku to Rama; (2) from Kusha to Brihadbala; and (3) from Brihadbala to Sumitra. In that stretch from Ikshvaku to Rama, there were famous kings like Bharata (not to be confused with Rama’s brother), Kakutstha, Prithu, Yuvanashva, Mandhata, Trishanku, Harishchandra, Sagara, Dilipa, Bhagiratha, Ambarisha, Raghu, Aja and Dasharatha. These ancestors explain why Rama is referred to as Kakutstha, Raghava or Dasharathi. Rama had two sons—Lava and Kusha. Ikshvaku and his descendants ruled over the kingdom of Kosala, part of today’s Uttar Pradesh. The Kosala kingdom lasted for a long time, with the capital sometimes in Ayodhya and sometimes in Shravasti. When Rama ruled, the capital was in Ayodhya. After Rama, Lava ruled over south Kosala and Kusha ruled over north Kosala. Lava’s capital was in Shravasti, while Kusha’s capital was in Kushavati. We don’t know what happened to Lava thereafter, though he is believed to have established Lavapuri, today’s Lahore. The second segment of the surya vamsha timeline, from Kusha to Brihadbala, doesn’t have any famous kings. Brihadbala was the last Kosala king. In the Kurukshetra War, he fought on the side of the Kouravas and was killed by Abhimanyu. The third segment of the surya vamsha timeline, from Brihadbala to Sumitra, seems contrived and concocted. Sumitra is described as the last king of the Ikshvaku lineage, defeated by Mahapadma Nanda in 362 BCE. Sumitra wasn’t killed. He fled to Rohtas, in today’s Bihar. The Ramayana isn’t about these subsequent segments of the timeline. Though there are references to other kings from that Ikshvaku to Rama stretch, it isn’t about all of that segment either. Its focus is on Rama. It is difficult to date the poet Kalidasa. It could be anytime from the first century CE to the fifth century CE. Kalidasa wrote a mahakavya2 known as Raghuvamsha. As the name of this mahakavya suggests, it is about Raghu’s lineage, from Dilipa to Agnivarna, and includes Rama. But it isn’t exclusively about Rama. Ramayana is almost exclusively about Rama. That’s the reason it is known as रामायण = राम + अयण. अयन means travel or progress. Thus, Ramayana means Rama’s progress. There is a minor catch though. अयन means travel or progress and अयण is a meaningless word. The word used in Ramayana is अयण, not अयन. This transformation occurs because of a rule of Sanskrit grammar known as internal sandhi. That is the reason रामायन becomes रामायण. Who is Rama? The word राम means someone who is lovely, charming and delightful. There are Jain and Buddhist versions (Dasharatha Jataka) of the Rama account and they differ in significant details from the Ramayana story. For instance, in Jain accounts, Ravana is killed by Lakshmana. In Dasharatha Jataka, Sita is Rama’s sister. In Ramayana and Purana accounts, Rama is Vishnu’s seventh avatara.3 Usually, ten avataras are named for Vishnu, though sometimes, a larger number is also given. When the figure is ten, the avataras are matsya,4 kurma,5 varaha,6 narasimha,7 vamana,8 Parashurama, Rama, Krishna, Buddha and Kalki (Kalki is yet to come). In the cycle of creation and destruction, yugas9follow each other and one progressively goes down krita yuga (alternatively satya yuga), treta yuga, dvapara yuga and kali yuga, before the cycle starts again. In the list of ten avataras, matysa, kurma, varaha and narasimha are from the present krita yuga; Vamana, Parashurama and Rama are from the present treta yuga; Krishna is from dvapara yuga; and Buddha and Kalki are from kali yuga. Rama was towards the end of treta yuga. (In the ‘Uttara Kanda’, dvapara yuga has started.) Just as Krishna’s departure marked the transition from dvapara yuga to kali yuga, Rama’s departure marked the transition from treta yuga to dvapara yuga. When did these events occur? It is impossible to answer this question satisfactorily, despite continuous efforts being made to find an answer. At one level, it is an irrelevant question too. There is a difference between an incident happening and it being recorded. In that day and age, recording meant composition and oral transmission, with embellishments added. There was noise associated with transmission and distribution. It is impossible to unbundle the various layers in the text, composed at different points in time. Valmiki is described as Rama’s contemporary, just as Vedavyasa was a contemporary of the Kouravas and the Pandavas. But that doesn’t mean today’s Valmiki Ramayana text is exactly what Valmiki composed, or that today’s Mahabharata text is exactly what Krishna Dvaipayana Vedavyasa composed. Therein lies the problem with several approaches to dating. The first and favoured method of dating is undoubtedly the astronomical one, based on positions of nakshatras and grahas,10 or using information about events like eclipses. However, because layers of the text were composed at different points in time, compounded by precession of the equinoxes, this leads to widely divergent dates for an event like Rama’s birth, ranging from 7323 BCE to 1331 BCE. Second, one can work with genealogies, notwithstanding problems of inconsistencies across them. One will then obtain a range of something like 2350 BCE to 1500 BCE. Third, one can work with linguistics and the evolution of language, comparing that of the Ramayana to other texts. Fourth, one can work with the archaeological evidence, such as the pottery discovered in sites known to be associated with the Ramayana. Even then, there will be a wide range of dates, from something like 2600 BCE to 1100 BCE. Fifth, one can consider geography, geology, changes in the course of rivers. Finally, there are traditional views about the length of a manvantara11 or yuga. Given the present state of knowledge, it is impossible to impart precision to any dating of the incidents in the Ramayana. Scholars have grappled with the problem in the past and will continue to do so in the future. This may be an important question. But from the point of view of the present translation, it is an irrelevant one. The present translation is about the Ramayana text. But what is the Ramayana text? After a famous essay written by A.K. Ramanujan in 1987 (published in 1991), people often mention 300 Ramayanas. It is impossible to fix the number, 300 or otherwise, since it is not possible to count satisfactorily—or even define—what is a new rendering of the Ramayana story, as opposed to a simple retelling, with or without reinterpretation. Contemporary versions, not always in written form, are continuously being rendered. There are versions of the Ramayana story in East Asia (China, Japan), South-East Asia (many countries like Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia), South Asia (Nepal, Sri Lanka) and West Asia (Iran). As mentioned earlier, there are Buddhist and Jain versions. Every state and every language in India seems to have some version of the Rama story. Our impressions about the Rama story are often based on such regional versions, such as, the sixteenth-century Ramcharitmanas by Goswami Tulsidas. (Many of these were written between the twelfth and seventeenth centuries CE.) Those depictions can, and will, vary with what is in this translation. This translation is about the Sanskrit Ramayana. But even there, more than one text of the Sanskrit Ramayana exists—Valmiki Ramayana, Yoga Vasishtha Ramayana, Ananda Ramayana and Adbhuta Ramayana. In addition, there are versions of the Ramayana story in the Mahabharata and in the Puranas. With the exception of the Ramayana story in the Mahabharata, the Valmiki Ramayana is clearly the oldest among these. This is a translation of the Valmiki Ramayana and yes, there are differences between depictions in the Valmiki Ramayana and other Sanskrit renderings of the Rama story. If one cannot date the incidents of the Ramayana, can one at least conclusively date when the Valmiki Ramayana was written? Because of the many layers and subsequent interpolations, there is no satisfactory resolution to this problem either. The Valmiki Ramayana has around 24,000 shlokas, a shloka being a verse. The Mahabharata is believed to have 100,000 shlokas, so the Valmiki Ramayana is about one-fourth the size of the Mahabharata. These 24,000 shlokas are distributed across seven kandas—‘Bala Kanda’ (Book about Youth), ‘Ayodhya Kanda’ (Book about Ayodhya), ‘Aranya Kanda’ (Book of the Forest), Kishkindha Kanda (Book about Kishkindha), ‘Sundara Kanda’ (Book of Beauty), ‘Yuddha Kanda’ (Book about the War) and ‘Uttara Kanda’ (Book about the Sequel). Kanda refers to a major section or segment and is sometimes translated into English as Canto. ‘Canto’ sounds archaic, ‘Book’ is so much better. This does not mean the kanda-wise classification always existed. For all one knows, initially, there were simply chapters. In this text itself, there is a reference to the Valmiki Ramayana possessing 500 sargas. The word sarga also means Book, but given the number 500, is more like a chapter. (For the record, the text has more than 600 chapters.) Most scholars agree ‘Uttara Kanda’ was written much later. If one reads the ‘Uttara Kanda’, that belief is instantly endorsed. The ‘Uttara Kanda’ doesn’t belong. This isn’t only because of the content, which is invariably mentioned. It is also because of the texture of the text, the quality of the poetry. It is vastly inferior. To a lesser extent, one can also advance similar arguments for the ‘Bala Kanda’. Therefore, the earlier portions were probably composed around 500 BCE. The later sections, like the ‘Uttara Kanda’, and parts of the ‘Bala Kanda’, were probably composed around 500 CE. It isn’t the case that all later sections are in ‘Uttara Kanda’. There is a mix of earlier and later sections across all kandas. The word kanda also means trunk or branch of a tree. The Mahabharata is also classified into such major sections or Books. However, in the Mahabharata, these major sections are known as parvas. The word parva also means branch. However, parva suggests a smaller branch, one that is more flexible. Kanda suggests one that is more solid, less flexible. There may have been slight variations in shlokas across different versions of the Sanskrit Mahabharata, but fundamentally the Sanskrit Mahabharata is a single text. The original text expanded, like a holdall, to include everything. Those different versions have been ‘unified’ in a Critical Edition published by the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona (Pune). In the case of the Valmiki Ramayana, with its kanda-kind of classification, the evolution seems to have been different. If someone was unhappy with what Valmiki had depicted, he simply composed another Ramayana. In Sanskrit, mention has already been made of the Yoga Vasishtha Ramayana, Ananda Ramayana and Adbhuta Ramayana. This continued to happen with vernacular versions. This translation is of the Valmiki Ramayana. It is necessary to stress this point. Both the Ramayana and the Mahabharata are so popular that one is familiar with people, stories and incidents. That doesn’t necessarily mean those people, stories and incidents occur in the Valmiki Ramayana in the way we are familiar with them. Just as the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute produced a Critical Edition of the Mahabharata, between 1951 and 1975, the Oriental Institute, Baroda, produced a Critical Edition of the Valmiki Ramayana. This translation is based on that Critical Edition, published sequentially between 1958 and 1975. Producing a Critical Edition meant sifting through a large number of manuscripts of the Valmiki Ramayana. The editors had around 2000 manuscripts to work with. Not all of these were equally reliable. Therefore, in practice, they worked with fifty to hundred manuscripts, the specific number depending on the kanda in question. It is not that there were significant differences across the manuscripts and broadly, there was a Southern Recension (version) and a Northern one, the latter sub-divided into a North-Western and a North-Eastern one. The earliest of these written manuscripts dates to the eleventh century CE. In passing, the language may have been Sanskrit, but the script wasn’t always Devanagari. There were scripts like Sharada, Mewari, Maithili, Bengali, Telugu, Kannada, Nandinagari, Grantha and Malayalam. Since this translation is based on the Baroda Critical Edition, it is necessary to make another obvious point. Even within the Sanskrit Valmiki Ramayana, not everything we are familiar with is included in the Critical text. For instance, the configuration of nakshatras and planets at the time of Rama’s birth is not part of the Critical text. Nor is the bulk of one of the most beautiful sections of the Valmiki Ramayana, Mandodari’s lamentation. Those are shlokas that have been excised. That’s also the case with a shloka that’s often quoted as an illustration of Lakshmana’s conduct. नाहंजानािम केयूरं नाहंजानािम कु᭛डलं। नूपरं तुअिभजानािम िन᭜यंपादािभव᭠दनात ॥ This is a statement by Lakshmana to the effect that he cannot recognize the ornament on Sita’s head or her earrings. Since he has always served at her feet, he can only recognize her anklets. This too has been excised. There are instances where such excision has led to a break in continuity and inconsistency and we have pointed them out in the footnotes. There are two numbers associated with every chapter. The first number refers to the kanda, while the second number, within brackets, refers to the number of the chapter (sarga) within that kanda. Thus, Chapter 1(33) will mean the thirty-third chapter in ‘Bala Kanda’. The table below shows the number of chapters and shlokas we have in the Critical Edition. The Critical text has 606 chapters, 106 more than the 500 sargas mentioned in the text itself. And there are 18,670 shlokas. If one considers chapters and shlokas from non-Critical versions, irrespective of which version it is, there are almost 650 chapters and just over 24,000 shlokas. Compared to such non-Critical versions, very few chapters have been excised from ‘Bala’, ‘Ayodhya’, ‘Aranya’, ‘Kishkindha’ or ‘Sundara’ kandas. The excision is primarily from ‘Yuddha’ and ‘Uttara’ kandas. The excision of shlokas is uniformly spread throughout the kandas, though most excision, relatively speaking, is from the ‘Ayodhya’, ‘Yuddha’ and ‘Uttara’ kandas. Name of kanda Number of chapters Number of shlokas Bala Kanda 76 1941 Ayodhya Kanda 111 3160 Aranya Kanda 71 2060 Kishkindha Kanda 66 1898 Sundara Kanda 66 2487 Yuddha Kanda 116 4435 Uttara Kanda 100 2689 Total 606 18,670 Valmiki is the first poet, adi kavi. By the time of classical Sanskrit literature, some prerequisites were defined for a work to attain the status of mahakavya. Kalidasa, Bharavi, Magha, Shri Harsha and Bhatti composed such works. Though these notions and definitions came later, the Valmiki Ramayana displays every characteristic of a mahakavya and is longer than any of these subsequent works. The story of how it came about is known to most people who are familiar with the Ramayana. The sage Valmiki had gone, with his disciple Bharadvaja, to bathe in the waters of the River Tamasa. There was a couple of krouncha12 birds there, in the act of making love. Along came a hunter13 and killed the male bird. As the female bird grieved, Valmiki was driven by compassion and the first shloka emerged from his lips. Since it was composed in an act of sorrow—shoka—this kind of composition came to be known as shloka. So the Ramayana tells us. Incidentally, this first shloka doesn’t occur in the first chapter. It isn’t the first shloka of the Valmiki Ramayana. The incident and the shloka occur in the second chapter. More specifically, it is the fourteenth shloka in the second chapter and is as follows. मा िनषाद ᮧित᳧ां᭜वमगमः शा᳡ती: समाः । य᭜ᮓᲅचिमथुनादेकमवधी काममोिहतमू ॥ ‘O nishada! This couple of curlews was in the throes of passion and you killed one of them. Therefore, you will possess ill repute for an eternal number of years.’ Till a certain period of history, all Sanskrit works were in poetry or verse, not in prose. The Vedangas are limbs or auxiliaries and the six Vedangas are shiksha,14 chhanda,15 vyakarana,16 nirukta,17jyotisha18 and kalpa.19 These are needed to understand not just the Vedas, but also Sanskrit works. Chhanda is one of these. Chhanda can be translated as metre and means something that is pleasing and delightful. Chhanda shastra is the study of metres or prosody. Sanskrit poetry wasn’t about what we tend to identify as poetry today, the act of rhyming. Chhanda begins with the concept of akshara, akin to, but not exactly identical with, the English concept of syllable, that is, part of a word with a single vowel sound. Other than possessing a single vowel sound, an akshara must not begin with a vowel. Aksharas can be hrasva or laghu—light or L—and guru—heavy or G. Simply stated, with a short vowel, the akshara is Land with a long vowel, the akshara is G. There are some additional conditions, but we needn’t get into those. Every verse consists of four padas, the word pada meaning one quarter. Depending on how many aksharas there are in a pada and the distribution of those aksharas into Land G, there were a variety of metres. Depending on the subject and the mood, the poet consciously chose a metre. Analysing in this way, there were more than 1300 different metres. One of the most popular was anushtubh. This figures prominently in the Valmiki Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Puranas. The anushtubh structure meant eight aksharas in each pada, with a total of thirty-two aksharas. In addition, for anushtubh, in every pada, the fifth akshara would have to be Land the sixth akshara would have to be G. In classical Sanskrit literature, conditions were also applied to the seventh akshara, but such refinements came later. For that first verse, the decomposition runs as follows: (1) LLLG LG LG; (2) LG LG LG LG; (3) LLG G LG G L; (4) G G LLLG G L. (1) ma ni sha da pra tish tham; (2) tva ma ga mah shash vati sa mah; (3) yat kroun cha mi thu na de ka; (4) ma va dhi ka ma mo hi tam. It is not that Valmiki only used anushtubh. There are actually sixteen different metres in the Valmiki Ramayana. It is impossible to capture the beauty of chhanda in an English translation. One can attempt to do a translation in verse, but it will fail to convey the beauty. If the original text is poetry, one starts with an initial question. Should one attempt a translation in verse or in prose? This translation is based on the premise that the translation should be as close as possible to the original Sanskrit text. One should not take liberties with the text. This translation is therefore almost a word-to-word rendering. If one sits down with the original Sanskrit, there will be almost a perfect match. In the process, deliberately so, the English is not as smooth as it might have been, had one taken more liberties, and this is a conscious decision. Had one attempted a translation in verse, one would perforce have had to take more liberties. Hence, the choice of prose is also a deliberate decision. As composers, there is quite a contrast between Valmiki and Vedavyasa. Vedavyasa focuses on people and incidents. Rarely does the Mahabharata attempt to describe nature, even if those sections are on geography. In contrast, Valmiki’s descriptions of nature are lyrical and superlative, similar to Kalidasa. A translation can never hope to transmit that flavour. There is no substitute to reading the original Sanskrit, more so for the Valmiki Ramayana than for the Mahabharata. Which occurred earlier, the incidents of the Ramayana or the Mahabharata? Which was composed earlier, the Ramayana or the Mahabharata? The Ramayana incidents occurred in treta yuga, the Mahabharata incidents in dvapara yuga. Rama was an earlier avatara, Krishna a later one. Hence, the obvious deduction is that the Ramayana incidents predated those of the Mahabharata—an inference also bolstered by the genealogy and astrological arguments mentioned earlier. However, and not just for the sake of being perverse, consider the following. Geographically, the incidents of the Mahabharata mostly occur along an east–west axis, along either side of what used to be called Uttarapath, the northern road, more familiar as Grand Trunk Road or National Highway (NH) 1 and 2. The incidents of the Ramayana often occur along a north–south axis, along what used to be called Dakshinapath, the southern road. Sanjeev Sanyal20 has made the point that while Uttarapath remained stable over time, the Dakshinapath during Rama’s time was different from the subsequent Dakshinapath, with the latter more like today’s NH 44. To return to the point, the geographical terrain of the Mahabharata was restricted to the northern parts of the country, with the south rarely mentioned. The Aryan invasion theory has been discredited because of a multitude of reasons, but myths and perceptions that have lasted for decades are difficult to dispel. However, regardless of the Aryan invasion theory, the Ramayana reveals a familiarity with the geography of the southern parts of the country that the Mahabharata does not. The fighting in the Mahabharata, in the Kurukshetra War, is cruder and less refined. In the Ramayana, bears and apes may have fought using trees and boulders, but humans did not. A human did not tear apart another human’s chest and drink blood. The urbanization depicted in the Ramayana is rarely found in the Mahabharata. We have cited these counter-arguments to make a simple point. Which incident occurred earlier and which text was composed earlier are distinct questions. They should not be confused. Even if the Ramayana incidents occurred before the incidents of the Mahabharata, that doesn’t automatically mean the Ramayana was composed before the Mahabharata. The Rama story occurs in the Mahabharata, known as the ‘Ramopakhyana’section. There is no such reference to the Mahabharata incidents in the Ramayana. This is the main reason for arguing that the Ramayana was composed before the Mahabharata. The relationship between the ‘Ramopakhyana’ and the Valmiki Ramayana is also of scholarly interest. Which was earlier? Did one borrow from the other, or did both have a common origin? That need not concern us. What should be stressed is the obvious—the Valmiki Ramayana wasn’t composed at a single point in time and there is a difference between the original composition and the present text, as given to us say in the Critical Edition. If bears and apes fought with the help of trees and boulders, and Angada suddenly kills someone with a weapon, that part is probably a later composition, with the composer having deviated from the original template. If a verse is in anushtubh, but deviates from the L–G pattern, this may have been a conscious decision, but in all probability, reflects the inferior skills of a subsequent poet. If we take the Critical text as it stands, while there are no direct references to the incidents of the Mahabharata, there are plenty of indirect allusions. There are shlokas reminiscent of the Bhagavatgita. When Bharata comes to Rama to inform him about Dasharatha’s death, Rama asks him about the welfare of the kingdom, reminiscent of similar questions asked by Narada to Yudhishthira. In the Valmiki Ramayana, there are references to kings of the lunar dynasty (Yayati) and incidents (Ilvala and Vatapi) that are only described in the Mahabharata. The evidence may be circumstantial and speculative, but it is the following. It is as if the later composers knew about the Mahabharata incidents and the text, but consciously avoided any direct references. Why is another translation of the Valmiki Ramayana needed? Surely, there are plenty floating around. That’s not quite true. Indeed, there are several translations of the Valmiki Ramayana, including some recent ones, but they are abridged. In any act of abridgement, some sections are omitted or summarized. Abridged translations, no matter how good they are, are not quite a substitute for unabridged translations, which bring in the nuances too. To the best of my knowledge, the list of unabridged translations of the Valmiki Ramayana is the following: (1) Ralph T.H. Griffith;21(2) Manmatha Nath Dutt;22(3) Hari Prasad Shastri;23(4) Desiraju Hanumanta Rao and K.M.K. Murthy;24 and (5) Robert P. Goldman.25 Given the timelines, the Goldman translation is the only one based on the Critical Edition. Having translated the Mahabharata,26it was natural to translate the Valmiki Ramayana. The intention was to do a translation that was popular in style. That meant a conscious decision to avoid the use of diacritical marks, as would have been the case had one used IAST (International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration). If diacritical marks are not going to be used, there may be problems rendering names, proper and geographic. We have sought to make the English renderings as phonetic as is possible. Thus, we use ‘Goutama’ to refer to the sage of that name— although others have often referred to him elsewhere as ‘Gautama’. We have chosen Goutama on the logic that if Gomati is not Gamati, why should Goutama be rendered as Gautama? There remains the question of what one does with vowel sounds. How does one differentiate the short sound from the long? Should Rama be written as Raama and Sita as Seeta? That seemed to be too artificial and contrary to popular usage. On rare occasions, this does cause a problem, with a danger of confusion between the ape Taara and his daughter Taaraa, Vali’s wife. Such occasions are however rare and we have explained them. However, there are also instances where we have deviated from popular usage. Hanumat is a case in point, where Hanuman seemed to be too contrary to grammatical principles. There are some words that defy translation, dharma is an example. Hence, we have not even tried to translate such words. The Goldman translation is academic in style. This translation’s style is more popular. Therefore, there is no attempt to overburden the reader with extensive notes. However, a straight translation may not be self-explanatory. Hence, we have put in footnotes, just enough to explain, without stretching the translation. As with the Mahabharata, the Valmiki Ramayana is a text about dharma. Dharma means several different things—the dharma of the four varnas and the four ashramas, the classes and stages of life; the governance template of raja dharma, the duty of kings; principles of good conduct, sadachara; and the pursuit of objectives of human existence, purushartha—dharma, artha and kama. As with the Mahabharata, the Valmiki Ramayana is a smriti text. It has a human origin and composer, it is not a shruti text. Smriti texts are society and context specific. We should not try to judge and evaluate individuals and actions on the basis of today’s value judgements. In addition, if the span of composition was one thousand years, from 500 BCE to 500 CE, those value judgements also change. The later composers and interpreters may have had problems with what the earlier composers authored. A case in point is when Sita is being abducted by Ravana. At a certain point in time, men and women universally wore an upper garment and a lower one. When she is being abducted through the sky, Sita casts aside and throws down not just her ornaments, but her upper garment too. As this translation will illustrate, this caused problems for subsequent composers and interpreters. To return to the notion of dharma—transcending all those collective templates of dharma—there is one that is individual in nature. Regardless of those collective templates, an individual has to decide what the right course of action is and there is no universal answer as to what is right and what is wrong. There are always contrary pulls of dharma, with two notions of dharma pulling in different directions. It is not immediately obvious which is superior. Given the trade-offs, an individual makes a choice and suffers the consequences. Why is there an impression that these individual conflicts of dharma are more manifest in the Mahabharata than in the Ramayana? The answer probably lies in the nature of these two texts. What is the difference between a novel and a long story, even when both have multiple protagonists? The difference between a novel and a long story is probably not one of length. A novel seeks to present the views of all protagonists. Thus, the Mahabharata is a bit like a novel, in so far as that trait is concerned. A long story does not seek to look at incidents and actions from the point of view of every protagonist. It is concerned with the perspective of one primary character, to the exclusion of others. If this distinction is accepted, the Valmiki Ramayana has the characteristics of a long story. It is Ramayana. Therefore, it is primarily from Rama’s point of view. We aren’t told what Bharata or Lakshmana thought, or for that matter, Urmila, Mandavi or Shrutakirti. There is little that is from Sita’s point of view too. That leads to the impression that the Mahabharata contains more about individual conflicts of dharma. For the Valmiki Ramayana, from Rama’s point of view, the conflicts of dharma aren’t innumerable. On that exile to the forest, why did he take Sita and Lakshmana along with him? Was Shurpanakha’s disfigurement warranted? Why did he unfairly kill Vali? Why did he make Sita go through tests of purity, not once, but twice? Why did he unfairly kill Shambuka? Why did he banish Lakshmana? At one level, one can argue these are decisions by a personified divinity and therefore, mere humans cannot comprehend and judge the motives. At another level, the unhappiness with Rama’s decisions led to the composition of alternative versions of the Ramayana. Note that Sita’s questions about dharma remained unanswered. If you are going to the forest as an ascetic, why have you got weapons with you? If the rakshasas27 are causing injuries to hermits, punishing the rakshasas is Bharata’s job, now that he is the king. Why are you dabbling in this? Note also Rama’s justification at the time of Sita’s first test. It wasn’t about what others would think, that justification came later. The initial harsh words reflected his own questions about Sita’s purity. Thus, Rama’s conflicts over dharma also exist. It is just that in the Valmiki Ramayana, it is about one individual alone. In conclusion, this translation is an attempt to get readers interested in reading the unabridged Valmiki Ramayana. Having read abridged versions, and there is no competition with those, to appreciate the nuances better, one should read the unabridged. And, to appreciate the beauty of the poetry, one should then be motivated to read the text in Sanskrit. A translation is only a bridge and an unsatisfactory one at that. CHAPTER ONE Bala Kanda Sarga (1): 79 shlokas Sarga (2): 41 shlokas Sarga (3): 29 shlokas Sarga (4): 27 shlokas Sarga (5): 23 shlokas Sarga (6): 24 shlokas Sarga (7): 17 shlokas Sarga (8): 23 shlokas Sarga (9): 32 shlokas Sarga (10): 29 shlokas Sarga (11): 21 shlokas Sarga (12): 34 shlokas Sarga (13): 46 shlokas Sarga (14): 21 shlokas Sarga (15): 28 shlokas Sarga (16): 20 shlokas Sarga (17): 39 shlokas Sarga (18): 20 shlokas Sarga (19): 25 shlokas Sarga (20): 19 shlokas Sarga (21): 19 shlokas Sarga (22): 19 shlokas Sarga (23): 30 shlokas Sarga (24): 19 shlokas Sarga (25): 22 shlokas Sarga (26): 25 shlokas Sarga (27): 18 shlokas Sarga (28): 20 shlokas Sarga (29): 23 shlokas Sarga (30): 23 shlokas Sarga (31): 22 shlokas Sarga (32): 26 shlokas Sarga (33): 20 shlokas Sarga (34): 21 shlokas Sarga (35): 26 shlokas Sarga (36): 31 shlokas Sarga (37): 24 shlokas Sarga (38): 26 shlokas Sarga (39): 28 shlokas Sarga (40): 26 shlokas Sarga (41): 24 shlokas Sarga (42): 24 shlokas Sarga (43): 20 shlokas Sarga (44): 27 shlokas Sarga (45): 22 shlokas Sarga (46): 22 shlokas Sarga (47): 32 shlokas Sarga (48): 22 shlokas Sarga (49): 25 shlokas Sarga (50): 28 shlokas Sarga (51): 23 shlokas Sarga (52): 24 shlokas Sarga (53): 23 shlokas Sarga (54): 28 shlokas Sarga (55): 24 shlokas Sarga (56): 20 shlokas Sarga (57): 23 shlokas Sarga (58): 23 shlokas Sarga (59): 33 shlokas Sarga (60): 22 shlokas Sarga (61): 27 shlokas Sarga (62): 26 shlokas Sarga (63): 15 shlokas Sarga (64): 30 shlokas Sarga (65): 27 shlokas Sarga (66): 27 shlokas Sarga (67): 19 shlokas Sarga (68): 18 shlokas Sarga (69): 32 shlokas Sarga (70): 24 shlokas Sarga (71): 24 shlokas Sarga (72): 27 shlokas Sarga (73): 22 shlokas Sarga (74): 28 shlokas Sarga (75): 23 shlokas Sarga (76): 18 shlokas Chapter 1(1) Narada1 was a bull among sages, devoted to austerities and self-studying. He was an ascetic and supreme among those who were eloquent. Valmiki asked him, ‘Right now, who in this world is valorous and possesses all the qualities? Who knows about dharma2 and about what has been done? Who is truthful in his words and firm in his vows? Who also possesses good conduct and is engaged in the welfare of all creatures? Who is also learned and capable? Who alone is the handsome one? Who has control over his own self and has conquered anger? Who is radiant and devoid of jealousy? When his anger is aroused in a battle, whom are even the gods scared of? I wish to hear about all this. My curiosity is great. O great sage! You are the person who is capable of knowing about this kind of man. Narada knew about the three worlds.3 On hearing these words, he was delighted. He invited Valmiki to listen and said, ‘O sage! The many qualities you have recounted are extremely rare. Using my intelligence, I will tell you about such a man. I have heard about him.4 He was born in the lineage of Ikshvaku5 and he is known to people as Rama. He is self-controlled in his soul and immensely valorous. He is radiant, possesses fortitude and is capable of controlling.6 He is intelligent and follows good policy. He is eloquent and handsome. He is a destroyer of enemies. He possesses broad shoulders and mighty arms. His neck is like a conch shell and his cheekbones stand out. His chest is broad and his bow is huge. He is a subjugator of enemies and his collarbones are hidden. His arms stretch down to his knees and he possesses an excellent head and a beautiful forehead. His tread is superb. He is medium in size and his limbs are well proportioned. He is pleasant in complexion and powerful. His chest is muscled and his eyes are large. He is prosperous and possesses all the auspicious qualities. He knows about dharma. He is firm in adhering to the truth and is devoted to the welfare of the subjects. He is famous and full of learning. He is pure, controlled and has restrained himself. He is a protector of the world of the living and is also a protector of dharma. He knows the truth about the Vedas and Vedangas and is skilled in dhanurveda.7 He knows the truth about all the sacred texts. He is resplendent and has knowledge of the smriti texts.8 He is virtuous and is loved by all the people. He can discriminate and is not distressed in his soul. Just as all rivers head towards the ocean, all virtuous people approach him. He is noble9 and impartial towards everyone. He alone is the handsome one. The one who extends Kousalya’s10lineage thus possesses all the qualities. In his gravity, he is like the ocean. In his patience, he is like the Himalayas. He is like Vishnu in valour.11 He is as handsome as the moon. In his rage, he is like the fire of destruction.12In generosity, he is like the lord of riches.13 Yet again, he is like Dharma14in truthfulness. Rama possesses such qualities and truth is his valour. He is the eldest and possesses the best of qualities. He is Dasharatha’s beloved son. In his affection, the lord of the earth wished to instate him as the heir apparent.15 His wife, Kaikeyee, saw that arrangements were being made for the consecration.16 The queen asked for the boons that she had been granted earlier—that Rama be exiled and Bharata be anointed. The king was bound by the sanctity of his words and by the noose of dharma. Dasharatha banished his beloved son, Rama. To follow the instruction in his father’s words and to do what would bring pleasure to Kaikeyee, the brave one honoured the pledge and left for the forest. When he left, his beloved brother, Lakshmana, the extender of Sumitra’s joy and full of affection and humility, followed him. Rama’s wife, Sita, is supreme among women and possesses all the auspicious qualities. She also followed him, like Rohini follows the moon.17 For some distance, the citizens and his father, Dasharatha, also followed him and then took leave of his son in Shringaverapura, on the banks of the Ganga.18 They went from one forest to another forest and crossed rivers that were full of large quantities of water. Finally, they arrived in Chitrakuta, under Bharadvaja’s control.19In that beautiful forest, the three of them constructed a beautiful abode and dwelt there happily, like the gods and the gandharvas.20 When Rama left for Chitrakuta, lamenting with sorrow on account of his son, King Dasharatha went to heaven. When he died, the brahmanas, with Vasishtha at the forefront, wished to instate Bharata as the king, but the immensely strong one did not desire the kingdom. The brave one went to the forest and falling at Rama’s feet, sought his favours.21 Bharata’s elder brother repeatedly asked Bharata to return and for the sake of the kingdom, gave him his sandals. With his desire unsatisfied, he touched Rama’s feet. Wishing to wait for Rama’s return, he began to rule the kingdom from Nandigrama.22 Rama discerned that he might return there again and so might citizens and other people. Single-minded, he entered Dandaka.23 He slew the rakshasa24 Viradha and saw Sharabhanga.25 He met Suteekshna, Agastya and his brother.26 Following Agastya’s words, he received Indra’s bow and arrow, a sword and two inexhaustible quivers and was extremely pleased.27 Rama dwelt in that forest. With the other forest dwellers, all the sages approached him, so that the asuras and rakshasas could be slain. While he dwelt there, a rakshasa lady named Shurpanakha, who resided in Janasthana and could assume any form at will, was disfigured.28 Goaded by Shurpanakha’s words, all the rakshasas attacked—Khara, Trishira and the rakshasa Dushana. In the ensuing battle, Rama slew them and their followers. He killed fourteen thousand rakshasas. On hearing that his kinsmen had been killed, Ravana became senseless with rage. He summoned and sought the help of the rakshasa named Maricha. Maricha tried to restrain Ravana several times. “O Ravana! You will not be pardoned if you oppose someone as powerful as him.” Ravana, goaded by destiny, did not pay any heed to these words. With Maricha, he went to his29 hermitage. The two princes were drawn far away by the one versed in maya.30 Having slain the vulture Jatayu, he31 abducted Rama’s wife. On hearing about the vulture being killed and on hearing about Maithilee, Raghava was tormented by sorrow.32 He lamented, his senses distracted. In that state of grief, he cremated the vulture, Jatayu. While he was searching for Sita in the forest, he saw a rakshasa. His name was Kabandha. He was malformed and terrible to see. The mighty-armed one killed him. While he33 ascended upwards towards heaven, he told him about Shabaree, who was a follower of dharma. “O Raghava! This ascetic lady is full of dharma. Go to her.” The immensely energetic one, the slayer of enemies, went to Shabaree. Shabaree worshipped Dasharatha’s son in the proper way. On the shores of the Pampa, he met the ape, Hanumat.34 On Hanumat’s words, he met Sugriva. The immensely strong Rama told Sugriva everything that had happened. In affection and full of grief, the king of the apes told Rama everything about the enmity.35 The ape also told him about Vali’s strength. Rama promised that he would kill Vali. However, Sugriva always suspected the extent of Raghava’s valour. Dundubhi’s gigantic skeleton was there.36 To establish credibility, Raghava used the big toe on his foot to fling this ten yojanas away.37 Yet again, with one single and large arrow, he pierced seven sala trees.38 To generate confidence, he also dispatched a mountain to the nether regions. After this, the giant ape was assured and delighted in his mind. He went with Rama to Kishkindha39 and to the mouth of the cave. Sugriva, supreme among apes and golden brown in complexion, started to roar there. On hearing this loud roar, the lord of the apes40 emerged. Following Sugriva’s words, he killed Vali in the encounter. Raghava returned the kingdom to Sugriva and instated him there. The bull among apes summoned all the apes. To search for Janaka’s daughter, he sent them in all the directions. The strong Hanumat heard the words of the vulture, Sampati.41 He leapt over the salty ocean that extended for one hundred yojanas. He reached the city of Lanka, ruled by Ravana. He saw Sita meditating in the forest of Ashoka. To establish Vaidehi’s confidence, he gave her the sign42 he had been given. He comforted her and broke down the gate. He killed five foremost commanders and seven sons of ministers. Having crushed the brave Aksha, he allowed himself to be captured. Because of a boon received from the grandfather,43 he knew that he was capable of freeing himself from any weapon. However, the brave one wished to tolerate the rakshasas and those who had captured him. With the exception of Maithilee Sita, he burnt down the city of Lanka. To bring pleasure to Rama and to give him the news, the giant ape then returned. Having reached, he circumambulated the great-souled Rama. The one whose soul is immeasurable reported the truth about how he had seen Sita. With Sugriva, he44 went to the shores of the great ocean. He agitated the ocean with arrows that were like the rays of the sun. The ocean, the lord of the rivers, showed himself. On the words of the ocean, he45 asked Nala to construct a bridge. Using this, he went to the city of Lanka and killed Ravana in a battle. He instated Vibhishana, Indra among rakshasas, in the kingdom of Lanka. Because of the great-souled Raghava’s deeds, the mobile and immobile objects in the three worlds and the gods and the sages were satisfied. Supremely content, all the gods worshipped him. Having accomplished his task, Rama was delighted and devoid of anxiety. Having obtained a boon from the gods, he revived all the slain apes. Ascending Pushpaka,46 he left for Nandigrama. In Nandigrama, with his brothers, the unblemished one removed his matted hair. Rama got Sita back and also got back his kingdom. The people are joyous and delighted. Those who are scrupulous in following dharma are nurtured. There is recovery from disease. There are no famines and everything is devoid of fear. No man has to witness the death of his son. Women are not ignoble and never become widows. They are devoted to their husbands. There is no fear from the wind. Creatures never get submerged in water. There is no fear from fire. It is exactly as it was in krita yuga.47 He performs one hundred horse sacrifices and gives away a lot of gold. Following the appropriate ordinances, he gives away crores of cattle to the learned. Raghava will establish one hundred royal lineages that possess all the qualities. In this world, he will engage the four varnas48in their own respective tasks. Rama will thus honour the kingdom for eleven thousand years and then go to Brahma’s world. ‘This is a sacred account and destroys all sins. It is auspicious and in conformity with the Vedas. If a person reads about this conduct, he is cleansed of all sins. A man who reads the account of the Ramayana has a long life, with his sons, grandsons and followers. After death, he obtains greatness in heaven. A brahmana who reads this becomes eloquent in speech, a kshatriya obtains lordship over land, a merchant49 obtains the fruits of trading and a shudra person obtains greatness.’ Chapter 1(2) Hearing Narada’s words, who was accomplished in speech, the great sage,50 with dharma in his soul, worshipped him, accompanied by his disciple. Having been worshipped in the proper way, the celestial sage, Narada, took his leave and departed through the sky51to the world of the gods. After some time had passed,52the sage went to the banks of the Tamasa, not very far from the Jahnavee.53 The great sage reached the banks of the Tamasa. With his disciple standing next to him, he saw that this tirtha was free from all mud.54 He said, ‘O Bharadvaja!55 Look. This tirtha is free from all mud. It is beautiful and the waters are pleasing, like the mind of a virtuous man. O son!56 Place the water pot here and give my garment made of bark. I will immerse myself in this supreme tirtha of Tamasa.’ Bharadvaja was thus addressed by the great-souled Valmiki. Controlled and attentive towards his preceptor, he gave the sage the garment made of bark. The one who had controlled his senses received the garment made of bark from his disciple. He advanced, glancing in every direction at the great forest. Near the spot, the illustrious one saw a couple of curlews57 wandering around, attached to each other. The sound they made was beautiful. There was a nishada58 who bore evil intent towards those who resided there. While he looked on,59 he killed the male one from that couple. Limbs covered with blood, it trembled on the ground. On seeing it slain, the wife lamented in piteous tones. The sage had dharma in his soul. He saw that the bird had been brought down by the hunter and was moved by compassion. Full of compassion and on seeing the female curlew that was weeping, the brahmana recognized this as adharma. He spoke these words. ‘O nishada! This couple of curlews was in the throes of passion and you killed one of them. Therefore, you will possess ill repute for an eternal number of years.’60 Having said this, a thought arose in his heart. ‘Overcome by sorrow on account of the bird, what is this that I have uttered?’ The intelligent and immensely wise one reflected on this. Having made up his mind, the bull among sages spoke these words to his disciple. ‘While I was overcome by grief, these words emerged. They have rhythm and metre and are arranged in padas with an equal number of aksharas. This and nothing else will be a shloka.’61 The sage spoke these supreme words to his disciple and he accepted them cheerfully. The preceptor was also content. Following the prescribed rites, the sage performed his ablutions in that tirtha. He returned, thinking about the purport of what had transpired. Bharadvaja, the humble and learned disciple, followed his preceptor at the rear, having filled the water pot. The one who knew about dharma entered the hermitage with his disciple. Seating himself, he conversed about other things, but continued to meditate on what had happened. The lord Brahma, the creator of the worlds, himself arrived there. The immensely energetic one, with four faces, arrived there to see the bull among sages. Seeing him, the self-controlled Valmiki was at a loss for words. Supremely astounded, he quickly arose and joined his hands in salutation. He worshipped the god and honoured him with padya, arghya and a seat.62 Having prostrated himself in the proper way, he asked him about his welfare. Worshipped in this wonderful way, the illustrious one seated himself. He instructed the great sage, Valmiki, to also be seated. In the presence of the grandfather of the worlds himself, Valmiki sat down, his mind still meditating on what had happened. ‘His intelligence clouded by a sense of enmity, that evil-souled one63 created a hardship. Without any valid reason, he killed a curlew that sang in such beautiful tones.’ He was again overcome by sorrow on account of the curlew. Full of sorrow, in his mind, he again chanted the shloka. Brahma smiled at the bull among sages and said, ‘You have composed a structured shloka. There is no need to think about this. O brahmana! The metre and the speech arose from me. O supreme among sages! This was so that you could recount Rama’s conduct in its entirety. In this world, the intelligent Rama possesses all the qualities and has dharma in his soul. He possesses fortitude and you have heard about his conduct from Narada, everything that the intelligent Rama did, openly and in secret, with Sumitra’s son, and all that concerns the rakshasas. You know about Vaidehi’s conduct, whether it has been revealed or is a secret. All that is unknown will also become known to you. In the kavya64 you compose, not a single word will be false and there will be nothing that will not happen. In structured and beautiful shlokas, compose the auspicious account of Rama’s conduct. As long as there are mountains and as long as there are rivers on this earth, till such a time, this Ramayana account will circulate in the worlds.65 As long as Rama’s account, composed by you, circulates, till that time, you will reside in the upper regions, the nether regions and even in my world.’ Having spoken these words, the illustrious Brahma vanished. With his disciple, the sage, Valmiki, was struck by great wonder. All the disciples again chanted the shloka. Cheerful and extremely surprised, they chanted it repeatedly. It was chanted by the great sage in four padas, with an equal number of aksharas in each. Because of repeated recitation and because it emerged from sorrow, it came to be known as a shloka.66 Thus, intelligence came to Valmiki and thinking about it in his mind, he composed the entire Ramayana kavya. He decided that this is what he should do. In beautiful padas, the broad-minded and illustrious one composed the account of the illustrious Rama’s conduct, with an equal number of aksharas in hundreds of shlokas. The generous and intelligent sage composed a kavya that brought him fame. Chapter 1(3) Having heard everything about the intelligent one’s67 conduct, which was in conformity with dharma, the one with dharma in his soul again sought out all that was known about this. Following dharma, the sage touched water,68joined his hands in salutation and stood on a mat of darbha69 grass, facing the east. He sought out a chart for progress.70 The birth of the extremely brave Rama, who showed his favours towards everyone, was loved by the worlds, his perseverance, amiability and devotion to the truth; the many other wonderful deeds with Vishvamitra as an aide, the shattering of the bow and the marriage with Janakee; the dispute between Rama and Rama71 and the qualities of Dasharatha’s son, Rama’s consecration and Kaikeyee’s evil intentions; the obstacle created for the consecration and Rama’s exile, the miserable lamentations of the king72 and his departure for the world hereafter; the sorrow of the ordinary subjects and the separation from the ordinary subjects, the conversation with the king of the nishadas73 and the charioteer’s return; the crossing of the Ganga and the meeting with Bharadvaja, having obtained Bharadvaja’s permission, their sight of Chitrakuta; the construction of an abode and Bharata’s arrival there to seek Rama’s favours, the performance of the water rites for the father; the consecration of the sandals and the residence in Nandigrama, the departure for Dandakaranya and the meeting with Suteekshna; Anasuya’s problem and the granting of an ointment for the body, the conversation with Shurpanakha and her disfigurement; the slaying of Khara and Trishira and Ravana’s rise,74the slaying of Maricha and Vaidehi’s abduction; Raghava’s lamentations and the slaying of the king of the vultures, the sighting of Kabandha and the sighting of Pampa; the sighting of Shabaree and the sighting of Hanumat, the lamentations of the great-souled Raghava in Pampa; the departure for Rishyamuka and the meeting with Sugriva, the generation of friendship between the two and the conflict between Bali and Sugriva; the crushing of Bali and the bestowal on Sugriva,75 Tara’s lamentations and the agreement to reside there until the monsoon nights were over; the rage of the Raghava lion76 and the gathering of the army, the departure in various directions and a description of the earth; the gift of the ring and the sighting of the bear’s den, their fasting to death77 and their sighting of Sampati; the ascent of the mountain and the leap across the ocean, the solitary entry into Lanka in the night78 and thinking about what should be done; the visit to the liquor room and an examination of the fortifications, the visit to Ashoka forest and the sighting of Sita; the giving of the sign79 and Sita’s address, the censure of the rakshasa ladies and Trijata’s nightmare; Sita’s gift of the jewel and the destruction of the trees, the driving away of the rakshasa ladies and the slaying of the guards; the capture of the son of Vayu,80 his roaring and the burning down of Lanka, the seizure of the honey on the leap back; the presentation of the jewel and the assurance of Raghava, the meeting with the ocean and Nala’s construction of the bridge; the crossing of the ocean and the siege of Lanka in the night, the meeting with Vibhishana and the recounting of the method of killing;81the slaying of Kumbhakarna and the crushing of Meghanada, Ravana’s destruction and the regain of Sita in that city of enemies; the instatement of Vibhishana and the sighting of Pushpaka, the departure for Ayodhya and the meeting with Bharata; and the disbandment of all the soldiers and arrangements for Rama’s crowning, the delight brought to his own kingdom and Vaidehi’s exile. In this kavya, the illustrious rishi Valmiki described everything that happened as long as Rama was on earth and all that would occur in the future, thereafter.82 Chapter 1(4) When Rama obtained his kingdom, the illustrious rishi Valmiki, in control of his soul, composed the entire account of his conduct, in wonderful padas. The immensely wise one recounted what had happened and what would transpire in the future, thereafter. Having composed it, the lord thought about who would recount the tale. While the great sage was thinking about this in his mind, in the garb of sages, Kusha and Lava came and touched his feet. The illustrious princes, Kusha and Lava, knew about dharma. He saw that the two brothers, residents of the hermitage, possessed melodious voices. He saw that these two intelligent ones were accomplished in the Vedas. Since this only served to extend the Vedas, the lord gave this to them, the entire Ramayana kavya and Sita’s greatness of character. The sage who was devoted in his vows told them about Poulastya’s83 death. This is to be read and sung in pleasant tones, categorized into three scales and seven notes.84It possesses rhythm that can be adjusted to the tunes of stringed instruments. This kavya is sung in hasya, shringara, karunya, roudra, veera, bhayanaka, beebhatsa and other rasas.85 They86 possessed the knowledge of the gandharvas87 and were accomplished in pausing and pitching their voices. Those two brothers had melodious voices and looked like gandharvas. They possessed beauty and the auspicious signs. They were sweet in speech. Having emerged from Rama’s body, they were like two mirror images of him. The kavya was a supreme account and devoted to dharma, those two princes learnt it in its entirety, reciting it in the proper way, without any blemishes. Those two great-souled and immensely fortunate ones were seen to possess all the qualities and knew about the truth. Controlled, and as instructed, they sang this in assemblies of sages, brahmanas and the virtuous. On one occasion, they were seated in a gathering of sages, cleansed in their souls. They sung the kavya in their presence. On hearing this, all the sages had tears in their eyes. They were filled with great wonder and uttered words of praise. All the sages, devoted to dharma, were delighted. They praised the singing of Kusha and Lava, who deserved to be praised. ‘Wonderful! This song, in particular the shlokas, are melodious. Although all this happened a long time ago, it is as if we have witnessed it now. Those two immersed themselves in it and sung it in accordance with the sentiments. Accomplished in a wealth of svaras, they sang together, melodiously and with affection.’ The great sages, who could pride themselves on their austerities, praised those two in this way. They sang in beautiful tones, full of deep meaning and affection. Delighted, a sage who was there gave them a water pot. Delighted, another extremely illustrious sage gave them garments of bark. The account composed by the sage,88 arranged in successive sections, was extraordinary and would be a foundation for poets who would come in the future. Those two singers were praised everywhere. On one occasion, while they were thus singing on the royal road, Bharata’s elder brother89 saw them. Rama, the slayer of enemies, honoured the two brothers, Kusha and Lava, who deserved to be praised, and brought them to his own abode. The lord, the scorcher of enemies, seated himself on a golden and divine throne. His advisers and brothers were seated around him. Rama saw those two handsome ones, with veenas,90 and spoke to Lakshmana, Shatrughna and Bharata. ‘They are as radiant as the gods. Let this account be heard from them. It is structured into wonderful and meaningful padas. Let it be properly sung by these two, who possess melodious voices. These two sages, Kusha and Lava, bear all the marks of kings, but are great ascetics. Listen to the great account they speak about. It brings prosperity even to me.’ Those two were accomplished in the different techniques and modes of singing. Urged by Rama, they sang. And in that assembly, Rama was also gradually immersed in their narration. Chapter 1(5) Beginning with Prajapati,91 several victorious and unrivalled kings have ruled over this entire earth. There was one named Sagara, who dug up the ocean.92 When he advanced, his sixty thousand sons surrounded him. This was the lineage of the Ikshvakus, one of great-souled kings. It has been heard that the great Ramayana account originates in this lineage. From the beginning to the end, everything will be recounted. It is full of dharma, kama and artha93 and must be heard without any censure. There was the great kingdom94 of Kosala, prosperous and happy. It possessed a lot of wealth and grain and was located on the banks of the Sarayu. The city of Ayodhya,95famous in the worlds, was situated there. Manu, Indra among men, himself constructed that city. That great city was twelve yojanas long and three yojanas wide. It was beautiful and spread out, divided by highways. The beautiful and large royal roads were laid out well. They were always sprinkled with water and flowers were strewn on them. The king there was Dasharatha, an extender of the great kingdom. He made that city his abode, like the king of the gods in heaven. There were gates and arches and the interiors of the buildings were laid out well. There were machines and implements of war everywhere, constructed by all manner of artisans. There were bards and minstrels everywhere. That handsome city was infinite in splendour. There were tall walls with standards, surmounted by hundreds of shataghnis.96 Everywhere, that city was also full of large numbers of dancers and actors. There were mango groves and a giant wall formed a girdle around the city. There were moats that were difficult to cross. Thus, the fortification was impossible for others to breach. It was populated by horses, elephants, cattle, camels and donkeys. Large numbers of vassal kings came from the frontiers to offer tribute. Merchants and residents of many countries came there. The palaces were embedded with jewels and were as beautiful as mountains. There were secret residences97 and the place was like Indra’s Amaravati.98 The city was full of large numbers of beautiful women and was wonderfully laid out, like an ashtapada board.99It was encrusted with gems everywhere and the mansions were like celestial vehicles. The houses were densely constructed on level ground and there was no space between them. There were stores of shali rice100 and the water was like the juice of sugar cane. There were drums, percussion instruments,101 veenas and cymbals. They were sounded loudly, signifying that this was the best city on earth. Through their austerities, siddhas102 obtain celestial vehicles in heaven. With extremely well-laid-out residences and populated by the best among men, this city was like one of those. The archers there were skilled and dexterous of hand. But they did not use their arrows to pierce someone who was alone, someone who was without heirs, or someone who was running away. Nor did they aim by sound alone.103Intoxicated lions, tigers and wild boars roared and roamed around in the forests. They killed these with their sharp weapons and even through the sheer strength of their arms. The place was full of thousands of such maharathas.104 The city that was King Dasharatha’s residence was like this. It was populated by those with qualities, those who offered oblations into the fire. There were the best among brahmanas, accomplished in the Vedas and the Vedangas. There were thousands of great-souled ones, devoted to the truth. All of them were like sages and some were the equals of the great sages. Chapter 1(6) King Dasharatha resided in that city of Ayodhya and collected those who knew about the Vedas around him. He was far-sighted and immensely energetic and loved by the residents of the city and the countryside. He was a great warrior from the Ikshvaku lineage who performed sacrifices. He controlled himself and was devoted to dharma. He was a rajarshi who was the equal of a maharshi.105 He was famous in the three worlds. He was powerful and slew his enemies. He possessed friends and had conquered his senses. He accumulated wealth and other kinds of riches. He was like Shakra and Vaishravana.106 Like the immensely energetic Manu, he protected the world. He ruled over the earth. Adhering to the truth, he pursued the three objectives.107 He ruled over that best of cities, like Indra in Amaravati. There were extremely learned people in that best of cities, happy and with dharma in their souls. The men were satisfied with the riches they had obtained themselves. They were truthful in speech and not avaricious. In that supreme of cities, there was no one who had not accumulated some amount of riches. There was no household without riches in the form of cattle, horses, wealth and grain. There was no man who was lustful, ignoble or cruel. One was incapable of seeing an ignorant person or a non-believer in Ayodhya. All the men and women were extremely controlled and devoted to dharma. They were joyful and good in conduct, like unblemished maharshis. There was no one without an earring, without a headdress, without a garland and without some means of finding pleasure. There was no one who did not have a bath, nor anyone who did not smear the body with unguents and fragrances. There was no one who did not have the best of food. There was no one who was not generous, no one who did not decorate the body with ornaments. No one could be seen without ornaments on the hands, nor one who was heartless. There was no one who did not light the sacrificial fire. There were thousands of brahmanas who performed sacrifices. There was no one in Ayodhya who was without a means of subsistence, nor anyone of mixed varna. The brahmanas had conquered their senses and were always engaged in their own tasks. They were devoted to donating and studying. They were controlled and received gifts. There was no one who was a non-believer, no one who was a liar, nor anyone who was not extremely learned. There was no one who was jealous or incapable. There was no one who was not learned. There was no one who was distressed or disturbed in mind, no one who was miserable. There was no man or woman who was poor or ugly. In Ayodhya, one was incapable of seeing a person who was not devoted to the king. All the four varnas worshipped gods and guests. All the men possessed long lifespans and were devoted to dharma and the truth. The kshatriyas placed brahmanas ahead of them and the vaishyas followed the kshatriyas. The shudras were devoted to their own dharma and served the other three varnas. That city was guarded extremely well by that lord of the Ikshvaku lineage, just like the intelligent Manu, Indra among men, in ancient times. The accomplished warriors were intolerant and were like the touch of fire. They had completed all their training and were like lions in caves. There were the best of horses, born in the kingdoms of Kamboja and Bahlika. It was full of other horses born in mountainous regions and riverine tracts.108 They were like Indra’s horse. The place was full of extremely strong and crazy elephants that were like mountains, born in the Vindhya mountains and the Himalayas. These elephants were descended from Anjana and Vamana.109 The city’s elephants were bhadra-mandra, bhadra-mriga and mriga-mandra.110 The city was always full of crazy elephants that were like mountains. Making true its name, the city extended for another two yojanas beyond.111 With firm gates and ramparts, it was true to its name. With colourful houses, it was auspicious and beautiful. There were thousands of men in the city of Ayodhya. Like Shakra, the king ruled it. Chapter 1(7) There were eight brave and illustrious advisers. They were pure and devoted and were always engaged in the king’s tasks—Dhrishti, Jayanta, Vijaya, Siddhartha, Arthasadhaka, Ashoka, Mantrapala —and Sumantra was the eighth. There were two officiating priests, supreme among rishis—Vasishtha and Vamadeva. There were other ministers too. They were prosperous and great-souled, learned in the sacred texts and firm in their valour. They were controlled and the performers of deeds, acting just as they said they would. They possessed energy, forgiveness and fame. They smiled before they spoke. Because of anger, desire or wealth, they never spoke false words. There was nothing that was unknown to them, in their own kingdom, or in that of others, whether it had been done, was being done, or was being thought of. This was ensured through spies. They were skilled in administration and their affections had been tested.112 At the right time, the appropriate punishment was imposed, even on their own sons. They were devoted to accumulating the treasury and the army. They caused no violence to even men who were unfriendly, as long as they were blameless. They were brave and always full of enterprise, devoted to the science of governing. They were pure and always protected those who resided in the kingdom. In an attempt to fill up the treasury, they did not cause violence to brahmanas and kshatriyas. After examining a man’s strengths and weaknesses, they imposed extremely stiff punishments. Pure and single-minded, all of them governed together. In the city or in the kingdom, there was no man who was a liar. There was no man who was wicked, addicted to another person’s wife. Everything in the kingdom was peaceful and the city was also like that. All of them113 were well attired and well decorated, excellent in conduct. For the sake of the king, their eyes of good policy were always open. They obtained their good qualities from their preceptors and were renowned for their valour. Because of their intelligence and decisions, they were famous in foreign countries too. These were the qualities that the advisers possessed. With their aid, the unblemished King Dasharatha ruled the earth. Using spies, he kept an eye on what happened. He delighted the subjects through dharma. There was no one who was his superior or equal. Nor did he have any enemies. Those ministers were devoted to providing advice that brought welfare. They were devoted, accomplished and skilled, and surrounded him. The king thus gained radiance. He was like the rising sun, illuminating with its blazing rays. Chapter 1(8) He knew about dharma, was great-souled and was powerful. However, he did not have a son who would extend the lineage and he was tormented because of the lack of a son. While he reflected on this, a thought occurred to the great-souled one. ‘For the sake of a son, why don’t I perform a horse sacrifice?’ The intelligent one made up his mind to undertake such a sacrifice and consulted with all his pure ministers. The king told Sumantra, supreme among ministers, ‘Quickly summon the priests and all my seniors.’ Having heard this, the suta,114 Sumantra, spoke to the king in secret. ‘I have heard an ancient account that was instructed by the officiating priests. O king! In an assembly of sages, the illustrious Sanatkumara had earlier recounted this tale about how you would obtain sons.115 Kashyapa has a son who is famous by the name of Vibhandaka. He will have a son who will be renowned by the name of Rishyashringa.116 That sage will always be reared in the forest and will always roam around in the forest. That Indra among brahmanas will not know anyone else and will always follow his father. That great-souled one will observe both kinds of brahmacharya.117 O king! He will be famous in the world and will always be spoken about by brahmanas. The illustrious one will tend to the sacrificial fire and his father. The time will come for him to be brought here. At that time, there will also be an extremely strong, powerful and famous king named Romapada in Anga. Because of a transgression committed by the king, there will be an extremely terrible period of drought. It will be so terrible that all the creatures will face fear. Because of the onset of the drought, the king will be overcome by grief. He will summon brahmanas and those who are aged in learning and address them. “All of you know the sacred texts of dharma and also know about the nature of the worlds. Instruct me about the rituals and about the atonement I should perform.” The brahmanas, learned in the Vedas, will tell the king, “O king! Vibhandaka’s son provides all the means. Bring him here. O king! Bring Rishyashringa and honour him extremely well. Control yourself, follow the rituals and bestow your daughter, Shanta, on him.” Hearing their words, the king will begin to think. Through what means will I be able to bring the valiant one here? Having consulted with his ministers, the king will make up his mind. With the requisite honours, he will dispatch his priests and advisers. On hearing the king’s words, they will be distressed and will lower their faces. “O king! We entreat you. We are scared of the rishi118 and cannot go there. Having thought about it, we will tell you of a means whereby he can be brought here. We will be able to bring the brahmana here and no taint will result.” Hence, the lord of Anga will employ a courtesan to bring the rishi’s son there. The god119 will shower down and he will bestow Shanta on him. This son-in-law, Rishyashringa, will also ensure sons for you.120I have told you everything that Sanatkumara had said.’ At this, Dasharatha was delighted and replied, ‘How can Rishyashringa be brought here? You should tell me in detail.’ Chapter 1(9) Urged by the king, Sumantra replied in these words. ‘With your ministers, hear about how Rishyashringa can be brought here. The advisers and priests told Romapada, “We have thought of a means so that there is no harm. Devoted to austerities and studying, Rishyashringa wanders around in the forest. He is inexperienced about women, worldly matters and pleasure. Excessive addiction to the senses causes turbulence in the minds of men. We must make efforts to bring him to the city quickly. Let beautiful and ornamented courtesans go there. Let them honour and seduce him in many kinds of ways and bring him here.” On hearing this, the king agreed to what the priests had said. Accordingly, the priests and ministers made the arrangements. Hearing the instruction, the best among courtesans entered that great forest. They stationed themselves close to the hermitage and made efforts to show themselves. The rishi’s patient son always resided in the hermitage. He was always content with his father and never ventured outside the hermitage. Since his birth, the ascetic had never seen anyone else, woman, man, or any other being, from either the city or the countryside. Wandering around as he willed, on an occasion, he arrived at that spot.121 Vibhandaka’s son arrived there and saw the courtesans. The women were splendidly attired and were singing in melodious voices. All of them approached the rishi’s son and spoke these words. “O brahmana! Who are you? Why do you conduct yourself like this? We wish to know this. You are roaming around alone in this desolate and terrible forest? Tell us.” In that forest, those women possessed desirable forms and these were forms he had not seen earlier. Affection was generated in him and he desired to tell them about his father and himself. “My father is Vibhandaka and I am his son. I am known as Rishyashringa because of an act that happened on earth.122 O beautiful ones! Our hermitage is not far from here. I wish to honour all of you there, following the prescribed rites.” Hearing the words of the rishi’s son, all of them desired to see the hermitage and all of them went there with him. When they had gone there, the rishi’s son worshipped them. “Here are arghya, padya, roots and fruits for you.” All of them eagerly accepted this worship. However, they were scared of the rishi and made up their minds to depart quickly. “O brahmana! Take these best of fruits from us. May you be fortunate. Accept them and eat them, without any delay.” Full of delight, all of them embraced him. They gave him many kinds of wonderful sweetmeats to eat. The energetic one ate them, taking them to be fruits. Having always resided in the forest, he had never tasted anything like this before. They told the brahmana that they had their vows to tend to and took his leave. The women were terrified of the father and desired to leave the spot. When they had all left, the brahmana who was Kashyapa’s descendant was miserable and did not feel well. His heart was in a whirl. After some time, the valiant one went to the spot where the delightful and ornamented courtesans could be seen. On seeing the brahmana arrive, they were delighted in their minds. All of them surrounded him and spoke these words. “O amiable one! Come to our hermitage. There will be special and wonderful rituals there.” He heard all their words, pleasing to the heart. He made up his mind to go and the women took him away. When the great souled brahmana was thus brought,123the god suddenly showered down and delighted the world. When the brahmana arrived in his kingdom with the rains, the king124 advanced to worship the sage, bowing his head down on the ground. Controlled, as is proper, he offered him arghya. He sought the favour of that Indra among brahmanas, in particular from the anger the brahmana125 would be overwhelmed with. He made him enter the inner quarters and following the prescribed rites, bestowed his daughter Shanta on him. The king obtained peace of mind.126In this way, the immensely energetic Rishyashringa resided there, with his wife, Shanta, worshipped extremely well and with all his desires satisfied.’ Chapter 1(10) ‘OIndra among kings!127 Listen yet again to my beneficial words. This is what the intelligent one, foremost among gods,128 had said. “A king named Dasharatha will be born in the lineage of Ikshvaku. He will be extremely devoted to dharma. He will be handsome and truthful to his vows. That king will be friendly with the king of Anga. He will have an extremely fortunate daughter named Shanta.129 Anga’s130 son will be a king who will be spoken of as Romapada. The immensely illustrious King Dasharatha will go to him and say, ‘O one with dharma in your soul! I am without a son. For the sake of my sacrifice, grant me Shanta’s husband. For the sake of a son and for the sake of the lineage, he will preside over the sacrifice.’ The king who will be controlled will hear these words and think about them in his mind, about granting Shanta’s husband for the sake of obtaining a son. He will grant him, and devoid of anxiety, the king131 will receive the brahmana. Delighted in his mind, he will make arrangements for the sacrifice. Desiring to perform the sacrifice, King Dasharatha, knowledgeable about dharma, will join his hands in salutation and request Rishyashringa, foremost among brahmanas. For the sake of the sacrifice, for the sake of sons and for the sake of heaven, the lord of men and the lord of the earth will have his desires satisfied by that foremost among brahmanas. He will have four sons, infinite in valour. They will establish lineages and will be famous in all the worlds.” This is what the illustrious lord Sanatkumara, foremost among gods, told in an account in an ancient time, during deva yuga.132 O great king! Let that tiger among men be honoured well and brought here. You should yourself go, with your army and mounts.’ Having heard the suta’s words and having obtained Vasishtha’s permission, he133left for where that brahmana was, with the residents of his inner quarters and his advisers. They gradually passed over forests and rivers. They entered the country where that bull among sages was. He approached that best among brahmanas, seated near Romapada. He saw the rishi’s son, who blazed like a fire. On seeing the king, the king134followed the proper rites and worshipped him, especially because of their friendship. He was delighted in his mind. Romapada told the intelligent rishi’s son and about their friendship and relationship and he also worshipped him.135 Honoured extremely well in this way, the bull among men spent some time there. After having spent seven or eight days there, the king told the king, ‘O king! O lord of the earth! Let your daughter, Shanta, and her husband come to my city. There is the task of a great sacrifice to be performed.’ Hearing this, the intelligent king agreed to the idea of their travelling there and spoke these words. ‘O brahmana! Go there with your wife.’ The rishi’s son agreed with what the king had said. Having taken the king’s permission, he left with his wife. The valiant Dasharatha and Romapada were delighted. They joined their hands in salutation and affectionately embraced each other. Having taken leave of his well-wisher,136the descendant of the Raghu lineage departed. He sent along swift messengers ahead, to inform the citizens. ‘Swiftly make arrangements for the city to be decorated in every possible way.’ The citizens were delighted to hear that the king was arriving. They made all the arrangements, as the king’s messengers had conveyed. Placing the bull among brahmanas ahead of him and to the sound of the blaring of conch shells and the beating of drums, the king entered the ornamented city. On seeing the brahmana, everyone in the city was delighted. When the Indra among men,137 with deeds to rival those of Indra, entered, he was honoured extremely well. He made him138 enter the inner quarters and following the sacred texts, worshipped him. Having brought him there, he thought that his task had already been accomplished. All those in the inner quarters saw that the large-eyed Shanta had arrived there, with her husband. They were filled with joy. She was honoured by them, especially by the king. With the brahmana, she happily resided there for a while. Chapter 1(11) After several days had passed, the extremely pleasant season of spring presented itself and the king made up his mind to undertake the sacrifice. He bowed his head down before the brahmana,139 whose complexion was like that of the gods, and sought his favours. For the sake of sons and the lineage, he requested him to be the officiating priest at the sacrifice. Honoured extremely well, he agreed to the king’s words. ‘Let the requisite objects be brought and let the horse be released.’140 The king spoke the following words to Sumantra, supreme among ministers. ‘O Sumantra! Quickly invite officiating priests who are knowledgeable about the brahman.’141 Sumantra, swift in his valour, departed quickly. He brought all the brahmanas who were accomplished in the Vedas—Suyajna, Vamadeva, Javali, Kashyapa, the priest Vasishtha and other supreme brahmanas. King Dasharatha, with dharma in his soul, worshipped them. He gently spoke these words, full of dharma and artha. ‘My mind is not at peace. There is no happiness without a son. That is the reason I have made up my mind to undertake a horse sacrifice. I wish to perform that sacrifice in accordance with the rites laid down in the sacred texts. Through the powers of the rishi’s son,142I hope to accomplish my desire.’ All the brahmanas, with Vasishtha at the forefront, praised the undecaying words that had emerged from the king’s mouth and honoured the king back. With Rishyashringa at the forefront, they told the king, ‘Let all the necessary objects be brought and let the horse be released. By all means, you will obtain four infinitely valorous sons. Because your mind has turned towards dharma, those sons will arrive.’ On hearing the words that the brahmanas had spoken, the king was delighted. Filled with joy because of those auspicious words, the king told the advisers, ‘Obeying the words of the preceptors, let all the necessary objects be brought quickly. Let the horse be released, guarded adequately and followed by preceptors. Let the sacrificial arena be marked out on the northern banks of the Sarayu. Following the ordinances laid down in the sacred texts, let peace prosper. This is the supreme sacrifice. If all the kings are capable of performing this sacrifice without any hindrances, they do not suffer from any hardships. The learned brahma-rakshasas143 always seek out weaknesses. If the ordinances are not observed, the performer of a sacrifice is always destroyed. Therefore, let the sacrifice be completed in accordance with the prescribed ordinances. All of you are capable of acting in accordance with the ordinances.’ All the ministers agreed to this and honoured him back. They followed the king’s words, exactly as they had been instructed. All the brahmanas also granted permission to that bull among kings, who knew about dharma, and returned to wherever they had come from. When the brahmanas had departed, the lord of men also allowed the ministers to leave. The immensely radiant one entered his own abode. Chapter 1(12) After an entire year had passed, it was spring again.144 Following the rites, he145 greeted Vasishtha and worshipped him. To obtain sons, he spoke these humble words to that supreme among brahmanas. ‘O brahmana! O bull among sages! Please perform the sacrifice properly. Let impediments not be caused to any part of the sacrifice. You are extremely affectionate towards me and you are my supreme preceptor. The sacrifice that I am about to undertake is a burden and you are capable of bearing that load.’ The supreme among brahmanas agreed to what the king had said and replied, ‘I will do everything that you have asked.’ He accordingly instructed all the aged brahmanas who were familiar with sacrificial rites, accomplished architects, those who were aged and extremely devoted to dharma, artisans who could see everything through until completion, carpenters, those who dug, astrologers, craftsmen, actors, dancers and extremely learned men acquainted with the unsullied sacred texts, ‘Following the king’s command, engage yourselves in tasks connected with the sacrifice. Quickly bring several thousand bricks. For the kings, construct many structures that possess all the qualities. You must build hundreds of auspicious residences for the brahmanas. They must be properly stocked with many kinds of food and drink. For the residents of the city and the countryside, there must be many beautiful abodes that are stocked with diverse kinds of food and all the objects of desire. Food must be given properly and with honour, not indifferently. All the varnas must be worshipped, respected well and given this. Nothing must be offered with disrespect, or with sentiments of desire and anger. Men and artisans who are eagerly engaged in tasks connected with the sacrifice must be specially worshipped, in the due order. If no one is disrespected, then they will perform their tasks properly. All of you act in this way, pleasantly and with affection.’ Vasishtha summoned all of them and told them this and they promised that they would all act in this way, with nothing being ignored. Vasishtha summoned Sumantra and spoke these words. ‘Invite all the kings on earth who are devoted to dharma and thousands of brahmanas, kshatriyas, vaishyas and shudras. Respectfully summon men from all the countries and the brave Janaka, lord of Mithila, for whom truth is his valour. He is devoted to all the sacred texts and devoted to the Vedas. Honour that immensely fortunate one well and bring him here yourself. It is because I know about the earlier alliance that I am mentioning him first.146 Then there is the gentle king of Kashi, always pleasant in speech. His conduct is like that of a god. Bring him yourself. The aged king of Kekaya is extremely devoted to dharma. He is the father-in-law of this lion among kings. Bring him, together with his son. The illustrious and immensely fortunate Romapada, lord of Anga, is a friend to this lion among kings. Honour him well and bring him here. Bring all the kings from the east, Sindhu, Souvira and the kings from the southern regions. Bring all the other virtuous and pleasant kings on earth. Bring all of them swiftly, with their followers and relatives.’ Hearing Vasishtha’s words, Sumantra quickly instructed men to act in accordance with the king’s auspicious words. Following the sage’s instructions, Sumantra, with dharma in his soul, himself departed quickly to invite the kings. Everyone came and informed the intelligent Vasishtha that the designated tasks had been completed. All of them told him that the objects needed for the sacrifice had been brought. Delighted, the foremost among brahmanas again told all of them, ‘Even in jest, nothing should be given with any mark of disrespect. There is no doubt that if something is given without respect, the giver is destroyed.’ After some days and nights, the kings started to arrive. They brought many kinds of gems for King Dasharatha. Extremely joyful, Vasishtha told the king, ‘O tiger among men! Following your command, the kings have arrived. As each one deserved, I have honoured those best among kings. O king! Disciplining themselves, the men have made arrangements for the sacrifice. So that the sacrifice can be performed, you should now go to the sacrificial ground. In every direction, it has been stocked with all the objects of desire.’ Following the words of Vasishtha and Rishyashringa, on an auspicious day and nakshatra, the lord of the earth left. With Vasishtha leading the way and placing Rishyashringa at the forefront, the supreme among brahmanas started the process for the sacrifice. Chapter 1(13) After an entire year was over, the horse returned. The king’s sacrifice started on the northern bank of the Sarayu. Placing Rishyashringa at the forefront, the bulls among brahmanas started the rites for the great horse sacrifice of the extremely great-souled king. Learned in the Vedas, the officiating priests performed the required rites. In due order, they followed the ordinances and policies of the sacred texts. The brahmanas followed the sacred texts in observing the pravargya and upasad rites.147 In accordance with the sacred texts, they performed all the other tasks. Delighted, all the bulls among the sages worshipped and, following the rites, performed all the rituals that have to be performed in the morning. In no way was there any deviation in any of these. The brahmana148 checked that everything was properly performed. No one who was exhausted or hungry could be seen there. There was no ignorant brahmana present, nor one without hundreds of followers. The brahmanas incessantly ate. The ascetics ate. The mendicants ate. The aged, the diseased, women and children incessantly ate and were still not satisfied. Many urgings of ‘give’, ‘give food and different kinds of garments’ were heard there. Many heaps of food could be seen, as large as mountains and every day, they were cooked in the proper way. The brahmanas praised the tasty food that had been prepared in the proper way. ‘I am content. We are fortunate.’ These are the words Raghava149 heard. Ornamented men served the brahmanas. They were aided by others wearing polished and bejewelled earrings. In gaps between the rituals, the brahmanas indulged in many kinds of debates. Wishing to defeat each other, those patient and extremely eloquent ones spoke to each other. From one day to another day, those accomplished brahmanas performed all the rites, urged on by the sacred texts. There was no one there who did not know the six Vedangas. There was no one without vows, or without learning. As an assistant priest, the king had no brahmana who was not skilled. When the time came to erect the sacrificial posts, there were six each made out of bilva, khadira and parnina. There was one constructed from shleshmataka and two from devadaru, these two being laid out like two outstretched arms.150 All of these were erected by those who were learned about the sacred texts and about sacrifices. To bring beauty to the sacrifice, these were ornamented and embellished in gold. In accordance with the ordinances, all of these were firmly laid out by accomplished artisans. Each possessed eight smooth sides. They were covered with garments and decorated with flowers and fragrances. They were radiant, like the saptarshis in heaven.151 Bricks were properly measured and laid out and brahmanas knowledgeable about shulba rites readied the place for the fire.152 Eighteen bricks were laid out on three sides153 and it looked like Garuda154 with golden feathers. As instructed by the sacred texts, animals, serpents, birds, horses and aquatic creatures were tethered to sacrificial stakes, as offerings to the gods. Following the sacred texts, the officiating priests sacrificed these. Three hundred animals were tethered to sacrificial stakes, including King Dasharatha’s supreme horse. In great joy, Kousalya worshipped the horse and used three swords to kill it.155 With a peaceful mind and wishing to obtain dharma, Kousalya then spent a single night with that horse. The hotris, adhvaryus and udgatris156 united the mahishi, parivritti and vavata with the horse.157 The extremely controlled officiating priests, controlled in their senses, extracted the horse’s entrails, and following the sacred texts, offered this as oblation into the fire. At the appropriate time, following the rituals and desiring to cleanse himself of sins, the lord of men inhaled the fragrance of the smoke from the entrails. Sixteen brahmanas who were officiating priests observed the rituals and offered all the limbs of the horse into the fire. In other sacrifices, oblations are offered using the branch of a plaksha tree.158 However, in the case of a horse sacrifice, the sacrifice is conducted with a single reed. According to the Kalpa Sutras and the Brahmana texts,159 the horse sacrifice numbers three days. The first day after that has been thought of as chatushtoma, the second has been counted as uktha and the third is known as atiratra.160 Thereafter, other great sacrifices like jyotishtoma, ayushtoma, atiratra, abhijit, vishvajit and aptoryama were performed. The king, the extender of his own lineage, gave away the eastern direction to the hotri, the western direction to the adhvaryu, the southern direction to the brahmana and the northern direction to the udgatri as dakshina.161In ancient times, Svayambhu had performed a great horse sacrifice. Having properly completed the sacrifice, the king, bull among men and extender of sacrifices, donated the earth to the officiating priests. With the king cleansed of all his sins, all the officiating priests told him, ‘You alone are capable of protecting the entire earth. We have nothing to do with the earth. We are incapable of ruling it. O lord of the earth! We are always engaged in studying. Instead, give us something that has an equivalent value.’ The king gave them one million cows, ten crore gold coins and forty crore silver coins. Collectively, all the officiating priests gave those riches to the sage Rishyashringa and the intelligent Vasishtha. Each of those supreme among brahmanas received his proper share. All of them were supremely delighted and said that they were satisfied. Having performed that supreme sacrifice, which destroyed sins and conveyed one to heaven, the king was delighted. It was a sacrifice that was extremely difficult for kings to perform. King Dasharatha then told Rishyashringa, ‘O one who is excellent in his vows! You should act so that my lineage is extended.’ The supreme among brahmanas told the king that it would indeed be that way. ‘O king! You will have four sons who will extend your lineage.’ Chapter 1(14) The intelligent one162reflected for some time on what he should say. Having regained his senses, the one who knew about the Vedas told the king, ‘So that you can have sons and daughters, I will perform a sacrifice.163I will observe the ordinances and mantras decreed by Atharvashirasa164 and they will be successful.’ He then performed the sacrifice that generates sons and daughters. Chanting mantras and following the indicated rites, the energetic one offered oblations into the fire. As is appropriate, the gods, the gandharvas, the siddhas165 and the supreme rishis assembled there to receive their shares. In the proper way, the gods who had gathered in that assembly spoke these great words to Brahma, the creator of the worlds. ‘O illustrious one! Through your favours, the rakshasa named Ravana is using his valour to obstruct us in every possible way. We are incapable of subjugating him. O illustrious one! In ancient times, because of your affection, you granted him a boon. Since then, we have had to respect him in every way and have had to tolerate him. The evil-minded one shows his enmity against all those who rise up and oppresses the three worlds. As he wills, he torments Shakra, the king of the gods. He is invincible and confused because of the boon he has received. He acts against the rishis, the yakshas,166the gandharvas, the asuras and the brahmanas. The sun god cannot torment him. The wind god cannot blow against his flanks. On seeing him, the god of the ocean, with his turbulent waves, cannot make him tremble. There is great fear from that rakshasa, who is terrible to look at. O illustrious one! You should think of a means to bring about this death.’ He167 was thus addressed by all the gods. He thought for a while and said, ‘The means of countering that evil-souled one and slaying him has been decided. He had asked that gandharvas, yakshas, gods, danavas168 and rakshasas should be incapable of slaying him and I had agreed to his desire. Because of his disrespect towards them, the rakshasa had not mentioned humans. Therefore, a man will bring about his death. His death cannot occur in any other way.’ On hearing the agreeable words Brahma spoke, all the gods and maharshis were delighted. At that time, the immensely radiant Vishnu arrived there. He approached Brahma, who was still meditating. All the gods bowed down before him and said, ‘O Vishnu! For the sake of the welfare of the worlds, we wish to invoke you. The lord King Dasharatha is the king of Ayodhya. He knows about dharma and is talked about. His energy is like that of a maharshi. His three wives are virtuous, prosperous and famous.169 O Vishnu! Divide yourself into four parts and become their sons. You will be born as men. The gods find him to be invincible. He is a like a growing thorn that the worlds face. Defeat Ravana in a battle. The rakshasa Ravana is stupid. However, because his valour has been ignited, he obstructs gods, the gandharvas, the siddhas and the supreme rishis. The terrible Ravana is fierce in his energy. His enmity and intolerance towards the lord of the gods has increased. He is like a thorn to the virtuous ascetics and makes them scream.170 Save the ascetics from that great fear.’ Chapter 1(15) Narayana Vishnu was thus engaged by the supreme gods, though he knew all this. He spoke these gentle words to the gods. ‘O gods! What is the means to bring about the death of the lord of the rakshasas? How will I slay the one who is a like a thorn to the rishis?’ Thus addressed, all the gods replied to the undecaying Vishnu. ‘Assume a human form and slay Ravana in a battle. O destroyer of enemies! Over a long period of time, he has tormented himself through fierce austerities. Brahma, the creator of the worlds and worshipped by the worlds, was satisfied at this. Content, the lord granted a boon to that rakshasa. With the exception of humans, he will not face fear from any other creature. Because of disrespect, in those ancient times, he ignored humans at the time of the boon. O scorcher of enemies! Therefore, it is evident that his death can only come about through men.’ The compassionate Vishnu heard the words spoken by the gods. The idea of choosing King Dasharatha as his father appealed to him. The king was without a son and at that time, the immensely radiant destroyer of enemies was performing a sacrifice with a desire to obtain sons. A great being manifested himself from the sacrificial fire. He was immensely valorous and immensely strong, infinitely radiant. He was dark and attired in red garments. His face was red and his voice was like the rumbling of a drum. His eyes were tawny. However, his body, with an excellent beard and hair, was pleasant. He possessed all the auspicious signs and he was adorned with celestial ornaments. He was as tall as the peak of a mountain and his valour was like that of a proud tiger. His form was like that of the sun, blazing like the flames of a fire. He held a vessel made of molten gold, covered with a lid made out of silver. It looked as agreeable as a beloved wife and was full of celestial payasam.171 He held it himself in his extended hands and it seemed to be like some maya. On seeing King Dasharatha, he spoke these words. ‘O king! Know me to be a being who has been sent here by Prajapati.’ The king joined his hands in salutation and addressed the supreme one. ‘O illustrious one! Welcome. What can I do for you?’ The being sent by Prajapati again spoke these words. ‘O king! You have worshipped the gods and have now obtained this. O tiger among men! This payasam has been made by the gods and gives rise to progeny. It is blessed and increases good health. Accept it. Give it to your deserving wives and make them eat it. O king! Through them, you will obtain the sons you performed the sacrifice for.’ The king was delighted. He bowed his head down and accepted the golden vessel given by the gods, filled with food that the gods ate. He worshipped that extraordinary being, so agreeable to behold. He was filled with great delight and circumambulated him. Dasharatha obtained the payasam, prepared by the gods. He was overcome by great delight, like a poor person who has obtained riches. Having accomplished his task, the supremely radiant being, extraordinary in form, instantly vanished. The inner quarters seemed to be bathed in rays of delight, like the pleasant autumn sky when it is enveloped by the moon’s beams. He entered the inner quarters and told Kousalya, ‘For the sake of obtaining a son, accept this payasam. The king gave half of the payasam to Kousalya. The king gave half of what remained to Sumitra. For the sake of obtaining a son, he gave half of what remained to Kaikeyee. Having thought about it, the lord of the earth again gave what remained of the payasam, which was like amrita,172to Sumitra.173In this way, the king gave separate shares of the payasam to his wives. The supreme wives of the king obtained the payasam and all of them thought this was a great honour. Their hearts were full of joy. Chapter 1(16) After Vishnu had become the son of the great-souled king, the illustrious Svayambhu174 spoke these words to all the gods. ‘The valiant Vishnu is devoted to the truth and all of you are his well-wishers. Assume forms that you desire and create powerful aides for him. Let these be accomplished in maya and bravery, with a speed that is like that of the wind. Let them know about policy and possess intelligence. Let them be like Vishnu in valour. Let them be indestructible and let them know about all the means. Let their bodies be divine. Let them know about all weapons, like those who subsist on amrita. Let them be born from the bodies of the best among apsaras and gandharva women.175 Let them be born through yaksha, pannaga, riksha and vidyadhara maidens.176 Let them be born from the limbs and bodies of kinnara and vanara ladies.177 Create sons who are your equals in valour. Create them in the form of apes.’ Thus addressed by the illustrious one, they agreed to adhere to his instructions. They gave birth to sons who were like apes in form. The great-souled rishis, the siddhas, the vidyadharas, the serpents and charanas178 created brave sons who roamed around in the forest. They created many thousand, who would rise up to slay Dashagriva.179 They were brave and valiant, immeasurable in strength. They could assume any form at will. Those immensely strong ones possessed bodies that were like elephants and mountains. They swiftly took birth as rikshas, vanaras and gopuchchhas.180 Each god had a different kind of form, attire and valour and the sons who were separately born mirrored these from the father. Some born from golangula women were superior in valour. There were others born to riksha, vanara and kinnara women. All of them fought with rocks. All of them used trees as weapons. All of them fought with nails and teeth. All of them were knowledgeable about all kinds of weapons. They were capable of dislodging the greatest of mountains. They could shatter and uproot large trees. With their speed, they were capable of agitating the ocean, the lord of the rivers. They were capable of shattering the ground with their feats. They could leap over the great ocean. They were capable of seizing the clouds in the sky. They could capture crazy elephants when these roamed around in the forest. With the sound of their roars, they could make birds fall down. Such were the apes that were born and they could assume any form at will. The number of such great-souled ones was in millions. Brave ones were born as leaders of troops of apes. There were thousands who departed, to dwell on the slopes of Mount Rikshavat. There were many others who resided in other mountains and groves. Sugriva was the son of Surya and Vali was the son of Shakra. All the lords among apes served these two brothers. Their bodies were like large masses of clouds. The leaders among the herds of vanaras were immensely strong. They arrived on earth, assuming terrible forms. They assembled so as to help Rama. Chapter 1(17) When the great-souled one’s horse sacrifice was over, the gods accepted their respective shares and returned to wherever they had come from. With the consecration and rituals over, the king entered the city with his servants, soldiers and mounts, and accompanied by his wives. The king honoured the other kings, in accordance with what they deserved. Bowing down before that bull among sages,181 they joyfully returned to their own countries. When the kings had departed, placing the supreme brahmanas at the forefront, the prosperous King Dasharatha again entered his own city. Honoured well, Rishyashringa left, with Shanta. Having taken his leave, the intelligent king182 also left with his followers. Born as a portion of Vishnu, Kousalya gave birth to the immensely fortunate Rama, the extender of the Ikshvaku lineage and one who possessed all the divine signs.183 With the infinitely energetic son, Kousalya was radiant. She was like Aditi, after having given birth to the supreme god, the one with the vajra in his hands.184 Kaikeyee gave birth to Bharata, for whom truth was his valour. He was like a fourth portion of Vishnu himself and possessed all the qualities. Sumitra gave birth to the sons Lakshmana and Shatrughna. All of them were brave and skilled in all the weapons. They were born as Vishnu’s portions. The king’s four great-souled sons were born separately. They possessed all the qualities and were as resplendent as Proshthapada.185 When eleven days were over, the ceremony for giving names was undertaken. The eldest was the great-souled Rama. Kaikeyee’s son was Bharata. Sumitra’s sons were Lakshmana and Shatrughna. Extremely delighted, Vasishtha gave them their names. He also performed the rites connected with birth and all the other sacraments. The eldest one, Rama, was like a standard and brought great pleasure to his father. He appeared to all creatures as if he was the revered Svayambhu. All of them knew about the Vedas. All of them were brave and devoted to the welfare of creatures. All of them were learned and all of them possessed all the qualities. Among them, Rama, with truth as his valour, was immensely energetic. Since childhood, Lakshmana, the extender of prosperity, was extremely pleasant.186 He was always devoted to his eldest brother, Rama, one who brought delight to the worlds. With body and soul, he always did what brought Rama pleasure. Lakshmana possessed prosperity. Though his body was different, his breath of life was like Rama’s. Without him, Purushottama187 was unable to go to sleep. Without him, he188 would not eat any delicious food that was brought to him. When Raghava189rode a horse and went out on a hunt, he190 wielded a bow and protected him from the rear. Shatrughna, Lakshmana’s younger brother, was thus attached to Bharata. He was always dearer than his191 own life and remained devoted to him. Dasharatha loved these four extremely fortunate sons. He was extremely delighted with them, like the grandfather192 with the gods. All of them possessed learning. All of them possessed all the qualities. They possessed humility and were renowned. They knew everything and were far-sighted. With his priests and relatives, the great-souled King Dasharatha started to think about their marriages. In an assembly of his ministers, the great-souled one reflected on this. At that time, the immensely energetic and great sage, Vishvamitra, arrived there. He told the gatekeeper that he wished to meet the king. ‘Quickly tell him that Koushika, Gadhi’s son, has arrived.’ Hearing this and frightened in their minds,193they were urged by these words and rushed towards the king’s residence. They went to the king’s abode and told the king who was descended from the Ikshvaku lineage that rishi Vishvamitra had arrived. Hearing these words, he was delighted. He controlled himself and, with his priests, headed for the place, like Vasava194towards Brahma. The ascetic, firm in his vows, was radiant. On seeing him, with a cheerful face, the king offered him arghya. Following the rituals instructed in the sacred texts, he accepted arghya from the king and asked about the king’s welfare. When Vasishtha arrived, the immensely fortunate one asked about the welfare of that bull among sages and also that of the other rishis. Worshipped and cheerful in their minds, all of them entered the king’s residence. Each sat down on the seat he deserved. The extremely generous king was delighted in his mind. He cheerfully worshipped the great sage, Vishvamitra, and said, ‘Your arrival here is like the receipt of amrita, like rain in a place that is without water, like a barren wife giving birth and like getting back riches that have been destroyed. O great sage! I think that your arrival here signifies joy like that. Welcome. I am delighted. What can I do for you? What is your great desire? O brahmana! O one who follows dharma! You are a worthy recipient and it is good fortune that you have come here. Today, my birth has been rendered successful and it is as if I have indeed lived a successful life. You were earlier known as a rajarshi and blazed in radiance because of your austerities. You then became a brahmana rishi.195 You should be worshipped by me in several ways. O brahmana! Your arrival here is supremely sacred and wonderful. O lord! Merely by looking at you, it is as if I have visited an auspicious spot. Please tell me what you desire and the reasons for your coming here. If I can ensure the fruition of your desires, I will be greatly blessed. O Koushika! You are like a god to me. Unless I do not deserve to be told, you should tell me about the task that needs to be performed and I will accomplish it completely.’ The supreme rishi heard these words, which were pleasant to hear about and brought happiness to the heart. They were uttered with humility by someone who possessed all the qualities and was famous for his qualities. He was greatly delighted. Chapter 1(18) On hearing the wonderful words of that lion among kings, expounded in detail, the immensely energetic Vishvamitra’s body hair stood up and he said, ‘O tiger among kings! It is befitting that you, and no one else on earth, should speak these words. You have been born in a great lineage and have been instructed by Vasishtha. I will tell you what is in my heart and you can decide on your course of action accordingly. O tiger among kings! You are true to your pledges. Act in accordance with that. O bull among men! To become successful, I am now engaged in some rituals. Two rakshasas are causing obstacles along that path and they can assume any form at will. I am nearing the completion of my vows. However, those two rakshasas, Maricha and Subahu, are valiant and well trained. They shower down torrents of flesh and blood on the sacrificial altar. With the advent of this obstruction, the completion of the rituals is uncertain. Though I had exerted myself, I have lost all interest and have left that place. O king! My intelligence should not be excited and fall prey to anger. When one is practising rituals of that kind, one should not come under the influence of rage. O tiger among kings! Rama is your own son and truth is his valour. He is brave and the eldest. The sidelocks of his hair are like a crow’s wings.196 Give him to me. He will be protected by me and is also celestial in his own energy. He is capable of countering the rakshasas and destroying them. There is no doubt that I will also confer many kinds of objects on him and they will be beneficial. Through those, he will obtain fame in the three worlds. Those two are incapable of standing before Rama in any way. No man other than Raghava197is capable of killing them. Intoxicated by their valour, those two wicked ones have been bound by the noose of destiny. O tiger among kings! They are incapable of withstanding the great-souled Rama. O king! Just because he is your son, you should not display excessive affection. I am assuring you. Know that those two rakshasas are as good as slain. I know the great-souled Rama. Truth is his valour. The immensely energetic Vasishtha knows this and so do all the ascetics who are stationed here. O Indra among kings! If you desire to obtain dharma and constant and supreme fame on earth, you should give Rama to me. O Kakutstha!198If your ministers grant you permission and so do the others, with Vasishtha at the forefront, grant him to me and let go of Rama. Without any attachment towards him, you should grant me your desired son, the lotus-eyed Rama. The sacrifice will only last for ten nights. O Raghava! Act so that the designated time for my sacrifice is not in vain. You should not have any unnecessary sorrow in your mind. Act so that there is good fortune.’ The one with dharma in his soul spoke these words, which were full of dharma. Then the great sage, the immensely energetic Vishvamitra, stopped speaking. The lord of men heard these words and they shattered his heart and mind. He was distressed in his mind and, suffering from great fear, was dislodged from his throne. Chapter 1(19) Hearing the words spoken by Vishvamitra, for some time, the tiger among kings lost his senses. Having regained his senses, he said, ‘My lotus-eyed Rama is still less than sixteen years of age.199I do not see him as being capable of fighting against the rakshasas. Here is an entire akshouhini and I am its lord and commander.200 Surrounded by them, I will go there and fight against those who roam around in the night.201 These servants are brave and valiant and accomplished in the use of weapons. They are capable of fighting against large numbers of rakshasas. You should not take Rama. In the forefront of the battle, I will protect you with a bow in my hand. As long as I have life, I will fight against those who roam around in the night. Thus protected well, you will face no obstructions in the completion of your vows. I will go there. You should not take Rama. He is a child. He has not completed his education. He does not know about strengths and weaknesses.202 He does not possess the strength of weapons. Nor is he accomplished in fighting. There is no doubt that the rakshasas will resort to deceitful methods of fighting and he cannot counter that. O brahmana! O tiger among sages! Separated from Rama, I am not interested in remaining alive, not even for an instant. You should not take Rama. O brahmana! O one who is excellent in his vows! However, if you do wish to take Raghava, take me with him, with the four kinds of forces.203 O Koushika! Sixty thousand years have passed since my birth. He has been born after a lot of misery. You should not take Rama. I am extremely affectionate towards my four sons. According to dharma, the eldest is the most important. You should not take Rama. What valour do those rakshasas possess? Whose sons are they? O bull among sages! What is their size and who protects them? How will Rama be able to act against those rakshasas? O brahmana! They will fight in deceitful ways and I alone possess the strength to counter them. O illustrious one! Instruct me everything, about how I can fight against them in the battle. Those rakshasas are full of valour and base themselves on evil sentiments.’ Hearing his words, Vishvamitra replied, ‘There is a rakshasa named Ravana, born in Poulastya’s lineage. Thanks to a boon obtained from Brahma, he oppresses and obstructs the three worlds. He is immensely strong and immensely valorous. He is surrounded by a large number of rakshasas. It has been heard that the immensely valorous Ravana, lord of the rakshasas, is the brother of Vaishravana204 himself and the son of the sage Vishravasa. The immensely strong one does not cause obstructions to sacrifices himself. He urges two immensely strong rakshasas named Maricha and Subahu and they cause obstructions to sacrifices.’ The king was thus addressed by the sage and told the sage, ‘In an encounter, I am myself incapable of standing before that evil-souled one. O one who knows about dharma! You should show your favours towards me and towards my young son.205 We are limited in fortune. You are our god and our preceptor. The gods, danavas, gandharvas, yakshas and pannagas are incapable of standing before Ravana in an encounter. What can humans do? In an encounter, that brave rakshasa sucks away the valour of his adversaries. O best among sages! I am incapable of fighting against him and his army, even with my soldiers and even if I am with my sons. My son is said to be an equal of the immortals. But he does not know about fighting. O brahmana! My son is but a child. Grant him to me. In addition, those two are the descendants of Sunda and Upasunda206 and are like Death in a battle. They may obstruct sacrifices, but I will not give you my son. Maricha and Subahu are full of valour and are extremely well trained. In an extremely terrible battle, I will fight against one or the other of those two.’ Chapter 1(20) Koushika heard what he had said, his words were full of affection. Filled with anger, he answered the king in these words. ‘You have been born in Raghava’s lineage and will bring destruction to the line. Having pledged earlier, you now wish to deviate from your promise. O king! Pardon me. I will go to wherever I came from. O Kakutstha! Having taken a false pledge, may you be happy with your relatives.’ The intelligent Vishvamitra was thus filled with rage and the entire earth trembled. The gods were terrified. The great and patient rishi, Vasishtha, excellent in his vows, discerned that the form of the entire universe was scared. He addressed the king in these words. ‘You have been born in the Ikshvaku lineage and are like another Dharma207 yourself. You possess fortitude and are excellent in your vows, and prosperous. You should not abandon dharma. Raghava208is famous in the three worlds as one who has dharma in his soul. Follow your own dharma and do not resort to adharma. O Raghava! If a person has taken a pledge and then transgresses it, he destroys the fruits of all the sacrifices he has performed earlier. Therefore, let Rama go. Whether he is accomplished in the use of weapons or unaccomplished in the use of weapons, the rakshasas cannot harm him. He will be protected by Kushika’s son, like amrita by the fire.209 He210is supreme among valiant ones and is the personified form of Dharma. In intelligence and strength of austerities, there is no one in this world who is superior to him. He is the only one in the three worlds of mobile and immobile objects who knows about all the weapons. There is no other man who knows about these, or for that matter, gods, rishis, asuras, rakshasas, gandharvas, the best among yakshas, kinnaras and the giant serpents. Krishashva’s sons were supremely devoted to dharma and while he ruled his kingdom, in ancient times, he gave all these weapons to Koushika.211 Krishashva’s sons were the sons of Prajapati’s212 daughters. They213 were not similar in form. They were immensely valorous, resplendent and brought victory. The slender-waisted Jaya and Suprabha were Daksha’s daughters. They generated hundreds of thousands of supremely radiant weapons. In ancient times, Jaya gave birth to five hundred supreme sons. They were capable of adopting many different forms and were designed to slay the soldiers of the asuras.214 Then again, Suprabha gave birth to another five hundred sons. They were strong, impossible to withstand and invincible, designed to destroy.215 Kushika’s son knows about these weapons. He knows about dharma and is capable of also creating many other weapons that have not been known earlier. Vishvamitra is immensely energetic and a great ascetic. Such is his valour. O king! You should not harbour any doubts about Rama going.’ Chapter 1(21) When he was thus addressed by Vasishtha, with a cheerful face, King Dasharatha summoned his sons, Rama and Lakshmana. Their mothers, their father, Dasharatha, and Vasishtha and the other priests pronounced benedictions and chanted auspicious mantras. Extremely delighted in his mind, King Dasharatha inhaled the fragrances of the heads of his beloved sons and handed them over to Kushika’s son. A fragrant breeze, pleasant to the touch, began to blow, when it was seen that the lotus eyed Rama approached Vishvamitra. The drums of the gods were sounded and a great shower of flowers rained down. Those great-souled ones departed to the sounds of conch shells and drums. Vishvamitra was at the front and the immensely illustrious Rama, with sidelocks like a crow’s wing and wielding a bow, followed him. He was followed by Sumitra’s son. With quivers and bows in their hands, they illuminated the ten directions. They were with the great-souled Vishvamitra, thus resembling a three-headed serpent. It was as if the two Ashvins followed the grandfather,216 protecting him. After having travelled for half a yojana, they reached the southern banks of the Sarayu and Vishvamitra addressed Rama in these sweet words. ‘O son! Accept some water and do not allow any more time to pass. With the respective set of mantras, accept Bala and Atibala.217 As a result of these, there will be no exhaustion, no fever and no destruction of form. Even if you are asleep or distracted, the nairritas218 will not be able to assail you. There will be no one on earth who will be your equal in valour or in the strength of your arms. O Rama! There will be no one in the three worlds who will be your equal. O unblemished one! In this world, there will be no one who will be your equal in fortune, generosity, wisdom, intelligence, determination and ability to respond. The mothers of Bala and Atibala are the sources of all learning and having obtained these two kinds of knowledge, there will be no one who will be your equal. O Rama! O best among men! You will not suffer from hunger and thirst. O Raghava! Along the way, study Bala and Atibala. Having studied these two kinds of knowledge, one obtains unsurpassed fame on earth. These two kinds of knowledge are full of energy and were generated from the grandfather’s daughters.219 O Kakutstha! Because you are full of dharma, you are worthy of receiving these. There is no doubt that you will also reap all the objects of desire that have many qualities, the treasure that is only the outcome of many kinds of austerities.’ At this, with a cheerful face, Rama touched water and purified himself. He then accepted the knowledge from the maharshi with the cleansed soul. Suffused with that knowledge, Rama became radiant in his great valour. Kushika’s son, who was like a preceptor, was ready to engage them in various tasks. In great happiness, the three of them spent the night on the banks of the Sarayu. Chapter 1(22) When night was over, Vishvamitra addressed Kakutstha, who was lying down on a bed of leaves. ‘O excellent son of Kousalya! O Rama! It is dawn. O tiger among men! Arise and perform rites for the gods.’ The two princes heard the words of the extremely generous rishi. They bathed and performed ablutions in the water. Those two brave ones chanted supreme mantras. Having performed their ablutions, those two extremely valorous ones cheerfully bowed down before Vishvamitra, store of austerities, and made arrangements for departure. Those two extremely valorous ones departed and saw the sacred confluence of the Sarayu with the divine river that has three flows.220 The sacred hermitages of fierce and energetic rishis were there, those who had tormented themselves through supreme austerities for many thousand years. On seeing that sacred hermitage,221the two descendants of Raghava were greatly delighted. They spoke these words to the great-souled Vishvamitra. ‘Whose sacred hermitage is this and which man resides here? O illustrious one! We are overcome by great curiosity and wish to know this.’ On hearing their words, the bull among sages laughed. He said, ‘O Rama! I will tell you whom this hermitage belonged to earlier. Listen. Kandarpa222 used to have a body earlier. The learned ones also speak of him as Kama. Sthanu223 was controlled in his rituals and performed austerities here. Having married, the lord of the gods left, accompanied by large numbers of Maruts. At that time, the great-souled one was afflicted by the one with evil intelligence224 and uttered the sound of humkara.225 O descendant of the Raghu lineage! All the limbs and body of that evil-minded one were burnt down and destroyed by Rudra’s eyes. The great-souled one scorched him and destroyed his body. Because of the great god’s rage, Kama was rendered without a body. O Raghava! That is the reason he came to be known as Ananga.226 The place where he released his handsome body came to be known as the land of Anga. His ancient hermitage came to be frequented by sages who were his disciples.227 Since they were supremely devoted to dharma, there is no evil in this place. O Rama! O one who is auspicious to behold! We will spend the night here. Tomorrow, we will again proceed along this sacred river.’ While they were conversing, the sages, who were far sighted because of their austerities, realized that they were there. They were greatly delighted and arrived happily. They offered arghya and padya to the guest who was Kushika’s son. After this, they also tended to Rama and Lakshmana as guests. Having been honoured well, they cheerfully resided in Kamashrama228 and delighted themselves in all kinds of conversation. Chapter 1(23) When the morning sparkled, the two scorchers of enemies performed their ablutions. Placing Vishvamitra at the forefront, they arrived at the banks of the river. All those great-souled sages, rigid in their vows, also went there. They prepared an excellent boat and spoke to Vishvamitra. ‘Placing the princes in the front, ascend this boat without any delay, so that you can proceed along your path without any hindrances.’ Honouring those rishis, Vishvamitra agreed. Taking those two with him, he went to the river that was heading towards the ocean. When they were in the middle of the river, Rama asked the bull among sages, ‘What is this tumultuous sound that seems to be shattering the waters?’ Raghava’s words were full of curiosity. On hearing them, the one with dharma in his soul told him about the reason for the sound. ‘O Rama! O tiger among men! In Mount Kailasa, Brahma created a lake through the powers of his mind and that is the reason the lake is known as Manasa.229 The sacred Sarayu originates from that lake, from the lake created by Brahma. Emerging from that lake, it flows past Ayodhya. That tumultuous sound results when it unites with Jahnavee,230from the friction caused by the two flows of water. O Rama! Control yourself and bow down.’ Those two were extremely devoted to dharma and bowed down. At that time, they approached the southern bank and dexterous in their valour, alighted. Those two supreme sons of the king saw a forest that was terrible in form. Having alighted, the descendant of the Ikshvaku lineage asked the bull among sages about this. ‘This forest is impenetrable and resounds with the sound of crickets. It is populated by ferocious predatory creatures and the noise of horrible birds can be heard. There are many kinds of predatory birds that shriek in fierce tones. It is populated by lions, tigers, wild boars and elephants. It is full of dhava, ashva, karna, kakubha, bilva, tinduka, patala and badari trees.231 What a terrible forest this is!’ The immensely energetic and great sage, Vishvamitra, replied, ‘O son! O Kakutstha! Listen to the reason why this forest is so terrible. O supreme among men! Earlier, this habitation used to be extremely prosperous. Two countries created by the gods, named Malada and Karusha, used to be here.232In ancient times, the one with the one thousand eyes killed Vritra and the sin of having killed a brahmana penetrated him.233 The gods and the rishis, stores of austerities, therefore bathed Indra. When they bathed him with pots of water, the filth was released. The filth was released on the ground, the muck was released on the ground.234 When these were released from his body, the great Indra was delighted. Cleansed of the filth and muck, Indra became pure. Greatly delighted, the lord granted those two countries a supreme boon. “Malada and Karusha have borne the filth that was released from my body. Therefore, these two countries will be prosperous and will be famous in the world.” When the chastiser of Paka235 spoke in this way, the gods praised him, on seeing that the intelligent Shakra had honoured the countries in this way. O destroyer of enemies! For a long time, those two countries, Malada and Karusha, were happy and prosperous places, full of wealth and grain. After some time, a female yaksha was born and she could assume any form at will. She possessed the strength of one thousand elephants. O fortunate one! Her name is Tataka and she is the intelligent Sunda’s wife. Her son is the rakshasa Maricha, who is like Shakra in his valour. O Raghava! The evil-acting Tataka has incessantly destroyed these two countries, Malada and Karusha. She obstructs the path here and dwells half a yojana away. Using the strength of your arms, slay that evil-acting one. On my instructions, remove this region of its thorn. O Rama! Uproot this terrible female yaksha who is so difficult to withstand, so that she is incapable of destroying this region in this way. I have told you everything about how this forest came to be terrible. The female yaksha does not refrain and still continues to destroy everything.’ Chapter 1(24) Hearing the words of the immeasurable sage, the tiger among men replied in auspicious words. ‘O bull among sages! It has been heard that the yakshas are limited in valour. How can this weak one236 bear the strength of a thousand elephants?’ Vishvamitra spoke these words. ‘Hear how she came to bear great strength. This weak one bears valour and strength because of a boon that was bestowed on her. Earlier, there was a great and valiant yaksha named Suketu. He was without offspring. Therefore, he followed auspicious conduct and tormented himself through great austerities. O Rama! Thus, the grandfather237 was extremely pleased with that lord among yakshas and bestowed a gem of a daughter on him. Her name was Tataka. The grandfather also bestowed the strength of one thousand elephants on her. The immensely illustrious Brahma did not give that yaksha a son.238 Having been born, she grew up and possessed beauty and youth. He239 bestowed the illustrious one on Sunda, Jambha’s son, as a wife. After some time, the female yaksha gave birth to a son. He was invincible and his name was Maricha. However, because of a curse, he became a rakshasa. O Rama! When Sunda was slain by Agastya, the supreme rishi, Tataka and her son wished to take revenge. He240 cursed Maricha that he would become a rakshasa.241In great rage, Agastya also cursed Tataka. “You will give up this form and assume a terrible form. O great yaksha! You will become a maneater. You will become deformed, with a distorted visage.” Thus cursed, Tataka became intolerant and senseless with anger. Agastya roamed around in this sacred region and she started to destroy it. O Raghava! This female yaksha is extremely terrible and wicked in conduct. She is evil in her valour. For the welfare of cattle and brahmanas, slay her. O descendant of the Raghu lineage! She is so enveloped in the curse that in the three worlds, no man except you is capable of standing up to her. O supreme among men! You should not be revolted at the prospect of killing a woman. O son of a king! This is what must be done for the welfare of the four varnas. This is eternal dharma for someone who has been entrusted with the burden of a kingdom. O Kakutstha! Slay the source of adharma. There is no dharma in her. O king! We have heard that, in ancient times, Shakra destroyed Manthara, Virochana’s daughter, when she desired to devastate the earth. O Rama! Bhrigu’s wife and Kavya’s242 mother was firm in her vows. However, when she desired to remove Indra from the worlds, Vishnu crushed her. O prince! The great-souled ones have performed many such tasks. Those supreme beings have slain women who were devoted to adharma.’ Chapter 1(25) On hearing the sage’s words, the son of the supreme among men, lost all despondency. Raghava, firm in his vows, joined his hands in salutation and replied, ‘On my father’s instructions, to honour my father’s words and to follow Koushika’s words, I will dispel all doubt and undertake this task. In the midst of my superiors, my father, the great-souled Dasharatha, commanded me in Ayodhya and his command cannot be disregarded. I have heard my father’s words and the instructions of one who knows about the brahman.243 Without a doubt, I will undertake the supreme task of killing Tataka. For the welfare of cattle and brahmanas, for the happiness of the country and to follow your immeasurable words, I will engage myself in this task.’ Having said this, the destroyer of enemies grasped the middle of his bow with his fist. He twanged his bow and filled the directions with this terrible sound. Tataka, the resident of the forest, was terrified at this sound. Tataka was confounded by this sound, but was also enraged. Senseless with rage, the rakshasi244 determined where that sound had come from. Having heard the sound, she swiftly dashed towards the direction from where it had emerged. Raghava saw that enraged one, malformed, distorted in visage and extremely gigantic in size. He spoke to Lakshmana. ‘Behold Lakshmana! This female yaksha possesses a fierce and terrible body. On seeing her, the hearts of cowards will be shattered. Behold her. She is invincible and possesses the strength of maya. I will now make her withdraw by severing her ears and the tip of her nose. Since she is protected by her nature of being a woman, I do not wish to kill her. It is my view that one should only destroy her valour and her speed.’ When Rama said this, Tataka became senseless with rage. Raising her arms, she roared and rushed towards Rama. She descended with great force and valour, like a bolt of thunder. However, he pierced her body and she fell down, dead. Her form was terrible. On seeing that she had been slain, the lord of the gods uttered words of praise. The gods worshipped Kakutstha. Extremely delighted, the thousand-eyed Purandara245 spoke these words. Extremely happy, all the gods also spoke to Vishvamitra. ‘O sage! O Koushika! O fortunate one! Indra, and all the large numbers of Maruts, are satisfied at this task. Display your affection towards Raghava. The sons of Prajapati and Krishashva have truth for their valour. They possess the strength of austerities. O brahmana! Offer them to Raghava. O brahmana! He is a worthy recipient and is steadfast in following you. This is your task. This son of a king will perform a great task for the gods.’ All the gods said this. After worshipping Vishvamitra, delighted, they returned to wherever they had come from. Evening had set in. The supreme among sages was happy and content at Tataka having been killed. He inhaled the fragrance of Rama’s head and spoke these words. ‘O Rama! O one with an auspicious face! We will spend the night here. Tomorrow, when it is morning, we will go to my hermitage.’ Chapter 1(26) The immensely illustrious Vishvamitra spent the night there. He smiled at Raghava and spoke these sweet words. ‘O fortunate one! O prince! O greatly illustrious one! I am satisfied with you. I am extremely delighted and will give you all the weapons. With these, you will be able to pacify, subjugate and defeat large numbers of gods, asuras, gandharvas, serpents and enemies. O fortunate one! I will bestow all those divine weapons on you. O Raghava! I will give you the extremely divine dandachakra.246 O brave one! I will give you dharmachakra and kalachakra.247I will give you Vishnu’s fierce chakra and Indra’s chakra too. O best among men! I will give you the vajra weapon and Shiva’s supreme trident. O Raghava! I will give you the brahmashira and aishika weapons. O mighty-armed one! I will give you Brahma’s supreme weapon. O Kakutstha! I will give you both the Modaki and Shikhari clubs. O tiger among men! O son of a king! O Rama! I will give you the blazing weapons, Dharma’s noose and Death’s noose. I will give you the supreme weapon that is Varuna’s net. O descendant of the Raghu lineage! I will give you two vajra weapons, one that dries up and one that wets. I will give you the Painaka weapon and the Narayana weapon. I will give you Agni’s beloved weapon, the one that is named Shikhara. O Raghava! I will give you Vayu’s weapon, known as Prathama. I will give you the weapon Hayashira and the weapon Krouncha. O Kakutstha! I will give you two spears, Kapala and Kankana, and the terrible mace, Kankala. I will give you everything that the asuras wield. I will give you the great weapon of the vidyadharas, named Nandana. O mighty armed one! O son of supreme among men! I will give you a jewel among swords. I will give the beloved weapon of the gandharvas, known by the name of Manava. O Raghava! I will give you Prasvapana, Prashamana, Soura, Darpana, Shoshana, Santapana and Vilapana.248I will give you Kandarpa’s249 beloved and invincible weapon, Madana. I will give you the weapon loved by the pishachas,250 named Mohana.251 O tiger among men! O prince! O greatly illustrious one! Accept these. O tiger among men! O prince! O mighty-armed one! There are Tamasa, the immensely strong Soumana, Samvarta, the invincible Mousala, the weapon known as Satya, the supreme weapon that wields maya, the terrible weapon named Tejaprabha that saps away the energy of others, Soma’s weapon Shishira, Tvashtra’s weapon Sudamana, Bhaga’s Daruna and Manu’s Shiteshu. O Rama! O mighty-armed one! These are extremely strong and are capable of assuming any form at will. O prince! Swiftly accept these extremely pervasive ones.’ Then, the supreme among sages purified himself and stood, facing the east. Extremely delighted, he gave Rama those supreme mantras.252 The intelligent sage, Vishvamitra, chanted the mantras and all those extremely revered weapons presented themselves before Raghava. All of them joined their hands in salutation and joyfully addressed Rama. ‘O greatly generous one! O Raghava! We are your servants.’ Kakutstha extended his hands and accepted them. He urged them, ‘May you remain in my mind.’ Rama was delighted and worshipped the immensely energetic and great sage, Vishvamitra. He got ready to leave. Chapter 1(27) Kakutstha purified himself. He accepted the weapons with a cheerful face. Ready to go, he spoke to Vishvamitra. ‘O illustrious ones! I have accepted weapons that are difficult for even the gods to withstand. O bull among sages! I also wish to know about how these weapons can be countered.’ Thus addressed by Kakutstha, the great sage, Vishvamitra, full of patience, excellent in his vows and pure, instructed him about countering and withdrawing. ‘O Raghava! O fortunate one! O Raghava! These radiant ones are known as Bhrishashva’s253 sons and can assume any form at will. You are a worthy recipient. Accept them—Satyavanta, Satyakirti, Dhrishta, Rabhasa, the one named Pratiharatara, Paranmukha, Avanmukha, Laksha, Alaksha, Vishama, Dridanabha, Sunabha, Dashaksha, Shatavaktra, Dashashirsha, Shatodara, Padmanabha, Mahanabha, Dundunabha, Sunabha,254 Jyotisha, Krishana, Nairashya, Vimala, Yougandhara, Haridra, Daitya-pramathana, Pitrya, Soumanasa, Vidhutama, Makara, Karavirakara, Dhana, Dhanya, Kamarupa, Kamaruchi, Mohama, Avarana, Jrimbhaka, Sarvanabha, Santana and Varanou.’ Cheerful in his mind, Kakutstha accepted the pleasant and embodied forms of those radiant and divine ones. Having manifested themselves before Rama, they joined their hands in salutation and addressed him in sweet voices. ‘O tiger among men! We are here. Instruct us about what we can do for you.’ The descendant of the Raghu lineage replied, ‘Remain in my mind, so that you can assist me when the opportune moment presents itself. Till then, as you wish, leave.’ They agreed to what Kakutstha had said. They circumambulated Rama and taking his leave, went away to wherever they had come from. Having got to know about them, as they proceeded, Raghava addressed the great sage, Vishvamitra, in soft and gentle words. ‘What is that, located not far from the mountain? This clump of trees is as radiant as a cloud. I am supremely curious. It is beautiful and a sight to see. It is full of many kinds of animals. It is ornamented with birds that possess melodious tones. O best among sages! We have clearly emerged from the desolate forest that makes the body hair stand up. We are headed towards a region that is agreeable. O illustrious one! Tell me everything. Whose hermitage is this? Is this the place where those wicked ones of evil conduct, the slayers of brahmanas, come?’ Chapter 1(28) When the immeasurable one asked about the grove, the greatly energetic Vishvamitra started to explain. ‘O Rama! Earlier, this used to be the hermitage of the great-souled Vamana. This was famous as Siddhashrama, because the great ascetic obtained success here.255 At this time, King Bali, Virochana’s son, conquered the large numbers of gods, with Indra and the arrays of Maruts. The famous one ruled over the kingdom of the three worlds. Bali performed a sacrifice. With Agni at the forefront, the gods approached Vishnu himself in this hermitage.256 They said, “O Vishnu! Bali, Virochana’s son, is undertaking a supreme sacrifice. Our own sacrifice, which will accomplish all our tasks, is yet incomplete. Whichever supplicant arrives before him, from whatever direction he may come, he257 gives all of them everything, regardless of what they ask for. For the welfare of the gods, resort to your maya and present yourself before him. O Vishnu! Assume the form of a vamana and perform this supremely beneficial act. Through your favours, this spot will assume the name of Siddhashrama. O lord of the gods! O illustrious one! Arise and accomplish this task.” At this, the greatly energetic Vishnu generated himself through Aditi.258 He assumed the form of a dwarf and presented himself before Virochana’s son. He asked for three strides and respectfully received the gift.259 Engaged in the welfare of all creatures, the soul of the worlds, encompassed all the worlds. He controlled Bali’s energy and again gave the three worlds back to the great Indra. The greatly energetic one again brought them under Shakra’s subjugation. This hermitage was inhabited by him earlier, in his vamana form, and is the destroyer of all exhaustion. Because of my devotion, I enjoy it now. The rakshasas, the creators of obstructions, arrive at this hermitage. O tiger among men! This is where the ones of evil conduct will be killed by you. O Rama! We will now head for the supreme Siddhashrama. O son!260 This hermitage belongs to you, just as it does to me.’ On seeing him, all the sages who were residents of Siddhashrama quickly presented themselves before Vishvamitra and worshipped him. As he deserved, they worshipped the intelligent Vishvamitra. They then performed the rites for the two princes, who were the guests. The princes, the scorchers of enemies, rested for a short while. The descendants of the Raghu lineage then joined their hands in salutation and addressed the bull among sages. ‘O fortunate one! O bull among sages! Please consecrate yourself today. Let this Siddhashrama bring about success and may your words come true.’ The immensely energetic and great sage, Vishvamitra, was addressed in this way. He controlled himself, controlled his senses and consecrated himself.261 Having slept in the night, when it was morning, the princes arose. They controlled themselves and worshipped Vishvamitra. Chapter 1(29) The two princes, destroyers of enemies, knew about the time and the place. Conscious of what should be said at the right time and the right place, they spoke these words to Koushika. ‘O illustrious one! O brahmana! We wish to hear when those dwellers of the night present themselves. When must this place be protected? Let the moment not pass.’ Hastening to fight, the two Kakutsthas spoke in this way. All the sages were pleased and praised the two princes. ‘O Raghavas! From today, you will have to protect this spot for six nights. Having consecrated himself, the sage262is observing a vow of silence.’ Having heard their words, the two illustrious princes dispensed with sleep for six days and six nights and protected the hermitage. The brave ones were supreme archers and roamed around. Those two destroyers of enemies protected the supreme sage, Vishvamitra. Time passed and the sixth day arrived. Rama told Soumitri,263‘Be attentive and alert.’ Having said this, Rama quickly readied himself for the fight. The priests and assistant priests kindled the fire on the sacrificial altar. As is proper, mantras were uttered and the sacrifice proceeded. At that time, a great and terrible sound was heard in the sky. It was as if clouds had enveloped the sky during the monsoon. Resorting to maya, the rakshasas attacked. There were Maricha and Subahu and their followers. They arrived, fierce in form, and showered down torrents of blood. The lotus-eyed one saw that they were violently descending. Glancing towards Lakshmana, Rama said, ‘O Lakshmana! Behold these rakshasas. They are evil in conduct and eat raw flesh. I will use the Manava weapon to drive them away, like clouds dispelled by the wind.’ The Manava weapon was extremely powerful and supremely resplendent. Supremely angry, Raghava hurled this at Maricha’s chest. He was struck by that supreme weapon, Manava, and hurled one hundred yojanas away, amidst the waves of the ocean. He was whirled around and became unconscious, oppressed by the strength of Shiteshu.264 On seeing that Maricha had been repulsed, Rama told Lakshmana, ‘O Lakshmana! Behold. Shiteshu and Manava are suffused with dharma. They have confounded him and carried him away, but have not deprived him of his life. However, I do wish to slay these abhorred ones, who are evil in conduct.265 The rakshasas are wicked in conduct. They destroy sacrifices and subsist on blood.’ The descendant of the Raghu lineage affixed the extremely great Agneya weapon and hurled it at Subahu’s chest. Thus pierced, he fell down on the ground. The immensely illustrious one seized the Vayavya weapon and killed the remaining ones. The extremely powerful Raghava brought delight to the sages. The descendant of the Raghu lineage slew all the rakshasas who sought to destroy the sacrifice. He was worshipped by the rishis, as the victorious Indra was in earlier times. When the sacrifice was completed, the great sage, Vishvamitra, saw that the directions were free of all difficulties. He told Kakutstha, ‘O mighty-armed one! I have become successful and you have accomplished your preceptor’s words. O Rama! O immensely illustrious one! You have made the name of Siddhashrama come true.’ Chapter 1(30) Having been successful, the brave Rama and Lakshmana rejoiced in their heart of hearts. Cheerfully, they spent the night there. When night turned into morning, they performed their morning ablutions. They then approached Vishvamitra, who was with the other rishis. They greeted that best among sages, who was like a blazing fire. Gentle in speech, those generous ones spoke these sweet words to him. ‘O tiger among sages! We, your servants, are present before you. Instruct us about what is beneficial. Command us what we must do.’ When they spoke in this way, all the maharshis, with Vishvamitra at the forefront, spoke these words to Rama. ‘O best among men! Janaka of Mithila is devoted to dharma and will undertake a supreme sacrifice. We will go there. O tiger among men! You should also come with us. There is an extraordinary gem of a bow there and you should see that. It is fierce and is immeasurable in strength. It is supremely radiant in a battle. O best among men! In an assembly, the gods gave it to him earlier.266 The gods, the gandharvas, the asuras and the rakshasas are incapable of raising it, not to speak of men. Many kings wished to test the energy of that bow. However, those supremely strong princes were incapable of raising it. O tiger among men! That bow belongs to the great-souled lord of Mithila. O Kakutstha! You will be able to see it and witness the extraordinary sacrifice. O tiger among men! The bow possesses an excellent grip. The lord of Mithila had sought this supreme bow as the fruit of a sacrifice from all the gods.’ Having said this, the supreme among sages267 prepared to leave with the large number of rishis and Kakutstha, having taken his leave of the gods of the forest. ‘I have become successful in Siddhashrama. May I be safe in the course of my journey. I will leave for the Himalaya mountains, located on the northern banks of the Jahnavee.’ Having circumambulated the supreme Siddhashrama, he got ready to leave for the northern direction. The supreme among sages departed, accompanied by his followers. One hundred carts followed the one who knew about the brahman. The birds and animals that resided in Siddhashrama also followed the great-souled and great sage, Vishvamitra. When the sun stretched out,268the large number of sages had proceeded some distance. They controlled themselves and rested on the banks of the Shona river. When the sun set, they bathed and kindled a fire. They seated themselves in front of the infinitely energetic Vishvamitra. Rama and Soumitri worshipped the sages. They too seated themselves in front of the intelligent Vishvamitra. The infinitely energetic Rama was full of curiosity. He asked the great sage, Vishamitra, tiger among sages. ‘O illustrious one! What is this place, prosperous with forests? O fortunate one! I wish to hear. You should tell me the truth about this.’ Thus urged by Rama’s words, in the midst of the rishis, the great ascetic, excellent in his vows, told him everything about that region. Chapter 1(31) ‘There was a great ascetic named Kusha, descended from the great Brahma. Through the princess of Vidarbha, he had four sons who were exactly like him—Kushamba, Kushanabha, Adhurtarajas and Vasu. They were radiant and great in enterprise, interested in observing the dharma of kshatriyas. The sons were devoted to dharma and truthful in speech. Kusha told them, “O sons! Rule properly, so that you may obtain all the fruits of dharma.” Having heard Kusha’s words, those best among men, revered in the worlds, sought to create four cities. The immensely energetic Kushamba constructed the city of Koushambi.269 Kushanabha, with dharma in his soul, constructed the city of Mahodaya. O Rama! King Adhurtarajas constructed Dharmaranya and King Vasu constructed Girivraja,270 supreme among cities. O Rama! This is the dominion of the great-souled Vasu, known as Vasumati. In every direction, five great mountains can be seen. This beautiful river, Sumagadhi,271flows towards the famous land of Magadha. In the midst of those five great mountains, it is as radiant as a garland. O Rama! Sumagadhi272flows eastwards through the great-souled Vasu’s land. O Rama! The area is garlanded by excellent fields that yield a lot of grain. O descendant of the Raghu lineage! Through Ghritachi,273 the great-souled royal sage, Kushanabha, with dharma in his soul, had one hundred supreme daughters. They were young and beautiful. Once, ornamented, they went to a grove and were like one hundred flashes of lightning during the monsoon. O Raghava! They sang, danced and played on musical instruments. Adorned in excellent ornaments, they were in a paroxysm of delight. Their limbs were beautiful and their beauty was unmatched on earth. They went to that grove and were like stars amidst clouds. Having seen them, Vayu, who pervades everything, told them, “I desire all of you. Become my wives. Abandon your human forms and obtain long lifespans instead.” They heard the words of Vayu, unsullied in his deeds. However, those one hundred maidens laughed at his words and replied, “O supreme among gods! You roam around inside all creatures. All of us know about your powers. But why are you slighting us? O supreme among gods! All of us are Kushanabha’s daughters and are capable of dislodging you from your status. It is just that we want to preserve our store of austerities. O evil-minded one! Our father is truthful in speech. The time will never come when we will cross our father, transgress dharma and resort to svayamvara.274 Our father is our lord. He is our supreme divinity. Our husband will be the one to whom our father bestows us.” Hearing their words, Vayu was greatly enraged. The illustrious lord entered their bodies and disfigured their limbs. Mangled by Vayu, those maidens entered the king’s residence. On seeing that they had been mangled, the king was terrified and spoke these words. “O daughters! How did this happen? Who has shown disrespect towards dharma? Who has made your bodies crooked? Why are you trembling and not saying anything?”’ Chapter 1(32) ‘Hearing the words of the intelligent Kushanabha, the one hundred daughters touched his feet with their heads and said, “O king! Vayu pervades everything and desired to dishonour us. He did not pay heed to dharma and resorted to an inauspicious path. We told the fortunate one that we are not independent and are devoted to our father’s words. He should ask our father and our father will decide whether we should be bestowed on him or not. However, addicted to evil, he did not accept our words. Vayu has severely afflicted us.” All of them told him this. The king, supremely devoted to dharma, heard their words. The extremely energetic one replied to those one hundred supreme maidens. “O daughters! Forgiveness is the trait of the forgiving and you have observed that great duty. You have remembered my lineage and all of you have united in acting in this way. Whether it is a woman or a man, forgiveness is the true ornament. It is extremely difficult to be forgiving, especially when the gods are involved. O daughters! This is particularly true of the kind of forgiveness you have exhibited. Forgiveness is generosity. Forgiveness represents sacrifices. O daughters! Forgiveness is truth. Forgiveness is fame. Forgiveness is dharma. The universe is established on forgiveness.” O Kakutstha! The king, who was like the gods in his valour, gave his daughters permission to leave. He knew about good policy and consulted his ministers about who they should be bestowed on. What would be the time and the place for the bestowal? Which groom would be their equal? ‘At that time, there was a great sage named Chuli. He held up his seed and was auspicious in conduct. He had attained the brahman. While the rishi was engaged in austerities, a gandharva lady served him. The fortunate one’s name was Somada and she was Urmila’s daughter. Devoted to serving him, she prostrated herself before him. She was devoted to dharma. After she had spent some time there, her preceptor was satisfied with her. O descendant of the Raghu lineage! When the time was right, he told her, “O fortunate one! I am satisfied with you. What can I do to please you?” Knowing that the sage was satisfied, the gandharva lady spoke to him in sweet words. She was accomplished in speech and was conversant with the use of words. Supremely delighted, she replied, “O great ascetic! The brahman is in you and pervaded by the brahman, prosperity is manifest in you. I desire a son who is devoted to dharma, one who is united with the brahman and with austerities. O fortunate one! I do not have a husband. I am no one’s wife. I have come here because you are suffused with the brahman. You should grant me a son.” Pleased with her, the brahmana rishi gave her a supreme son. This son was born through Chuli’s mental powers and was famous as Brahmadatta. King Brahmadatta resided in the supremely prosperous city of Kampilya,275like the king of the gods in heaven. ‘O Kakutstha! King Kushanabha, extremely devoted to dharma, made up his mind that he would bestow his one hundred daughters on Brahmadatta. The immensely energetic king invited Brahmadatta. Extremely happy in his mind, he bestowed the one hundred daughters on him. O descendant of the Raghu lineage! In due order, King Brahmadatta, who was like the lord of the gods, accepted their hands. As soon as he touched them with his hands, their deformations disappeared and they became devoid of anxiety. The one hundred maidens were united with supreme beauty. On seeing that they had become free of Vayu, King Kushanabha was supremely delighted and rejoiced repeatedly. When the marriage was over, the king sent King Brahmadatta on his way, with his wives and with large numbers of priests. Somada was also extremely happy at seeing the act that her son had accomplished. As is proper, the gandharva lady found delight in her daughters-in-law.’ Chapter 1(33) ‘ORaghava! After the marriage was over, Brahmadatta departed. Since he was without a son, King Kushanabha thought of performing a sacrifice so that he might have a son. While the sacrifice was going on, Kusha, Brahma’s son, was extremely happy and spoke these words.276 “O son! There will be a son who will be extremely devoted to dharma, like you. His name will be Gadhi and he will obtain eternal fame in this world. O Rama! Kusha spoke in this way to King Kushanabha. He then went up into the sky and entered Brahma’s eternal abode. After some time, the intelligent Kushanabha had a son named Gadhi, who was supremely devoted to dharma. O Kakutstha! Gadhi, supremely devoted to dharma, is my father. O descendant of the Raghu lineage! I have been born in Kusha’s lineage and am Koushika. O Raghava! Earlier, I had a sister who was excellent in her vows. Her name was Satyavati and she was bestowed on Richika. Following her husband, she went to heaven in her own physical body. The extremely generous one started to flow as the great river Koushiki.277 She is divine, with sacred waters. She is beautiful and flows through the Himalayas. For the welfare of the worlds, my sister flowed as a river. That is the reason I always dwell happily on the slopes of the Himalayas. O descendant of the Raghu lineage! This is because of the affection I bear towards my sister, Koushiki. Satyavati is sacred and is established in true dharma. The immensely fortunate one is devoted to her husband and is Koushiki, supreme among rivers. O Rama! Because of my vows, I left her and came to Siddhashrama. Because of your energy, I have obtained success. O Rama! This is my origin and I have recounted my lineage and about this region. O mighty-armed one! That is what you had asked me about. O Kakutstha! Half the night has passed in telling you about my account. O fortunate one! We should sleep now. We have come half the way and let there be no hindrances. O descendant of the Raghu lineage! Everything is quiet and the birds and animals are resting. The darkness of the night has pervaded all the directions. Evening has slowly crept away and the sky is covered with nakshatras and planets that look like eyes. Their radiance illuminates everything. The moon, the dispeller of darkness from the worlds, has arisen, with its cool beams. O lord! With its radiance, it gladdens the worlds and the minds of creatures. Here and there, the creatures of the night are roaming around. There are large numbers of yakshas and rakshasas. They are terrible and feed on raw flesh.’ Having spoken in this way, the immensely energetic and great sage ceased. All the other sages praised him and worshipped him. Rama and Soumitri were somewhat astounded. They also praised the tiger among sages and went to sleep. Chapter 1(34) With the maharshis, Vishvamitra spent the rest of the night on the banks of the Shona. When night turned into an excellent morning, he said, ‘O Rama! The night has turned into an excellent morning and the first sandhya has commenced.278 Arise. O fortunate one! Arise. You should get ready for departure.’ On hearing his words, he279 performed the morning ablutions. He prepared to leave and replied in these words. ‘The Shona possesses auspicious waters. It is full of sandbanks and can be crossed. O brahmana! What mode should we use to cross over it?’280 Thus addressed by Rama, Vishvamitra said, ‘I instruct that we should follow the path that the maharshis have travelled along.’281 After having travelled some distance, for half a day, they saw Jahnavee, best among rivers, frequented by the sages. On seeing the sacred waters, populated by swans and cranes, all the sages, together with the two Raghavas, were delighted. They set up residence along the banks. They bathed there. As is proper, they offered water to the ancestors and the gods. They rendered offerings into the agnihotra fire and those oblations were like amrita. Pure and cheerful in their minds, they resided on the banks of the Jahnavee. In every direction, they surrounded the great-souled Vishvamitra. Delighted in his mind, Rama spoke to Vishvamitra. ‘O illustrious one! I wish to hear about the Ganga, the river with the three flows. How does she flow through the three worlds and reach the lord of the male and female rivers?’282 Urged by Rama’s words, Vishvamitra, the great sage, started to describe the birth and progress of Ganga. ‘The Himalayas, Indra among mountains, is a great store of minerals. O Rama! He had two daughters and their beauty was unmatched on earth. O Rama! Their mother was the slender-waisted daughter of Mount Meru. Her name was Mena. That beautiful one was the beloved wife of the Himalayas. Her daughter Ganga was the elder daughter of the Himalayas. O Raghava! There was a second daughter and her name was Uma. All the gods wished that the elder daughter should accomplish a task for the gods. They asked the Indra among mountains and she became a river with three flows. Following dharma, the Himalayas donated his daughter, for the sake of purifying the worlds. For the welfare of the three worlds, Ganga started to flow as she willed. For the benefit of the three worlds, those who desired the welfare of the three worlds283 accepted Ganga and returned, successful at their inner wishes having been met. O descendant of the Raghu lineage! The mountain had another daughter. That store of austerities resorted to fierce vows and asceticism. That daughter of the supreme among mountains engaged in terrible austerities. The unmatched Uma, revered in the worlds, was bestowed on Rudra. These daughters of the king of mountains are worshipped by the worlds. O Raghava! Ganga is best among rivers and Uma is a goddess. I have told you everything about the river that has three flows. O son!284 The one with the best of flows first flowed in the sky.’ Chapter 1(35) When the sage said these words, the brave Rama and Lakshmana applauded the account and spoke to the bull among sages. ‘O brahmana! You have recited a supreme account that is full of dharma. You should tell us about the elder daughter of the king of the mountains in detail. You are capable of recounting divine and human origins in detail. What is the reason why the purifier of the worlds has three flows? Why is Ganga, the one with the three flows, known as the best among rivers? O one who knows about dharma! What are the tasks that she has performed in the three worlds?’ When the two Kakutsthas addressed him in this way, in the midst of all the rishis, Vishvamitra, the store of austerities, narrated the entire account. ‘O Rama! In ancient times, the great ascetic, Shitikantha,285 married. Having seen the goddess,286 he desired to have intercourse with her. One hundred divine years passed for the god Shitikantha.287 O Rama! O scorcher of enemies! However, he still did not have a son. At this, with the grandfather at the forefront, all the gods were anxious. “When an offspring is born, who will be able to sustain him?”288 All the gods went and prostrated themselves before him. They said, “O Mahadeva! O god of the gods! O one who is engaged in the welfare of the worlds! The gods have prostrated themselves before you. You should show them your favours. O supreme among the gods! The world will not be able to sustain your energy. Resort to the austerities of the brahman. Unite with the goddess in that kind of austerity.289 For the welfare of the three worlds, withdraw your semen and energy. Protect all these worlds. You should not destroy the worlds.” Maheshvara, the lord of all the worlds, heard the words of the gods. He agreed to this. He again told all of them, “I will restrain my semen and my energy within Uma. The gods and the earth will be secure. However, the part of my energy that has already been stirred cannot be restrained. O supreme among the gods! Tell me who is going to sustain this.” Thus addressed, the gods replied to the one who has a bull on his banner.290 “The earth will bear the energy that has already been dislodged.” Thus addressed, the lord of the gods released it on the surface of the ground. The earth, with its mountains and groves, was pervaded by this energy. At this, the gods again spoke to the fire god. “Aided by Vayu, enter Rudra’s great energy.” It again pervaded Agni and created Mount Shveta. There was a celestial clump of reeds that was like the fire and the sun in complexion. Created from Agni, the greatly energetic Kartikeya was born there. The gods, with the large number of rishis, were greatly delighted and wholeheartedly worshipped Uma and Shiva. O Rama! However, the daughter of the mountain291 was enraged and her eyes turned red with anger. Full of intolerance, she cursed the gods and told them, “I desired to have intercourse for the sake of a son, but you restrained me. Because of that, you will never be able to obtain offspring through your own wives. From today, your wives will remain infertile.” Having spoken in this way to all the gods, she also cursed the earth. “O earth! You will never possess one single form and will always be the wife to many. You will be tainted through my rage and will never know any affection towards your sons. O extremely evil- 174038