All language subtitles for World of Weapons S01E10 Civilians on the Battlefield

THEY ARE THE TOOLS

OF HUMAN CONFLICT AND SURVIVAL.

INGENIOUS,

POWERFUL,

DESTRUCTIVE.

FROM THE ANCIENT

TO THE MODERN,

WAR WEAPONS COMPRISE AN
EVER-EVOLVING ARSENAL

THAT'S TRANSFORMED COMBAT,

HELPED BUILD EMPIRES,

DESTROY THEM,

AND DETER AGGRESSION.

THIS SERIES HIGHLIGHTS
SOME OF THE WORLD'S

MOST IMPORTANT AND
INNOVATIVE WEAPONS,

THROUGH UNIQUE EXPERIMENTS.

Machnau: I'M READY TO FIRE.

WE EXPLORE HOW
AND WHY THEY WORK.

IT'S LIKE A
NUCLEAR WEAPON.

WHAT PROBLEMS
THEY SOLVE ON THE BATTLEFIELD.

IF THAT GOES OFF,
THIS COULD BE SERIOUS.

AND
GIVE FRESH INSIGHT.

LET'S GO!

INTO
THEIR ROLE IN HISTORY.

YOU'RE IN
A MINEFIELD, STOP!

ALMOST EVERY WAR

CLAIMS THE LIVES
OF INNOCENT PEOPLE.

TRAGICALLY, SOME
WEAPONS ARE DEVELOPED

EXACTLY FOR THIS PURPOSE.

THE TREBUCHET WAS THE WONDER
WEAPON OF THE MIDDLE AGES.

IT SEALED THE FATE OF
THOUSANDS OF PEOPLE.

FOR CENTURIES, HIGH CASTLE WALLS

ARE A NEAR
-INSURMOUNTABLE BARRIER.

ONE OF THE EARLIEST
METHODS OF BREACHING

THE STONE WALLS
ARE SIEGE TOWERS.

IT BASICALLY
TAKES THE ATTACKERS

UP TO THE SAME LEVEL
AS THE CASTLE WALL

ON A ROLLING PLATFORM
THAT CAN BE PUSHED UP

AGAINST THE CASTLE
WALL AND THE ATTACKERS

CAN THEN GO ACROSS A DRAWBRIDGEONTO THE TOP OF THE CASTLE.

BUT SIEGE
TOWER STRIKES RESULT

IN CONSIDERABLE LOSSES
FOR THE ATTACKERS

EVEN IF THEY OUTNUMBER
THE DEFENDERS.

IT'S NOT A PLACE WHEREMEN WILL WILLINGLY GO,

A LARGE WOODEN TOWER WITH PEOPLEFIRING FIRE ARROWS AT YOU.

IT DOESN'T LOOK GOOD.

SO THEY'RE NOT
HUGELY SUCCESSFUL.

ATTACKS
FROM A DISTANCE

WITH CATAPULTS ARE
FAR LESS PERILOUS.

THEY ARE TIME-CONSUMING,

BUT ULTIMATELY RESULT
IN FEWER CASUALTIES.

IN THE 12TH CENTURY, A
NEW CATAPULT TECHNOLOGY

FROM ASIA DOMINATES
THE BATTLEFIELDS.

IT'S CALLED THE TREBUCHET.

THIS IS A RECONSTRUCTION INBECKDORF, LOWER SAXONY, GERMANY.

WEAPONS EXPERT MIKE
LOADES IS CAPTIVATED.

IT'S THE MOST IMPOSING
AND THE MOST ICONIC

OF ALL MEDIEVAL SIEGE ENGINES.

AND IN AN AGE BEFORE GUNPOWDER,

THIS WAS THE HEAVY ARTILLERY.

WHAT
MAKES THE TREBUCHET

SO EXCEPTIONAL IS ITS POWER.

AND ON THE END OF
THAT BEAM IS, IN FACT,

A SLING AND THE STONE
SITS IN THE SLING.

THE PRINCIPLE OF A
SLING IS THAT IT MAKES

THE LEVERS OF YOUR ARM LONGER
AND SO IT THROWS FURTHER.

IF YOU WERE TO PUT THAT SLING
ON THE END OF A LONG STICK,

YOU WOULD HAVE AN EVEN
LONGER SYSTEM OF LEVERS,

WHICH IS WHAT WE HAVE HERE.

THE TROUBLE IS, THE BEAM
IS SO BIG AND SO HEAVY,

THAT YOU NEED A
MACHINE TO OPERATE IT.

SO YOU CAN THINK OF THE
STONE AS THE AMMUNITION,

THE SLING IS THE WEAPON,
AND THE BIG WOODEN TREBUCHET

IS SIMPLY THE ENGINE
THAT POWERS THAT WEAPON.

Narrator:
BUILDING A TREBUCHET

WITH MEDIEVAL TOOLS
IS A REAL CHALLENGE.

SO IS TRANSPORTING IT.

IT'S SIMPLY NOT
POSSIBLE TO MOVE IT.

A FULLY ERECTED TREBUCHET,
YOU CAN'T MOVE IT.

ATTACKERS
PUT THE INDIVIDUAL PARTS

ON OXCARTS AND TRANSPORT THEM,

THEN ASSEMBLE THE
TREBUCHET ON SITE.

SO YOUR MILITARY
ENGINEERS WOULD COME

AND MAKE THE MACHINE AND USE IT

IN THE PLACE WHERE THEY MADE IT.

SO, PART OF THE SIEGE
WOULD BE WATCHING THE ENEMY

BUILD THE TREBUCHETS THAT
WOULD KNOCK HIS WALLS DOWN

AND YOU WOULD HOPE
THAT HE WOULD SAY,

"OKAY, I SURRENDER NOW."

YOU KNOW WHAT'S COMING
AND IT'S VERY BIG

AND IT'S GOING TO
KNOCK THE WALL DOWN.

SO THERE'S A
PSYCHOLOGICAL ELEMENT

AS WELL AS A PHYSICAL ELEMENT.

THE
TREBUCHET FLOURISHES.

ILLUSTRATIONS FROM THE
12TH AND 13TH CENTURY

DEPICT IT IN ALL CORNERS
OF THE KNOWN WORLD.

1311, BECKDORF, GERMANY.

ROBBER BARON HEINRICH VON BORCH

IS HIDING OUT AT LAKE DANNSEE.

THE NORTH GERMAN BISHOPS
WANT TO CAPTURE HIM.

IRON HEINRICH, AS HE IS ALSO
KNOWN, MANAGES TO ESCAPE.

BACK THEN, BISHOPS WERE CLERICAL

AND POLITICAL REPRESENTATIVES.

IT WAS THEIR DUTY TO MAKE SURE
EVERYONE ABIDED BY THE RULES.

THEY WANT TO FORCE IRON
HEINRICH OUT OF HIS HIDEOUT

BUT IT'S SURROUNDED BY WATER

AND PROTECTED BY A WOODEN FENCE.

THEY SET UP TWO TREBUCHETS
ALONG THE LAKESHORE.

THE PLAN IS TO DESTROY THE
FORTIFICATION FROM A DISTANCE.

IT'S A MACHINE WITH
DESTRUCTIVE POWER.

THE COUNTERWEIGHT BOX DROPSAND LIFTS THE LONG THROWING ARM

RELEASING THE SLING
WITH THE STONE.

IN ORDER TO GET
THAT ACCURACY YOU NEED

TO MAKE STONES OF THE SAME
SIZE, SHAPE AND WEIGHT.

AND THESE ARE ACTUAL
TREBUCHET STONES

THAT HAVE BEEN
CHISELED BY CRAFTSMEN,

BY A MASON, WITH A
HAMMER AND CHISEL

TO MAKE THEM ALMOST IDENTICAL.

ALMOST
1,000 OF THESE STONES

WERE USED TO BOMBARD
IRON HEINRICH.

WE WANT TO FIND OUT

HOW EFFECTIVE THE
TREBUCHET REALLY IS.

WE SET UP A PALISADE
OF TREE TRUNKS

JUST LIKE HEINRICH
HAD AROUND HIS CASTLE.

IT'S 13 FEET HIGH
AND 20 FEET WIDE.

THE TRUNKS HAVE BEEN PLACED
THREE FEET DEEP IN THE GROUND.

WILL THE TREBUCHET
BE ABLE TO HIT

THE PALISADE FROM 500 FEET AWAY?

THIS HAS SOME MOVEMENT,IT HAS SOME ELASTICITY.

I THINK THAT MIGHT PROVE QUITE
A CHALLENGE FOR OUR STONES.

IT
TAKES A WHOLE TEAM

TO OPERATE THE
MEDIEVAL SIEGE WEAPON.

FIRING THE TREBUCHET
REQUIRES AT LEAST

ONE TRAINED
SPECIALIST AND AS MANY

HARD-WORKING
ASSISTANTS AS POSSIBLE.

THEY HAVE TO FILL THE
COUNTERWEIGHT BOX WITH STONES.

AND THEY HAVE TO
GREASE THE CHANNEL

THAT WILL GUIDE THE PROJECTILE

FOR THE FIRST PART OF THE THROW.

A STONE TAKEN
FROM THE SIEGE OF LAKE DANNSEE

IN THE YEAR 1311 WILL
SERVE AS THE AMMUNITION.

FIRE AWAY.

WOW, THAT WAS SO CLOSE.

AND IT FLEW TRUE,
LET'S GO AND SEE.

THE STONE ISBURIED DEEP IN THE GROUND.

GOOD GRIEF.

I DON'T KNOW WHERE
THAT STONE IS.

IT'S GONE DOWN THERE
LIKE SOME MONSTER RABBIT.

I CAN'T EVEN FEEL IT.

IT'S A WORTHY
ATTEMPT, BUT A MISS.

WHAT'S NEXT?

THE TEAM IS PREPARING
FOR THE SECOND ROUND

OF THE TREBUCHET EXPERIMENT.

THE FIRST SHOT WAS
A MISS SO THEY'LL

HAVE TO CORRECT THE AIM.

THE TREBUCHET CAN'T BE MOVED,
BUT THE HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

CAN BE ADJUSTED WITH
THE SLING GLIDE.

MIKE LOADES DISCUSSES
THIS CRUCIAL DETAIL

WITH HIS EXPERIENCED
TREBUCHET ASSISTANT, PATRICK.

AND THEN YOU CAN MOVE
THE WHOLE LINE LEFT AND RIGHT.

GOING TO THERE,
I ONLY NEED TO MOVE

THAT A LITTLE BIT,
AND OVER DISTANCE.

VERY SMALL.

VERY SMALL CAN MAKE
SEVERAL METERS DIFFERENCE.

OF COURSE.

YOU HAVE TO THINK ABOUT,
ONE CENTIMETER HERE

IS ABOUT TWO METERS
BEHIND THERE.

I HOPE WE CAN DO IT.

YOU ARE THE RIGHT HANDS.

WE WILL TRY IT AGAIN.

THANK YOU.

WIND
BACK THE THROWING ARM,

LOAD THE SLING WITH A
FRESH STONE, AND RELEASE.

THIS TIME THE PROJECTILE
TRAVELS TOO FAR.

THEY REMOVE A COUPLE OF STONES
FROM THE COUNTERWEIGHT BOX.

THIS REDUCES THE VELOCITY,
AND CONSEQUENTLY THE RANGE.

THAT'S THE ONE!

YEAH!

WILL
IT WORK THIS TIME?

A CLEAR HIT.

THE STONE GOES STRAIGHT
INTO THE WOODEN PALISADE.

WE HAVE A HIT!

AND LET'S SEE WHAT IT'S DONE.

JUST LOOK AT THIS.

IT'S JUST GONE DOWN
LIKE MATCHSTICKS,

AS IF THESE GREAT
TIMBERS WERE NOTHING,

THEY'RE JUST SHATTERED.

HERE'S THE REAL DAMAGE,
HERE ON THIS ONE.

HERE, THIS IS WHERE THE
STONE MUST HAVE STRUCK

AND IT'S JUST
SPLINTERED THIS TIMBER.

THE WALLS ARE NOW BREACHED

AND THE OPPOSING ARMY
WILL BE ON ITS WAY.

OUR TREBUCHET
HAS HIT THE TIMBER,

EIGHT INCHES THICK,
AND DESTROYED IT.

JUST LIKE IT DID 700 YEARS AGO.

BACK THEN, THE
NORTH GERMAN TROOPS

MANAGED TO PENETRATE
THE PALISADE

OF IRON HEINRICH
WITH TWO TREBUCHETS.

THE ROBBER BARON WAS
THROWN INTO THE DUNGEON.

BUT DESTRUCTION IS NOT ALWAYS
THE OBJECTIVE OF SIEGES.

YOU ACTUALLY
WANT THE CASTLE

BECAUSE IT'S A USEFUL
STRATEGIC TOOL.

SO, IF YOU CAN PERSUADE
THEM TO SURRENDER

BY FRIGHTENING THEM,
THAT'S MUCH BETTER.

IN 1346,
TARTARIAN TROOPS MAKE USE

OF A PARTICULARLY VILE TACTIC.

THEY'RE BESIEGING THE
CITY OF KAFFA IN CRIMEA

AND WANT TO UNLEASH PLAGUE
INSIDE THE CITY WALLS.

HOW ARE THEY ABLE DO THIS
WITHOUT INFECTING THEMSELVES?

THEY UNDERSTOOD IT WASA CONTAGIOUS DISEASE,

SO THEY PROTECTED THEIR
HANDS, FOR EXAMPLE.

THAT MEANS THEY COULD
TRANSPORT THE DEAD BODIES

OF PLAGUE VICTIMS TO A TREBUCHET

BASICALLY WITHOUT ANY PROBLEM,

WITHOUT PUTTING
THEMSELVES IN DANGER.

USING
TREBUCHETS, THE BESIEGERS LOB

INFECTED CORPSES
OVER THE CITY WALLS.

THE MESSAGE IS CLEAR.

SURRENDER NOW OR
WE'LL KILL YOU ALL.

THIS IS CLASSIC SIEGE WARFARE.

SO, IT'S PSYCHOLOGICAL,
IT'S BIOLOGICAL,

AND ULTIMATELY, IT'S
REMARKABLY BARBARIC.

BIOLOGICAL
AND CHEMICAL WEAPONS

HAVE EXISTED SINCE ANTIQUITY,

AND ATTEMPTS TO OUTLAW THEM
PROBABLY GO BACK JUST AS FAR.

GREECE, 6TH CENTURY BC.

THE ORACLE OF DELPHI
IS THE GREEKS'

MOST IMPORTANT SACRED SITE,

ATTRACTING PILGRIMS AND
GUIDANCE-SEEKERS ALIKE.

FOR THE COASTAL TOWN OF KIRRA,

THE TRAVELING PILGRIMS
ARE AN ECONOMIC BOOM,

BUT AN ALLIANCE OF ATHENS WANTSTO CONFISCATE THE PROFITS.

THEY ATTACK KIRRA.

ACCORDING TO HISTORICAL REPORTS,

THE INVADERS USE A
HOME-GROWN WEAPON.

THEY THROW HELLEBORE ROOTS INTO

THE PLEISTOS RIVER THAT
RUNS THROUGH KIRRA.

AN ATTACK WITH
SERIOUS REPERCUSSIONS.

THE CONSEQUENCES OF
A HELLEBORE POISONING,

VOMITING, NAUSEA, VERTIGO,
AND OF COURSE DIARRHEA.

AND EVERYONE KNOWS THAT
VOMITING AND DIARRHEA

CAUSE DEHYDRATION AFTER
A CERTAIN AMOUNT OF TIME,

AND THE BODY WILL BECOME
VERY WEAK DUE TO THIS.

IN NO TIME,

HALF OF THE RESIDENTS
OF KIRRA ARE BEDRIDDEN.

IT'S IMPOSSIBLE FOR THEM
TO DEFEND THEIR CITY.

THE ATTACKERS KILL ALL
OF THEM AND DESTROY IT.

ANY MEANS OF
GETTING AN ADVANTAGE,

AND ANYTHING THAT WOULD
DISABLE THE ENEMY,

DEMORALIZE THEM, WEAKEN THEM,

THESE ARE ALL GOOD
THINGS BECAUSE WINNING

IS THE ONLY THING THAT MATTERS.

ONCE YOU'VE WON, NOBODY
MINDS HOW YOU'VE WON.

IN 1267,
THE MONGOLS BESIEGE

THE CHINESE CITY OF XIANGYANG.

THE CHINESE FIGHT TOOTH
AND NAIL USING A WEAPON

THEY CALL "FEN PHAO KUAN FA",

WHICH MEANS FECES-THROWING BOMB.

CONTAINING A PRIMARY INGREDIENTOF DRIED HUMAN EXCREMENT,

THE BOMB IS SET ON FIRE
AND THROWN AT THE ENEMY.

THE HORRID ODOR IS DEBILITATING.

BUT IS IT REALLY
POSSIBLE TO OVERWHELM

THE ENEMY WITH STENCH ALONE?

MEDIEVAL CHINESE
DOCUMENTS DESCRIBE

HOW SUCH STINK BOMBS
WERE MANUFACTURED.

WEAPONS EXPERT MIKE LOADES
WANTS TO TRY OUT THE RECIPE.

THE FIRST EVIDENCE
WE'VE GOT FOR THE STINKPOT

COMES FROM CHINA IN
1044, IT'S RECORDED USE.

AND WE HAVE A NUMBER OF RECIPES,

ALL SORTS OF ACIDS AND PLANTS.

HERE IS ONE THAT WAS
COMMONLY USED, ACONITE.

AND IT'S THE ROOTS THAT
ARE DEADLY POISONOUS.

IF YOU INGEST THOSE ROOTS,

THEN IT CAUSES
STOMACH HEMORRHAGING,

YOUR STOMACH BLEEDS,
YOUR INTESTINES BLEED,

IT CAUSES TERRIBLE,
TERRIBLE SUFFERING.

AND ANOTHER COMMON INGREDIENT
WAS THE HELIOCOPRIS BEETLE,

THESE NASTY LITTLE FELLOWS.

IT FEEDS ON WASTE,
AND IT ABSORBS POISON

AND SO WHEN CUT APART
THERE ARE ALL SORTS

OF POISONOUS
PROPERTIES WITH THAT.

TUNG OIL, DEADLY POISONOUS
FROM THE TUNG TREE

IN SOUTHEAST ASIA, IN CHINA.

LIME, BASIC CHALK,
BUT WHEN THAT'S HEATED

TO VERY HIGH TEMPERATURES,

THAT ITSELF BECOMES
A DEADLY SUBSTANCE.

IF IT MIXES WITH THE
MOIST PARTS OF THE BODY,

LIKE THE TEARS OF THE
EYE OR MUCUS IN THE NOSE

OR IF YOU GET IT MIXED WITH
THE SALIVA IN THE THROAT,

THAT BECOMES A
DEADLY BURNING ACID.

SO, THESE ARE ALL VERY
NOXIOUS SUBSTANCES

AND THEY'RE ALL MIXED TOGETHER,HOVERIZED WITH HUMAN FECES.

I'M HAPPY TO SAY THE PRODUCERS

HAVE GIVEN ME HORSE DUNG
TO DEMONSTRATE WITH,

AND THIS IS THE FUEL.

WHEN DRIED THIS
BECOMES A UNPLEASANT

SMELLING FUEL THAT WILL BURN.

AND IT WAS THE BURNING EXCREMENTTHAT CREATED THE SMOKE,

THE SMOKE THAT CARRIED THETOXIC SUBSTANCES FROM THE PLANTS

AND THE BEETLES AND THAT ISWHAT GOT INTO THE ENEMIES' EYES,

IT GOT INTO THEIR LUNGS,
IT GOT INTO THEIR STOMACHS

AND IT MADE THEM RUN
OUT OF THE BUILDINGS,

RUN OUT OF THE SHIPS.

THE PURPOSE OF THE
STINKPOT WAS TO GET PEOPLE

OUT OF THE PLACE WITHOUT
DESTROYING THE PLACE.

A HORRIBLE,
DISGUSTING, COWARDLY,

SHAMEFUL CHEMICAL WARFARE.

THE RECIPES VARY.

BIOLOGICAL AND
CHEMICAL WARFARE BEGIN

WITH MANY SMELLY EXPERIMENTS.

SO THEY'VE GOT A CLEARADVANTAGE OVER THEIR ENEMY,

WHO IS A LESS
SOPHISTICATED SOCIETY

WITH LESS KNOWLEDGE
OF THESE TECHNIQUES.

SO, IT GIVES THEM AN
EDGE AND THAT'S WHAT

THEY'RE LOOKING FOR,
THAT'S WHY THEY USE IT.

FOR CENTURIES,
WARLORDS CONTINUE

TO COMMISSION NEW EXPERIMENTS
WITH DEADLY CHEMICALS.

BUT NO ONE COULD HAVE PREDICTED

THAT THE WORST BIOLOGICAL ATTACK

IN HISTORY WAS UNPLANNED
AND UNFORESEEN.

THE MOST FAR-REACHING
BIOLOGICAL ATTACK

IN HISTORY WAS
ACTUALLY AN ACCIDENT.

IN 1492, CHRISTOPHER
COLUMBUS MISTAKENLY

DISCOVERS A WHOLE NEW CONTINENT.

FOR THE INDIGENOUS
POPULATION THIS MARKS

THE BEGINNING OF A CATASTROPHE.

THROUGHOUT THE 16TH CENTURY
AN EVER-GROWING NUMBER

OF EUROPEANS SET
OUT FOR AMERICA.

THEY CARRY BACTERIA AND VIRUSES

THAT LARGE POPULATIONS
OF INDIGENOUS AMERICANS

HAD NEVER BEEN EXPOSED TO.

WITHIN A FEW DECADES,
AS MANY AS 15 MILLION

NATIVE AMERICANS DIE FROMDISEASES SUCH AS MEASLES OR FLU.

BUT IN SOME CASES,
EUROPEAN CONQUERORS

INTENTIONALLY USE
VIRUSES AS A WEAPON.

IN PENNSYLVANIA IN
1763, NATIVE AMERICAN

TRIBES ARE ATTACKING FORT PITT.

SOME OF THE BRITISH
COLONISTS INSIDE

THE FORT SUFFER FROM SMALLPOX.

THEIR COMMANDER-IN-
CHIEF, JEFFREY AMHERST,

KNOWS OF THE DISASTROUS EFFECTS

OF SMALLPOX ON NATIVE
AMERICAN TRIBES.

THEY INTENTIONALLY
GAVE BLANKETS

USED BY PEOPLE WITH SMALLPOX
TO FIRST NATION TRIBES

WHO DIDN'T HAVE ANY ANTIBODIES
AGAINST THIS DISEASE,

WITH A DISASTROUS
IMPACT ON THEIR

ABILITY TO DEFEND THEMSELVES.

SUMMER, 1914.

WORLD WAR I INITIATES
ENTIRELY NEW FORMS

OF WARFARE ON ALL LEVELS.

GERMAN CHEMIST FRITZ
HABER INTRODUCES

POISONOUS GAS TO
THE BATTLEFIELD.

ON APRIL 22, 1915,
A PALE YELLOW CLOUD

DRIFTS OVER THE
BATTLEFIELD TOWARD

THE FRENCH FRONT LINES
IN FLANDERS, BELGIUM.

UNDER THE OBSERVING
EYES OF HABER HIMSELF,

GERMAN TROOPS RELEASE
150 TONS OF CHLORINE GAS.

Haäusser: CHLORINE GAS WAS
ACTUALLY JUST A BYPRODUCT

OF THE SYNTHETIC
DYE-MAKING PROCESS,

AND THEN THEY FOUND OUT IT
CAN SERVE OTHER PURPOSES, TOO.

IT'S A VERY DANGEROUS WEAPON

THAT CAN CAUSE DEATH
BY SUFFOCATION.

MORE THAN
1,000 FRENCH SOLDIERS DIE.

SEVERAL THOUSANDS ARE INJURED.

THE GERMANS WERE THE
FIRST, BUT THE BRITISH

AND FRENCH WERE QUITE
HAPPY TO RETALIATE.

INDUSTRIAL
PRODUCTION MAKES

LARGE-SCALE GAS
WARFARE POSSIBLE.

THOUSANDS OF TONS ARE PRODUCED,

BUT ALSO MILLIONS OF GAS MASKS.

THEY ARE SUPPOSED TO PROTECTTHE SOLDIERS FROM CHLORINE GAS.

BUT IN 1917 THE GERMANS
DEPLOY A NEW AGENT,

YPERITE, ALSO KNOWN
AS MUSTARD GAS.

Haäusser: MUSTARD GAS WAS
EXTREMELY EFFECTIVE

BECAUSE IT REACTS UPON
CONTACT WITH THE HUMAN SKIN.

IT CAUSES BLISTERS AND BURNS.

WHAT WAS REALLY VICIOUS
ABOUT THIS WEAPON

WAS THAT GAS MASKS WERE
USELESS AGAINST IT.

IT WAS ABOUT CONTACT WITH SKIN.

THE FEAR OF
DEADLY GAS CLOUDS

HAUNTS AN ENTIRE GENERATION.

POISON GAS KILLS ABOUT
100,000 PEOPLE IN WORLD WAR I

AND LEAVES MORE THAN
ONE MILLION INJURED.

U.S. NURSE SHIRLEY
MILLARD WRITES ABOUT

EVERYDAY LIFE IN THE
GAS WAR IN HER DIARY.

"THEY JUST STRUGGLE FOR
BREATH, NOTHING CAN BE DONE.

"THEIR LUNGS ARE GONE,
LITERALLY BURNED OUT.

"SOME WITH THEIR EYES AND FACES

"ENTIRELY EATEN
AWAY BY THE GAS."

FOLLOWING WORLD WAR I A
NEW WORLD ORDER IS CREATED

TO PREVENT THE
BLOODSHED OF MILLIONS

FROM EVER HAPPENING AGAIN.

IN 1920, 32 COUNTRIES FORM
THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS.

IN 1925, THEY AGREE
ON BANNING THE USE

OF CHEMICAL AND
BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS.

BUT BY THE MID-'30S, IT
BECOMES INCREASINGLY CLEAR

THAT THE WORLD IS ON THE BRINK
OF YET ANOTHER MAJOR WAR.

IN THE 1930S AND '40S
JOINT TREATIES PROMOTE

THE BANNING OF CHEMICAL
AND BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS

BUT NOT ALL COUNTRIES
HONOR THE AGREEMENTS.

NAZI GERMANY BEGINS
MANUFACTURING CHEMICAL WEAPONS

LIKE SARIN OR TABUN
DESPITE THE SANCTIONS.

WHAT I IMAGINE IS THE
CASE IS THAT HAD GERMANY

STARTED USING THESE
WEAPONS AGAINST BRITAIN,

THE BRITISH WANTED TO BE IN

A POSITION TO
RETALIATE IMMEDIATELY.

BUT
DURING WORLD WAR II,

NEITHER SIDE USES
CHEMICAL AGENTS.

AND IN THE SECOND WORLDWAR NOBODY USES POISON GAS,

NOT BECAUSE THEY DON'T HAVE IT,

BUT BECAUSE THERE'S
NO PARTICULAR UTILITY

IN USING SOMETHING
EVERYBODY HAS.

IT WON'T ADVANTAGE
ANYBODY STRATEGICALLY.

GERMANY IS DEFEATED
WITH CONVENTIONAL WEAPONS.

HOWEVER THE
DEVELOPMENT OF CHEMICAL

AND BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS
PERSISTS AFTER 1945.

SO, TOO, DOES THE
FEAR OF AN ATTACK.

IN THE LATE '50S,
SCIENTISTS COMMISSIONED

BY THE U.S. OFFICE OF CIVIL
AND DEFENSE MOBILIZATION

DEVELOP A BIO WEAPON MASK.

IT IS DESIGNED TO FILTER
AIR BEFORE INHALATION.

ITS USER-FRIENDLY
DESIGN IS DEMONSTRATED

TO PEOPLE EVERYWHERE BUT
THE MASKS ARE NEVER USED.

THE DANGER, HOWEVER,
REMAINS REAL.

DURING THE COLD WAR,
BOTH SIDES DEVELOP

EVEN DEADLIER WARFARE AGENTS

DESPITE ALL
INTERNATIONAL TREATIES.

THE NERVE AGENT VX
IS ONE SUCH EXAMPLE.

DEVISED AS AN INSECTICIDE,
IT IS 20 TIMES

MORE POISONOUS THAN
THE TOXIC SUBSTANCE

SARIN PRODUCED
DURING WORLD WAR II.

IN THE '60S, TRAINING
FILMS PREPARE

U.S. SOLDIERS FOR EMERGENCIES.

UPON CONTACT WITH A NERVEAGENT, AN ANTIDOTE IS INJECTED,

BUT IT HAS TO BE THE RIGHT ONE.

MARCH 16, 1988.

THE IRAQI AIR FORCE
UNDER SADDAM HUSSEIN

DROPS POISONOUS GAS BOMBS
OVER THE CITY OF HALABJA.

THE DICTATOR SUSPECTS
THAT THE KURDS

ARE DEFECTING AND
MUST BE PUNISHED.

3,000 TO 5,000 PEOPLE
LOSE THEIR LIVES,

MEN, WOMEN AND CHILDREN.

NEW YORK, 2001, ONE WEEK
AFTER THE 9/11 TERROR ATTACKS.

NEWSPAPER AGENCIES,
BROADCASTING COMPANIES,

AND U.S. SENATORS RECEIVELETTERS WITH A SINISTER MESSAGE.

"YOU CAN NOT STOP US.

"WE HAVE THIS ANTHRAX.

"YOU DIE NOW.

"ARE YOU AFRAID?

"DEATH TO AMERICA.

"DEATH TO ISRAEL.

"ALLAH IS GREAT."

THE LETTERS CONTAIN
ANTHRAX SPORES.

22 PEOPLE ARE INFECTED.

FIVE OF THEM DIE.

FOLLOWING THE ATTACK,
U.S. PRESIDENT

GEORGE W. BUSH GOES
ON THE OFFENSIVE.

President Bush: THE
AMERICAN PEOPLE

NEED TO GO ABOUT THEIR LIVES.

WE CANNOT LET THE TERRORISTS
LOCK OUR COUNTRY DOWN.

BUT EVERYTHING
IS NOT AS IT SEEMS.

THE FBI BELIEVES THE SPORES CAME

FROM A LABORATORY IN MARYLAND.

THE SCIENTIST
BRUCE EDWARDS IVINS

BECOMES THEIR PRIME SUSPECT.

BUT BEFORE THEY CAN QUESTION
HIM, HE COMMITS SUICIDE.

IF, OR WHY, HE SENT THE ANTHRAXLETTERS REMAINS A MYSTERY.

SINCE 2013, POISON GAS HAS ALSO

BEEN USED IN THE
SYRIAN CIVIL WAR.

WESTERN STATES ACCUSE
DICTATOR BASHAR AL-ASSAD

OF ATTACKING REBEL STRONGHOLDS
WITH POISONOUS GAS.

ASSAD AND HIS ALLIES DISMISS
THE ALLEGATIONS AS PROPAGANDA.

BUT INDEPENDENT EXPERTS, THE
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION,

AND DOCTORS WITHOUT
BORDERS CONFIRM SUSPICIONS.

BIOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL WEAPONS

ARE NOT THE MOST LETHAL
MEANS OF MASS DESTRUCTION

FOR THE GREAT POWERS
OF THE MODERN ERA.

THE MOST EFFECTIVE OF ALL
WEAPONS PRODUCES UNTHINKABLE

LEVELS OF DESTRUCTION,
THE ATOMIC BOMB.

JULY 16, 1945, THE
AMERICAN SOUTHWEST.

SCIENTISTS WANT TO TEST THE
PROTOTYPE OF A NEW BOMB.

THE CODE NAME OF THE
EXPERIMENT IS TRINITY.

IT'S THE FIRST NUCLEAR
BOMB IN HISTORY,

AND THE DAWN OF A NEW ERA.

LOS ALAMOS, NEW MEXICO.

TOP RESEARCHERS HAVE
WORKED RELENTLESSLY

ON THE BOMB SO THE U.S.
WOULD HAVE IT BEFORE GERMANY.

THE BASIC PRINCIPLE, PHYSICS.

Haäusser: URANIUM-235
FOR EXAMPLE

HAS QUITE A LARGE NUCLEUS

CONTAINING 235 OF
THESE SMALL ATOMS.

ANOTHER PART OF THE
NUCLEUS ARE NEUTRONS.

IF YOU SHOOT A NEUTRON AT THIS
NUCLEUS, IT CAUSES A FISSION,

THE NUCLEUS SPLITS INTO
TWO SMALLER NUCLEI.

THIS RELEASES ENERGY.

NOT A WHOLE LOT, BUT
ENOUGH TO BE MEASURED,

SETTING FREE THREE NEUTRONS.

IF THESE THREE NEUTRONS HIT
ANOTHER URANIUM NUCLEUS,

THEY WILL PRODUCE THE
SAME EFFECT AGAIN.

THIS CAN SET OFF
A CHAIN REACTION.

AND IF A CRITICAL
MASS IS ACHIEVED,

THAT MEANS WHEN THERE
ARE ENOUGH URANIUM NUCLEI

PACKED TOGETHER, THIS CHAIN
REACTION SELF-PERPETUATES.

THAT ALONE IS ALREADY PERILOUS.

BUT IF I WERE TO
INCREASE THE MASS,

I CAN ACHIEVE WHAT IS
CALLED A SUPERCRITICAL MASS,

AND THEN THE CHAIN REACTION
NOT ONLY SUSTAINS ITSELF,

IT INCREASES EXPONENTIALLY,

RELEASING AN INCREDIBLE
AMOUNT OF ENERGY.

THE FIRST
NUCLEAR BOMB USES PLUTONIUM.

IT IS SURROUNDED BY
A NORMAL EXPLOSIVE.

ONCE THE EXPLOSIVE IS IGNITED,
THE PLUTONIUM IS COMPRESSED.

THIS PRODUCES A
FISSION REACTION.

THE BOMB HAS
EXPLOSIVE CAPABILITIES

EQUIVALENT TO 20,000 TONS
OF CONVENTIONAL EXPLOSIVES.

THE U.S. MILITARY HAD
IDENTIFIED VARIOUS TARGETS

FOR A NUCLEAR ATTACK IN GERMANY.

BUT IN MAY 1945, THE WAR
IN EUROPE COMES TO AN END.

THE GERMANS ARE SPARED
THE ATOMIC BOMB.

IN THE PACIFIC HOWEVER,
THE FIGHTING CONTINUES.

THE JAPANESE ARMY HAS
BASICALLY BEEN DEFEATED,

BUT IS UNWILLING TO SURRENDER.

IN WORLD WAR II THE
JAPANESE ARE CONVINCED

THAT SURRENDERING
IS DISHONORABLE.

THEY THINK THEY OWE
IT TO THEIR EMPEROR

TO FIGHT UNTIL THE BITTER END

AND TO SACRIFICE THEIR
LIVES IF NECESSARY.

OF COURSE, THIS MAKES
IT REALLY, REALLY HARD

TO BRING A STATE LIKE
JAPAN TO ITS KNEES.

DESPERATE
TO END THE WAR,

PRESIDENT HARRY S. TRUMAN

AGREES TO DROP NUCLEAR
BOMBS ON JAPAN.

UNLIKE THE TRINITY TEST,
THE BOMB LITTLE BOY

CARRIES A URANIUM BULLET.

IN ORDER TO REACH THE
SUPERCRITICAL MASS OF URANIUM,

THE BULLET CONTAINS ANADDITIONAL URANIUM CYLINDER.

LITTLE BOY WEIGHS
JUST 141 POUNDS,

BUT HAS THE EXPLOSIVE POWER
OF 15,000 TONS OF TNT.

AUGUST 6, 1945.

AN AMERICAN B-29 BOMBER LEAVES
THE PACIFIC ISLAND OF TINIAN.

AT 8:15 A.M., LITTLE BOY
ANNIHILATES HIROSHIMA.

THREE DAYS LATER,
THE PLUTONIUM BOMB

FAT MAN EXPLODES OVER NAGASAKI.

THE HEAT AND BLAST WAVES OF
THE BOMBS ARE DEVASTATING,

FOLLOWED BY THE RADIATION.

MORE THAN 160,000
PEOPLE DIE INSTANTLY.

THE JAPANESE MINISTER
OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS

SIGNS THE SURRENDER DOCUMENTS
ON SEPTEMBER 2, 1945.

WITH THE ATOMIC BOMB,
THE U.S. EMERGES

AS THE VICTOR OF WORLD
WAR II ON TWO FRONTS.

THE AMERICANS HAD
TO HAVE A KNOCKOUT.

THEY HAD TO FINISH
THE WAR WITH SOMETHING

REALLY BIG AND
QUITE SPECTACULAR.

THE JAPANESE KNOW THEY'VE LOST,

BUT THE AMERICANS DON'T REALIZE

THEY'VE WON UNTIL
THOSE BOMBS GO OFF

AND THEN THEY KNOW
THEY'VE WON THE WAR.

ALL THAT
IS LEFT OF HIROSHIMA

AND NAGASAKI ARE
CONTAMINATED RUINS.

IN THE MONTHS AND YEARS
FOLLOWING THE ATTACKS

TENS OF THOUSANDS DIE FROM
LONG-TERM CONSEQUENCES.

THE MOST COMMON CAUSE OF DEATH
IS ACUTE RADIATION SYNDROME.

NUCLEAR RADIATION
AFFECTS CELL PROLIFERATION.

YOU START BLEEDING, FROM THE
NOSE, FROM THE ORAL MUCOSA.

IT AFFECTS THE BOWEL TISSUE,

THE ENTIRE
GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT.

THE RADIATION IS MOST
HARMFUL TO THE BLOOD ITSELF.

THE NUMBER OF RED
BLOOD CELLS DROPS

AND SO DOES THE
NUMBER OF PLATELETS.

IN THE END THE ENTIRE
BONE MARROW BASICALLY

DISSOLVES OR CAN NO
LONGER REGENERATE.

AND WITHOUT THE BONE MARROW,

OUR IMMUNE SYSTEM
FAILS COMPLETELY.

THE
DOCTORS ARE HELPLESS.

YOU CAN TRY AND
STABILIZE THE BLOOD COUNT,

YOU CAN TRANSPLANT BONE MARROW,

BUT THE OVERALL
SYMPTOMS AND PROGRESSION

DEPEND ON HOW HIGH THEORIGINAL RADIATION EXPOSURE WAS

AND HOW LONG YOU
WERE EXPOSED TO IT.

MORE
PEOPLE DEVELOP CANCER

IN HIROSHIMA AND NAGASAKI THAN
IN THE REST OF THE COUNTRY.

NUCLEAR WEAPONS HAVE
ONLY BEEN USED ONCE

BUT THE HORRORS THEY CREATED
CHARACTERIZE AN ENTIRE ERA.

ON JULY 25, 1946, THE
U.S. MILITARY CONDUCTS

ANOTHER NUCLEAR TEST
WITH THE BOMB BAKER.

AT THE TIME, FEW PEOPLE KNOW

THAT THE NUCLEAR ARMS
RACE IS STILL ON.

THE SOVIET UNION RESPONDS.

ON AUGUST 29, 1949
THE FIRST COMMUNIST

ATOMIC BOMB IS
SUCCESSFULLY TESTED.

A THIRD, NUCLEAR WORLD WARSEEMS TO BE A REAL POSSIBILITY.

IN THE EAST AND WEST
EVEN CHILDREN PREPARE

FOR THE WORST CASE SCENARIO.

♪ HE DID WHAT WE ALL
MUST LEARN TO DO ♪

♪ YOU, AND YOU,
AND YOU, AND YOU ♪

♪ DUCK AND COVER

Nixon: I REMEMBER BEING A CHILDAND HAVING BEEN SHOWN VIDEOS

AT SCHOOL OF WHAT TO DO
IN A CASE OF ATOMIC BOMB.

AND SO THEREFORE,
WE HAD THIS FEAR.

WE DIDN'T REALLY UNDERSTAND IT,BUT WE WERE TERRIFIED OF IT.

PROTESTS, LIKE
THIS ONE IN NEW YORK IN 1960,

UNITE NUCLEAR OPPONENTS
FROM ALL CORNERS

OF THE WESTERN WORLD,

DEMANDING THE BANNING
OF ALL NUCLEAR WEAPONS.

Nixon: PEOPLE DON'T
THINK, "OH, IT'S THEM

"OVER THERE FIGHTING THE WAR."

IT CAN ACTUALLY
DESTROY EVERYBODY.

IT CAN DESTROY CIVILIZATION.

IT'S ALMOST BECOME THIS
ULTIMATE FEAR FACTOR.

BUT THE
DEMONSTRATIONS ARE FUTILE.

PEOPLE BECAME ALARMED
AND THEY STARTED TO THINK

ABOUT DISARMAMENT, THEY
STARTED TO THINK ABOUT PEACE,

THEY STARTED TO THINK ABOUT WAYS

THEY COULD AVOID
THE RISK OF WAR.

THE PROBLEM WAS THAT THE
PEOPLE WHO WERE THINKING

ABOUT THIS THE MOST
CLEARLY WERE OF COURSE

THE MILITARY AND
THE POLITICIANS,

AND THEY'D WORKED
OUT THAT THE BEST WAY

TO STOP WAR WAS
TO BE SO POWERFUL

THAT NOBODY WOULD
DARE TO START ONE.

THE SUPER POWERS
CONTINUE TO ARM THEMSELVES.

THEY DEVELOP HYDROGEN BOMBS,
ALSO KNOWN AS H-BOMBS,

THAT ARE 1,000
TIMES MORE POWERFUL

THAN THE NUCLEAR BOMBS
DROPPED ON JAPAN.

MANKIND IS NOW ABLE TO
ERADICATE ITSELF COMPLETELY.

TWO HYDROGEN ISOTOPES COMBINE
AND FORM A SINGLE NEW ATOM.

THIS PROCESS,
RELEASING VAST AMOUNTS

OF ENERGY, IS CALLED FUSION.

FUSION IS ONLY POSSIBLE
AT EXTREME TEMPERATURES,

ONES GENERATED BY THE DETONATIONOF A NORMAL NUCLEAR BOMB.

THE FISSION CAUSES THE FUSION
OF THE HYDROGEN CYLINDER.

IN THE 1980S, THE
SOVIET UNION AND THE USA

HAVE AN ARSENAL OF MORE
THAN 70,000 NUCLEAR WEAPONS.

U.S. PRESIDENT RONALD REAGAN
JUSTIFIES THE ENORMOUS COST.

President Reagan: THAT
BUDGET IS MUCH MORE

THAN A LONG LIST OF NUMBERS.

FOR BEHIND ALL THE NUMBERS
LIES AMERICA'S ABILITY

TO PREVENT THE GREATEST
OF HUMAN TRAGEDIES

AND PRESERVE OUR
FREE WAY OF LIFE

IN A SOMETIMES DANGEROUS WORLD.

THE ENEMIES
CAN ANNIHILATE EACH OTHER

SEVERAL TIMES OVER WITH THE
NUCLEAR WEAPONS THEY POSSESS.

BUT EVENTUALLY, THE
SUPERPOWERS COME AROUND.

TWO RATIONAL ACTORS
REALIZE THAT THEY HAVE

NOTHING TO GAIN BY
EXCHANGING NUCLEAR WEAPONS.

AT THE
LAWRENCE LIVERMORE

LABORATORY IN CALIFORNIA,
THE NUCLEAR TESTS

OF THE PAST CAN BE
SEEN TO THIS VERY DAY.

EVERY TEST CONDUCTED BY THE U.S.

WAS FILMED AND STORED
AS TOP-SECRET ARCHIVES.

NUCLEAR PHYSICIST GREG SPRIGGS

AND FILM TECHNICIAN JIM
MOYE WANT TO CHANGE THIS.

DECLASSIFYING THE VALUABLEFILMS IS ONE PART OF THEIR JOB.

Spriggs: ALL OF THE FILMS THAT
WE HAVE DECLASSIFIED

WILL BE POSTED ON OUR
LIVERMORE YOUTUBE SITE

SO THE PEOPLE CAN THE THE FILMS

AND CAN SEE WHAT WE'RE SEEING.

THE
EXPLOSIONS WERE DOCUMENTED,

AND IN SURPRISING
DETAIL CONSIDERING

THE TECHNICAL CAPABILITIES OF
FILM PRODUCTION AT THE TIME.

JIM MOYE HAS ALREADY DIGITIZED

MORE THAN 4,000 REELS FROM
OVER 210 NUCLEAR TESTS.

Moye: THEY RECORDED A LOT.

I DON'T KNOW HOW THEY
COULD EVEN HAVE FORESEEN

HOW THIS WOULD BE
USED IN THE FUTURE.

ONCE THE
IMAGES ARE DIGITIZED,

GREG SPRIGGS' WORK BEGINS.

INFORMATION ON THE RECORDINGS,

LIKE THE DISTANCE
BETWEEN THE CAMERA

AND THE DETONATION CENTER,
OR THE SIZE OF THE BOMB,

PROVIDE A GREAT DEAL OF INSIGHT

INTO THE STATE OF
RESEARCH BACK THEN.

THE TWO TIMES NUCLEAR BOMBS
WERE USED AGAINST PEOPLE

DATE BACK MORE THAN 70 YEARS.

BUT THE ENSUING
ETHICAL DISCUSSION

IS STILL RELEVANT
TO THIS VERY DAY.

Spriggs: YEAH, THEY KILLED A
LOT OF PEOPLE THERE.

BUT SOMEONE COULD ARGUE
THAT IT SAVED A LOT OF LIVES

IN THE END BECAUSE IT
ENDED THE WAR SOONER.

BECAUSE WHO KNOWS HOW LONG
THE JAPANESE WOULD HAVE FOUGHT

WITHOUT HAVING A WEAPON LIKE
THIS AIMED AGAINST THEM.

GREG SPRIGGS IS
CONVINCED THAT WE CAN ONLY

IMPROVE NUCLEAR BOMBS

BY LEARNING MORE ABOUT
THEIR EFFECTS.

Spriggs: WE NEED TO BE ABLE TOTELL THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE,

THIS IS WHAT'S GOING
TO HAPPEN IF YOU DROP

THIS SIZED WEAPON ON
THIS PARTICULAR TARGET.

AND IF SOMEBODY
HAPPENS TO BOMB US,

WE'RE GOING TO UNDERSTAND
WHAT THE EFFECT IS

AND IF WE HAVE TO
RETALIATE AGAINST THEM

THEY SHOULD KNOW THAT WE'RE
PROBABLY GONNA DESTROY THEM.

PEACE
THROUGH DETERRENCE.

TO THIS DAY,

THE U.S. IS A FIERCE
ADVOCATE OF THIS STRATEGY.

IN 2017, AMERICA
MAINTAINS AN ARSENAL

OF 6,800 ATOMIC WARHEADS.

IT HAS BEEN
EFFECTIVE, UNTIL NOW.

NOW THEY'VE FALLEN TO
THE HANDS OF IRRATIONAL ACTORS

WHO HAVE DIFFERENT AGENDAS
AND IT DOES POSE A PROBLEM.

THERE IS NO CASE STUDY WE CAN
MAKE TO SEE HOW THAT WORKS.

WHAT WE KNOW ABOUT
HEAVILY-ARMED ROGUE STATES

IN THE PAST IS THAT THEY
END UP STARTING WARS

AND WE HAVE TO HOPE
THAT THESE ONES DON'T.

IT'S
A BALANCING ACT

WITH DANGEROUS CONSEQUENCES.

ALMOST 15,000 NUCLEAR
WEAPONS IN NINE COUNTRIES

ARE SUPPOSED TO MAKE
OUR PLANET A SAFE PLACE.

WE CAN ONLY HOPE THAT
PHILOSOPHY WILL PREVAIL.

BUT IN THE MEANTIME,
NEW WEAPONS EXIST

THAT CAN TERRORIZE
ENTIRE NATIONS

WITH FATAL REPERCUSSIONS
FOR MILLIONS OF PEOPLE.

THE DIGITAL AGE HAS REACHED
NEARLY EVERY SPHERE OF LIFE.

THIS ALSO APPLIES TO
THE WEAPONS INDUSTRY.

IN 2009, AN ATTACK IS LAUNCHED

ON IRANIAN NUCLEAR FACILITIES

IN THE FORM OF A DIGITAL WEAPON.

THE COMPUTER VIRUS STUXNET
BRINGS THE CENTRIFUGES

USED TO ENRICH URANIUM
TO A STANDSTILL.

THE IRANIAN NUCLEAR
PROGRAM IS SABOTAGED.

THIS IS THE KIND OF
WARFARE THAT'S BEEN

PRACTICED SINCE
THE DAWN OF TIME.

INTELLIGENCE DOMINANCE
EQUALS BLACKOUT,

EQUALS IGNORANCE, EQUALS DEFEAT.

STATE
SECRETS CAN ALSO

FALL VICTIM TO DIGITAL ATTACKS.

COUNTRIES ARE RE-ARMING
THEMSELVES AGAIN,

BUT THIS TIME NOT
WITH TANKS AND RIFLES.

CYBER SECURITY IS BECOMING
INCREASINGLY CRUCIAL.

CYBER WARFARE CAN HAVE
FAR-REACHING CONSEQUENCES,

NOT ONLY IN THE DIGITAL WORLD

BUT ALSO IN THE WORLD
IN WHICH WE LIVE.