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♪ ♪
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00:00:27,636 --> 00:00:28,936
MAN [over radio]:
Systems this is prop.
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00:00:29,116 --> 00:00:31,286
I read you 500, do you read me?
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00:00:31,466 --> 00:00:34,816
TYSON: These people are
watching their life's
work come to an end.
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00:00:34,991 --> 00:00:36,301
MAN [over radio]: The team
is on its way to point.
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00:00:36,471 --> 00:00:37,991
TYSON: On another world.
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00:00:38,168 --> 00:00:41,478
MAN [over radio]:
All right. Roger that.
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00:00:48,700 --> 00:00:53,100
TYSON: They were all young
when they sent her on her way.
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00:00:55,055 --> 00:01:00,275
These men and women have been
traveling vicariously with her
for more than two decades.
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00:01:07,763 --> 00:01:13,333
And now, her work is done,
so she must die.
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00:01:17,555 --> 00:01:20,375
But before she
takes the fatal plunge,
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00:01:20,558 --> 00:01:25,348
they've given her
one final, epic challenge.
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00:01:36,008 --> 00:01:41,448
[theme music plays].
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00:02:01,686 --> 00:02:08,126
♪ ♪
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00:02:28,191 --> 00:02:34,151
♪ ♪
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00:02:47,906 --> 00:02:50,866
TYSON: Gravity has
a big bag of tricks,
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00:02:51,040 --> 00:02:54,610
none lovelier than
the ring systems of worlds.
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00:02:54,783 --> 00:02:59,223
Our own solar system, alone,
has four ringed planets.
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00:03:03,139 --> 00:03:07,969
This one, with the
romantic name J-1407B,
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00:03:08,144 --> 00:03:12,244
is the first we've
found circling another sun.
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00:03:12,409 --> 00:03:15,849
Why haven't we found more
ringed planets in our galaxy?
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00:03:19,895 --> 00:03:23,635
Is it that the
rings are so unusual,
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00:03:23,812 --> 00:03:26,602
or are the methods we use
to find exoplanets not very
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00:03:26,771 --> 00:03:30,821
good at seeing the ring
systems that may surround them?
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00:03:31,863 --> 00:03:35,083
J-1407B's ring
system is so vast,
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00:03:35,258 --> 00:03:38,348
that it eclipsed
its star for days.
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These rings extend across an
astonishing 112 million miles.
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00:03:44,093 --> 00:03:48,623
They would more than
fill the distance between
Earth and the sun.
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00:03:50,055 --> 00:03:53,965
But as enormous as they are,
they're shockingly thin.
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00:03:54,146 --> 00:03:58,626
If the ring system of J-1407B
were the size of a dinner plate,
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00:03:58,803 --> 00:04:01,683
it would have to be
100 times thinner,
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00:04:01,850 --> 00:04:04,510
as thin as a human hair.
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00:04:07,377 --> 00:04:10,337
This surprising contrast
between the immense territory
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00:04:10,511 --> 00:04:12,731
of a ring system,
and its thinness,
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00:04:12,904 --> 00:04:15,914
is just as striking
in our own solar system.
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00:04:16,865 --> 00:04:20,165
The outermost ring
of Neptune is so dainty,
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00:04:20,347 --> 00:04:23,087
that it was first thought
to be the fragments of a ring.
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00:04:23,263 --> 00:04:26,313
Not a ring, but
a collection of arcs.
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00:04:26,483 --> 00:04:29,403
That was, until NASA's
Voyager 2 spacecraft revealed
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00:04:29,573 --> 00:04:32,663
that the so-called
arcs were clumps,
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00:04:32,837 --> 00:04:35,877
the thicker parts of
a fainter, complete ring.
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00:04:40,497 --> 00:04:43,367
It's funny that the weirdest
planet in the solar system has
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attracted the least attention.
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Voyager 2 is the only
spacecraft that has ever been
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00:04:49,201 --> 00:04:52,201
sent on a reconnaissance
mission to Uranus,
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00:04:52,379 --> 00:04:55,899
one of the two ice giant
planets that circle the sun.
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00:04:57,558 --> 00:04:59,778
During its 20-year-long summers,
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00:04:59,951 --> 00:05:02,821
the sun never sets on Uranus.
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00:05:02,998 --> 00:05:05,128
The winters
are equally as long,
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00:05:05,305 --> 00:05:08,865
20 years of unbroken night.
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00:05:12,137 --> 00:05:16,097
Unlike its fellow gas planets,
Uranus is cold-hearted.
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00:05:16,272 --> 00:05:19,322
It doesn't
generate any internal heat.
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00:05:27,022 --> 00:05:30,632
Uranus is one crazy world.
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00:05:30,808 --> 00:05:33,458
The outer edge of
Uranus's atmosphere is so hot,
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00:05:33,637 --> 00:05:37,897
it's hotter than
500 degrees Fahrenheit.
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00:05:41,123 --> 00:05:44,613
But Uranus also
has the coldest clouds
in the solar system,
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I'm talking nearly
400 degrees below zero.
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00:05:55,267 --> 00:05:58,227
What kind of ocean is this?
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00:05:58,401 --> 00:06:00,231
Is it made of ammonia?
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00:06:00,403 --> 00:06:02,933
Water?
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00:06:03,101 --> 00:06:07,931
Some scientists think it may
be an ocean of liquid diamonds.
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00:06:08,106 --> 00:06:12,546
Note to space agencies,
might be worth another visit.
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00:06:18,203 --> 00:06:21,903
Then there's that thing
about it being sideways.
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00:06:22,077 --> 00:06:27,557
Uranus revolves around the sun
at a roughly 90 degree angle
to its own orbital plane.
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00:06:27,735 --> 00:06:31,825
What could have
happened to Uranus that
it got knocked on its ass?
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Our best guess is that
it went something like this.
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Uranus was in
a terrible accident.
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00:06:47,102 --> 00:06:50,502
[crashing].
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00:06:50,801 --> 00:06:53,671
[crashing].
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00:06:53,848 --> 00:06:59,938
After the second blow,
the rotational axis of
Uranus tipped 98 degrees.
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00:07:03,597 --> 00:07:05,637
There's another world in
our solar system that we don't
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think of as having a ring.
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00:07:09,211 --> 00:07:12,131
The rings of Jupiter were
so dim that no ground-based
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00:07:12,301 --> 00:07:14,871
telescope ever saw them.
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00:07:15,043 --> 00:07:18,743
They were discovered when
Voyager 1 came flying by.
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00:07:24,226 --> 00:07:28,226
Our Saturn is graced
by the loveliest, largest,
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00:07:28,404 --> 00:07:32,934
and brightest ring
system of any around our sun.
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00:07:33,365 --> 00:07:36,495
It's the most distant
planet that can be seen
with the naked eye,
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00:07:36,673 --> 00:07:39,983
and it made quite an
impression on our ancestors.
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00:07:49,164 --> 00:07:53,084
When I think of the
Babylonians of 3,500
years ago looking up
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00:07:53,255 --> 00:07:55,605
at the planets and stars,
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00:07:55,779 --> 00:07:58,259
I wonder how unlikely it would
have seemed that one of their
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00:07:58,434 --> 00:08:01,924
species would actually
send an emissary to that
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00:08:02,090 --> 00:08:05,220
distant point of light.
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00:08:13,754 --> 00:08:18,194
We are in the Deep Space
Network room at NASA's
Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
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00:08:19,063 --> 00:08:24,293
In this place, the most
ambitious voyages of discovery
are directed and monitored.
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00:08:25,766 --> 00:08:28,066
Why are these
people so emotional?
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00:08:28,246 --> 00:08:30,416
They have committed
their professional lives to
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00:08:30,597 --> 00:08:34,687
a collaboration
with this robot.
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00:08:41,738 --> 00:08:44,958
And now that partnership
of decades is about to end
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00:08:45,133 --> 00:08:48,223
in a most violent way.
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00:08:48,397 --> 00:08:50,827
The pathway from our
Earthbound helplessness to
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00:08:51,008 --> 00:08:55,188
our presence in Saturn's
skies is about to unfold.
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00:09:03,630 --> 00:09:07,500
TYSON: What is that
shimmering, unsteady
thing we're looking at?
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00:09:07,677 --> 00:09:12,157
That's what Galileo Galilei
asked himself in 1610 when he
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00:09:12,334 --> 00:09:15,564
became the first human
to see Saturn as more than
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just a point of light.
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00:09:21,778 --> 00:09:24,428
So, this is the telescope
that made the modern
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00:09:24,607 --> 00:09:27,437
scientific revolution possible.
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00:09:27,610 --> 00:09:30,660
You know, you
really started something.
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00:09:30,831 --> 00:09:34,791
You looked through that
thing and found the cosmos.
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00:09:35,836 --> 00:09:39,136
That's not to say you didn't
make your share of mistakes.
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00:09:39,317 --> 00:09:42,057
You guessed wrong at
what you thought you saw,
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00:09:42,233 --> 00:09:44,673
believing that Saturn
sported two symmetrical moons
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on either side of it.
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00:09:47,499 --> 00:09:50,289
Two years later, when
you took a second look,
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00:09:50,459 --> 00:09:54,719
you were shocked to find
that your "moons" had vanished.
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00:09:54,898 --> 00:09:57,858
This was because both
worlds, Earth and Saturn,
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00:09:58,032 --> 00:10:02,082
were in motion,
and the two worlds had changed
in position to each other.
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00:10:02,253 --> 00:10:05,783
You were now looking at
Saturn's rings, edge-on.
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00:10:06,475 --> 00:10:09,995
The Saturn ring system
is 175,000 miles across,
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00:10:10,174 --> 00:10:14,354
but on average only
a few hundred feet thick.
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00:10:14,526 --> 00:10:18,836
They were too thin for your
fledgling telescope to see.
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00:10:22,360 --> 00:10:25,970
But two years after that,
you took a third look.
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00:10:26,147 --> 00:10:30,237
Now, you thought
that the planet had arms.
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♪ ♪
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40 years passed, until
a Dutch astronomer named
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00:10:58,962 --> 00:11:01,702
Christiaan Huygens took
another look at Saturn with
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00:11:01,878 --> 00:11:05,228
his own greatly
improved telescope.
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00:11:18,852 --> 00:11:21,462
Huygens was the first
to know that worlds could
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00:11:21,637 --> 00:11:25,727
be circled by rings,
and Saturn was one of them.
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00:11:25,902 --> 00:11:28,472
He also discovered
Saturn's largest moon,
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00:11:28,644 --> 00:11:32,044
which would later
be known as Titan.
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00:11:32,648 --> 00:11:35,298
When it finally came time
for us to visit that world,
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00:11:35,477 --> 00:11:39,347
our spacecraft
bore Huygens's name.
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00:11:41,004 --> 00:11:43,574
In science, there are
the Galileos, the Newtons,
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00:11:43,746 --> 00:11:45,656
the Darwins, the Einsteins.
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00:11:45,835 --> 00:11:49,005
And then there's another
kind of great scientist.
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00:11:49,186 --> 00:11:51,616
Not the kind that paints
a whole new picture of nature,
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00:11:51,798 --> 00:11:54,238
but, like Christiaan Huygens,
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00:11:54,409 --> 00:11:56,589
someone who has
much to contribute,
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00:11:56,759 --> 00:11:59,939
filling in a blank
or two on that vast canvas.
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00:12:00,110 --> 00:12:04,330
Such a scientist was
Giovanni Domenico Cassini.
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00:12:06,856 --> 00:12:10,726
He was born early
in the 17th century in
the town of Perinaldo,
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00:12:10,904 --> 00:12:13,654
in what is now Italy.
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00:12:13,820 --> 00:12:16,340
Cassini didn't
start out as a scientist.
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00:12:16,518 --> 00:12:20,868
He began his career as a
pseudo-scientist, an astrologer.
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00:12:21,523 --> 00:12:24,533
Astrology is a collection of
ideas based on the notion that
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00:12:24,700 --> 00:12:28,010
worlds have certain
human personality traits,
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00:12:28,182 --> 00:12:30,712
and that the influence
of these distant worlds,
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00:12:30,880 --> 00:12:33,450
depending on which are
rising and falling at the time
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00:12:33,622 --> 00:12:36,632
of your birth, will
determine who you are and
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00:12:36,799 --> 00:12:39,149
what your fate will be.
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00:12:39,323 --> 00:12:41,063
It's another
form of prejudice,
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00:12:41,238 --> 00:12:43,238
making unfounded
assumptions about who a person
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00:12:43,414 --> 00:12:46,904
is without bothering
to get to know them.
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00:12:47,854 --> 00:12:51,214
Astronomy and astrology
used to be the same thing,
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00:12:51,379 --> 00:12:53,249
until there was
a great awakening to our
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00:12:53,424 --> 00:12:57,174
actual circumstances
in the cosmos.
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00:12:57,864 --> 00:13:00,694
In 1543,
Nicolaus Copernicus,
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00:13:00,867 --> 00:13:03,217
a Polish cleric
demonstrated that,
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00:13:03,391 --> 00:13:05,091
contrary to
popular belief,
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00:13:05,262 --> 00:13:08,272
we were not the
center of the universe...
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00:13:08,439 --> 00:13:11,969
the Earth and the
other planets travelled
around the sun.
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00:13:12,139 --> 00:13:15,269
Demoting the Earth from
the center of the universe
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00:13:15,446 --> 00:13:18,796
was a severe blow
to human self-esteem.
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00:13:18,972 --> 00:13:20,632
More than a century later,
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00:13:20,800 --> 00:13:23,060
some people still
hadn't gotten over it,
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00:13:23,237 --> 00:13:26,067
and Giovanni Cassini
was one of them.
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00:13:26,240 --> 00:13:29,370
Cassini accepted
a terrific job offer,
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00:13:29,547 --> 00:13:31,677
an appointment
by Louis the XIV,
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00:13:31,854 --> 00:13:34,944
the legendary
sun King of France,
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00:13:35,118 --> 00:13:40,248
Louis believed himself to
be an absolute ruler whose
dominion was God's will.
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00:13:40,428 --> 00:13:43,078
But he was also the first
monarch in Europe to recognize
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00:13:43,257 --> 00:13:45,477
the great power of science.
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00:13:45,650 --> 00:13:49,650
He knew it was vital
to national security.
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00:13:51,091 --> 00:13:54,051
Louis the XIV was
inventing the first modern,
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00:13:54,224 --> 00:13:57,274
governmental, scientific
research institute,
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00:13:57,445 --> 00:14:00,665
The Paris Observatory.
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00:14:09,761 --> 00:14:12,291
Cassini told the absolute
ruler that he would not be
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00:14:12,460 --> 00:14:16,680
staying long in Paris,
a year or two, at most.
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00:14:19,032 --> 00:14:22,862
But when the King
placed his new observatory
at Cassini's disposal,
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00:14:23,036 --> 00:14:27,206
he lost all interest
in returning home
to Italy ever again.
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00:14:27,388 --> 00:14:30,478
For the next 125 years,
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00:14:30,652 --> 00:14:34,962
the Paris Observatory
would be led by a Cassini.
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Cassini rewarded his
patron with a map of the Moon
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00:14:40,923 --> 00:14:44,323
that remained
cutting-edge for a century.
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00:14:44,492 --> 00:14:47,282
King Louis financed a research
expedition to South America
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00:14:47,451 --> 00:14:50,191
to obtain more accurate
measurements of longitude,
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00:14:50,367 --> 00:14:53,757
intel of enormous value to
the captains of his far-flung
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00:14:53,936 --> 00:14:57,586
fleet and to astronomers.
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00:14:58,375 --> 00:15:01,115
Cassini took all these data
and became the first person
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00:15:01,291 --> 00:15:04,121
to calculate the scale
of the Copernican solar system
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00:15:04,294 --> 00:15:06,994
that he had once rejected.
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00:15:07,167 --> 00:15:09,467
With his increasingly
powerful telescopes,
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00:15:09,647 --> 00:15:12,347
he discovered the
length of a day on Jupiter
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00:15:12,520 --> 00:15:16,180
and the bands and spots
on that planet's surface.
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00:15:16,350 --> 00:15:19,790
Cassini discovered
Jupiter's Great
Red Spot independently
189
00:15:19,962 --> 00:15:22,702
of Robert Hooke in
England, and to this day,
190
00:15:22,878 --> 00:15:25,488
they share the credit.
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00:15:25,663 --> 00:15:29,583
Cassini went on to determine
the length of the day on Mars.
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00:15:31,278 --> 00:15:35,148
He was only off
by three minutes.
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00:15:35,325 --> 00:15:38,065
When he returned to his
observations of Jupiter,
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00:15:38,241 --> 00:15:41,071
he was stumped by the
contradictions in them.
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00:15:41,244 --> 00:15:45,074
The eclipses by Jupiter's
moons did not begin when
they were supposed to,
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00:15:45,248 --> 00:15:48,858
they varied from
observation to observation.
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00:15:49,035 --> 00:15:52,205
Could it be that it was
due to changes in the distance
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00:15:52,386 --> 00:15:56,686
of the Earth from Jupiter,
as the two worlds moved
through the solar system?
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00:15:57,608 --> 00:16:00,568
If that were true, then
light could not travel at
200
00:16:00,742 --> 00:16:05,012
an infinite speed
because it was taking
longer to reach Earth.
201
00:16:05,181 --> 00:16:08,711
Was the speed of light finite?
202
00:16:08,880 --> 00:16:13,020
This idea was just
too crazy for Cassini,
too revolutionary.
203
00:16:13,189 --> 00:16:15,499
He rejected it out of hand.
204
00:16:15,670 --> 00:16:18,110
If he had followed the
evidence wherever it led,
205
00:16:18,281 --> 00:16:20,631
he would have given us the
yardstick for the cosmos that
206
00:16:20,805 --> 00:16:24,235
we still use 350 years later.
207
00:16:24,418 --> 00:16:27,118
But Cassini,
ever the conservative,
208
00:16:27,290 --> 00:16:31,080
dismissed the idea
as being just too wacky.
209
00:16:32,730 --> 00:16:34,820
Several years later,
a Danish astronomer,
210
00:16:34,994 --> 00:16:39,524
Ole Romer, became
Cassini's assistant
at the Paris Observatory.
211
00:16:39,694 --> 00:16:42,964
Romer made his own
observations of the eclipses
212
00:16:43,132 --> 00:16:46,442
of some of Jupiter's moons
and found the same discrepancies
213
00:16:46,614 --> 00:16:49,574
in the data that
Cassini had dismissed.
214
00:16:49,747 --> 00:16:52,617
But Romer recognized
them for what they were,
215
00:16:52,794 --> 00:16:56,234
Pieces of evidence for
the finite speed of light.
216
00:16:58,495 --> 00:17:00,795
There was a time, however,
when Cassini's faithfulness
217
00:17:00,976 --> 00:17:04,276
to the data was so extreme,
that he was willing to risk the
218
00:17:04,458 --> 00:17:07,108
displeasure of King Louis.
219
00:17:07,287 --> 00:17:11,507
The monarch asked
Cassini to calculate the
exact area of his realm.
220
00:17:11,682 --> 00:17:14,862
No one had ever attempted
to make an accurate map,
221
00:17:15,034 --> 00:17:17,514
much less a topographical
one that would feature all
222
00:17:17,688 --> 00:17:20,038
the mountains and rivers
and valleys of France,
223
00:17:20,213 --> 00:17:22,523
or of any other
country for that matter.
224
00:17:22,693 --> 00:17:26,133
Cassini rose to the task,
but discovered results that
225
00:17:26,306 --> 00:17:29,606
could not possibly
please the King.
226
00:17:35,271 --> 00:17:36,711
[sighs].
227
00:17:39,971 --> 00:17:41,841
Cassini told the King,
228
00:17:42,017 --> 00:17:45,497
"“I have some rather
disappointing news
for you, Your Highness.
229
00:17:47,240 --> 00:17:52,110
We all thought that France
was a whole lot bigger
than our studies, revealed.
230
00:17:52,723 --> 00:17:57,823
I'm afraid, Your Majesty,
your kingdom is much smaller
than heretofore thought."”
231
00:17:58,860 --> 00:18:00,640
[grunts].
232
00:18:00,818 --> 00:18:02,598
[gasps].
233
00:18:02,777 --> 00:18:04,647
TYSON: The King
surprised everyone with
his great good humor,
234
00:18:04,822 --> 00:18:08,092
saying, "“Why, Cassini,
you've robbed me of more land
235
00:18:08,261 --> 00:18:11,701
than all the armies of
my enemies combined."”
236
00:18:12,308 --> 00:18:16,698
[laughing].
237
00:18:17,574 --> 00:18:20,714
TYSON: And then, there
is his work on Saturn.
238
00:18:24,277 --> 00:18:28,587
He was the first
person to know what the
rings of Saturn really were.
239
00:18:28,759 --> 00:18:31,719
He proposed that
they were not solid,
240
00:18:31,893 --> 00:18:34,373
but instead composed of
countless satellites orbiting
241
00:18:34,548 --> 00:18:37,378
the planet, and he
observed that there was
242
00:18:37,551 --> 00:18:40,861
a division
between the rings.
243
00:18:41,337 --> 00:18:45,557
Cassini filled in some
of the big blanks in our
understanding of Saturn,
244
00:18:45,733 --> 00:18:50,173
but how could we
possibly ever get there?
245
00:18:52,305 --> 00:18:55,255
Accomplishing that mythic
quest was left to one whose
246
00:18:55,438 --> 00:18:58,698
tragic life would have
been completely forgotten,
247
00:18:58,876 --> 00:19:02,096
if not for what
you are about to see.
248
00:19:13,369 --> 00:19:16,849
TYSON: Weighing in at more
than 12,000 pounds at launch,
249
00:19:17,025 --> 00:19:20,805
NASA's Cassini
spacecraft is the size of a bus.
250
00:19:20,985 --> 00:19:25,245
That figure included 70 pounds
of plutonium 238 fuel,
251
00:19:25,425 --> 00:19:28,855
enough to last her
for more than 20 years.
252
00:19:29,429 --> 00:19:32,819
But that's not what
powered her mythic odyssey.
253
00:19:32,997 --> 00:19:37,607
She rode gravity's
rainbow all the way
to the outer-solar system.
254
00:19:42,442 --> 00:19:45,362
The lineage of the greatest
of human achievements stretches
255
00:19:45,532 --> 00:19:48,322
further back
than we might assume.
256
00:19:48,491 --> 00:19:52,711
Some of their roots
are buried deep inside
the tomb of lost hope.
257
00:19:54,149 --> 00:19:57,069
But somehow, dreams rise.
258
00:19:57,239 --> 00:20:00,329
The epic missions of the first
golden age of space exploration,
259
00:20:00,503 --> 00:20:01,943
and likely the next,
260
00:20:02,113 --> 00:20:04,943
were made possible
by a man whose two names,
261
00:20:05,116 --> 00:20:08,766
one real, one fake,
are equally forgotten.
262
00:20:13,951 --> 00:20:15,741
[knocking].
263
00:20:15,910 --> 00:20:16,740
[grunts].
264
00:20:16,911 --> 00:20:18,611
[knocking].
265
00:20:18,782 --> 00:20:22,402
Alexander Shargei's early
years are not well-documented,
266
00:20:22,569 --> 00:20:25,959
but it is believed that his
mother, a political activist,
267
00:20:26,137 --> 00:20:30,227
was taken from him when
he was only five years old.
268
00:20:36,060 --> 00:20:40,630
He took refuge in
his father's physics and
mathematics textbooks.
269
00:20:40,804 --> 00:20:43,814
But by the time
Alexander was 13,
270
00:20:43,981 --> 00:20:46,721
the boy had lost
his father, too.
271
00:20:46,897 --> 00:20:50,207
He lived with his grandmother,
and despite great hardship,
272
00:20:50,379 --> 00:20:53,379
he managed to
be accepted at the most
prestigious high school,
273
00:20:53,556 --> 00:20:55,596
and afterwards
gained admission to the
274
00:20:55,776 --> 00:20:58,516
best engineering
institute in the Ukraine.
275
00:20:58,692 --> 00:21:01,872
But only two months after
he arrived there, in 1914,
276
00:21:02,043 --> 00:21:04,263
he was drafted into
the Czar's army to fight
277
00:21:04,437 --> 00:21:06,127
in the First World War.
278
00:21:06,308 --> 00:21:12,048
[explosions, gunfire].
279
00:21:17,363 --> 00:21:23,893
[explosions, gunfire].
280
00:21:27,111 --> 00:21:29,331
In the hell of
war at the front,
281
00:21:29,505 --> 00:21:32,505
Alexander Shargei
conceived a scientific strategy
282
00:21:32,682 --> 00:21:36,252
for exploring the Moon,
not intended as fiction,
283
00:21:36,425 --> 00:21:39,165
but as blueprint.
284
00:21:42,910 --> 00:21:44,610
[engine blast].
285
00:21:46,305 --> 00:21:49,215
[engine blast].
286
00:21:58,752 --> 00:22:01,062
[engine blast].
287
00:22:02,495 --> 00:22:05,495
But Shargei's hell
didn't end with the war.
288
00:22:05,672 --> 00:22:08,542
Now, Shargei was forced
to navigate the treacherous
289
00:22:08,718 --> 00:22:11,808
political mine fields
of revolutionary Russia.
290
00:22:11,982 --> 00:22:15,072
He was much better at figuring
out how to get to the Moon.
291
00:22:15,638 --> 00:22:17,948
Former officers in
the Czar's army and those,
292
00:22:18,119 --> 00:22:20,029
such as Shargei,
who were forced to join
293
00:22:20,208 --> 00:22:22,208
the counter-revolutionary
White Army,
294
00:22:22,384 --> 00:22:25,344
were assumed to be
"“enemies of the people."”
295
00:22:28,912 --> 00:22:31,742
[shouting in Russian].
296
00:22:31,915 --> 00:22:34,875
TYSON: Shargei could find
no peace in the Soviet Union,
297
00:22:35,049 --> 00:22:39,049
so in desperation he
tried to escape to Poland.
298
00:22:45,276 --> 00:22:48,316
Shargei, weakened by
illness, was stopped by guards
299
00:22:48,497 --> 00:22:52,277
and turned
back from the border.
300
00:23:09,039 --> 00:23:12,039
TYSON: These were
dangerous times,
301
00:23:12,216 --> 00:23:16,126
and there was no telling
what would get you
into serious trouble.
302
00:23:21,617 --> 00:23:24,787
No one knows where Shargei
spent the next three years.
303
00:23:24,968 --> 00:23:27,278
He simply vanished.
304
00:23:27,449 --> 00:23:32,059
When at last he emerged,
Alexander Shargei was no more.
305
00:23:32,889 --> 00:23:35,329
In his desperation
to be left alone,
306
00:23:35,501 --> 00:23:38,031
he took the
name of a dead man.
307
00:23:38,199 --> 00:23:41,459
He was now Yuri Kondratyuk.
308
00:23:43,073 --> 00:23:44,993
He finally published
the book he had been dreaming
309
00:23:45,162 --> 00:23:48,252
about since his
time in the trenches.
310
00:23:48,427 --> 00:23:50,387
No publisher was interested,
311
00:23:50,559 --> 00:23:53,389
so he printed it
at his own expense.
312
00:23:54,694 --> 00:23:59,964
It was Kondratyuk's
letter to a future
no one else could see.
313
00:24:00,656 --> 00:24:04,656
He wrote it "“To Whoever Will
Read This Paper in Order to
314
00:24:04,834 --> 00:24:08,754
Build an Interplanetary Rocket."”
315
00:24:10,927 --> 00:24:12,537
In the late 1920s,
316
00:24:12,712 --> 00:24:16,542
Kondratyuk was enlisted
to design a grain elevator.
317
00:24:16,716 --> 00:24:19,196
The Soviet Union was
going through a metal shortage,
318
00:24:19,370 --> 00:24:22,640
so Kondratyuk's challenge
was to build the largest grain
319
00:24:22,809 --> 00:24:26,939
elevator possible without
using more than a single nail.
320
00:24:28,423 --> 00:24:32,383
It ended up being so big,
they named it "“the Mastodon."”
321
00:24:35,604 --> 00:24:39,434
Such was the nightmare
logic of Stalin's Soviet Union.
322
00:24:39,608 --> 00:24:42,088
You could do the heroic
in service to the state,
323
00:24:42,263 --> 00:24:45,093
successfully execute the
seemingly impossible order
324
00:24:45,266 --> 00:24:48,526
to build a colossus
with but a single nail.
325
00:24:48,704 --> 00:24:50,494
And when it was done,
326
00:24:50,663 --> 00:24:53,453
you could be
imprisoned for sabotage.
327
00:24:53,622 --> 00:24:57,232
Who but an enemy of the state
would do such a reckless thing
328
00:24:57,408 --> 00:25:02,108
as building a
colossal grain elevator
with only a single nail.
329
00:25:03,197 --> 00:25:05,627
It made no difference to
Kondratyuk's fate that the
330
00:25:05,808 --> 00:25:08,588
grain elevator functioned
for another 60 years,
331
00:25:08,768 --> 00:25:12,118
until it burned down.
332
00:25:12,598 --> 00:25:16,378
Kondratyuk was
sentenced to three years
in a special prison camp,
333
00:25:16,558 --> 00:25:19,078
something new,
called a sharashka,
334
00:25:19,256 --> 00:25:24,346
where scientists and engineers
slaved away on the nation's
most ambitious projects.
335
00:25:25,349 --> 00:25:29,049
Kondratyuk threw himself
into a wind power project,
336
00:25:29,223 --> 00:25:34,103
but still he dreamed of
exploring the solar system.
337
00:25:37,013 --> 00:25:40,193
Soon after that,
he met Sergei Korolev,
338
00:25:40,364 --> 00:25:44,804
who also dreamed of leaving
Earth to explore the cosmos.
339
00:25:44,978 --> 00:25:49,718
Korolev would later
become the father of the
Soviet rocket program.
340
00:25:50,592 --> 00:25:53,382
Korolev wanted to enlist
Kondratyuk in his fledgling
341
00:25:53,552 --> 00:25:57,122
rocket program, but
Kondratyuk was so terrified
342
00:25:57,294 --> 00:26:00,734
that any change in
his status might result
in closer scrutiny by
343
00:26:00,907 --> 00:26:04,557
the secret police,
he declined.
344
00:26:04,737 --> 00:26:09,047
If the authorities
discovered that Kondratyuk
was really Shargei,
345
00:26:09,219 --> 00:26:12,919
there was no telling
what they would do to him.
346
00:26:14,094 --> 00:26:16,054
When Germany attacked Russia,
347
00:26:16,226 --> 00:26:19,486
Kondratyuk volunteered for
armed service at the front,
348
00:26:19,665 --> 00:26:22,405
where he led a
communications outfit.
349
00:26:22,581 --> 00:26:26,021
His precise fate is unknown,
but he is believed to have
350
00:26:26,193 --> 00:26:30,723
died in battle on a
February night in 1942.
351
00:26:32,155 --> 00:26:37,935
Alexander Shargei, aka
Yuri Kondratyuk, was only 44.
352
00:26:38,727 --> 00:26:41,207
That was the
end of his story,
353
00:26:41,382 --> 00:26:44,342
but not his dream.
354
00:26:44,515 --> 00:26:47,515
In the early days
of the Apollo program,
355
00:26:47,693 --> 00:26:50,833
the scientists and engineers
struggled to figure out how
356
00:26:51,000 --> 00:26:55,480
a rocket could leave the Earth
and land directly on the Moon.
357
00:26:55,657 --> 00:26:57,617
They were stymied.
358
00:26:57,790 --> 00:26:59,920
They couldn't figure it out.
359
00:27:00,096 --> 00:27:03,576
You need a big powerful
rocket to reach the Moon.
360
00:27:03,752 --> 00:27:05,412
How could you land such
a thing on the surface
361
00:27:05,580 --> 00:27:08,630
of another world
without crashing it?
362
00:27:11,673 --> 00:27:14,373
Being able to guarantee that
it could take off again and
363
00:27:14,545 --> 00:27:19,115
bring your crew safely home,
was even more of a longshot.
364
00:27:19,289 --> 00:27:21,769
This approach, known
as "“Direct Ascent,"
365
00:27:21,944 --> 00:27:27,174
seemed like a dead-end
to a NASA engineer named
John Houbolt and his colleagues.
366
00:27:28,429 --> 00:27:32,089
One version of the story goes,
two space scientists had kept
367
00:27:32,259 --> 00:27:36,049
the spark of
Kondratyuk's dream alive.
368
00:27:36,219 --> 00:27:40,049
They delivered his 40
year-old manuscript to Houbolt.
369
00:27:52,322 --> 00:27:55,202
KONDRATYUK: First of all,
to the question of the work,
370
00:27:55,369 --> 00:27:57,939
let it not frighten you...
371
00:28:02,637 --> 00:28:05,597
Speaking about the possibility
of flight implementation,
372
00:28:05,771 --> 00:28:09,431
just only remember that there
is nothing improbable on the
373
00:28:09,600 --> 00:28:12,470
theoretical side of the flight
of a rocket into space...
374
00:28:12,647 --> 00:28:14,607
MAN [over radio]: One, zero.
375
00:28:14,780 --> 00:28:21,310
[engine blast].
376
00:28:42,111 --> 00:28:48,381
[engine blast].
377
00:28:57,431 --> 00:28:59,741
ASTRONAUT [over radio]:
37 degrees.
378
00:28:59,912 --> 00:29:01,352
MAN [over radio]: It's still
looking very good.
379
00:29:01,522 --> 00:29:03,352
You're go.
380
00:29:03,524 --> 00:29:07,224
ASTRONAUT [over radio]:
We got an alarm. Bravo One.
381
00:29:07,702 --> 00:29:09,622
MAN 2 [over radio]: Bravo One.
Rocket 1201 alarm.
382
00:29:09,791 --> 00:29:11,181
MAN [over radio]: 1201 alarm.
383
00:29:11,358 --> 00:29:12,748
MAN 3 [over radio]:
Standby for go, Flight.
384
00:29:12,925 --> 00:29:14,665
MAN [over radio]:
Okay, we're go.
385
00:29:14,840 --> 00:29:16,190
MAN 2 [over radio]: We're go.
Sync tight. We're go.
386
00:29:16,363 --> 00:29:17,893
MAN 3 [over radio]:
Altitude 1600.
387
00:29:18,060 --> 00:29:19,500
MAN 2 [over radio]:
Eagle looking great.
388
00:29:19,670 --> 00:29:20,930
ASTRONAUT [over radio]:
Tranquility base here.
389
00:29:21,107 --> 00:29:24,807
The eagle has landed.
390
00:29:24,980 --> 00:29:27,370
The surface appears
to be very fine grained
391
00:29:27,548 --> 00:29:28,678
as you get close to it.
392
00:29:28,854 --> 00:29:30,944
It's almost like a powder.
393
00:29:34,990 --> 00:29:37,340
TYSON: NASA picked up
Kondratyuk's vision of a
394
00:29:37,514 --> 00:29:41,694
Lunar Orbiter Rendezvous and
took it all the way to the Moon.
395
00:29:42,389 --> 00:29:46,129
But Kondratyuk's
horizon extended far beyond.
396
00:29:48,177 --> 00:29:51,087
Kondratyuk envisioned
the first reconnaissance of
397
00:29:51,267 --> 00:29:54,527
the solar system by
swinging round the planets,
398
00:29:54,705 --> 00:29:57,485
and using the force
of their gravity to slingshot
399
00:29:57,665 --> 00:30:00,485
the craft farther
out into space.
400
00:30:01,016 --> 00:30:04,666
He dreamt that we would
swing from world to world as
401
00:30:04,846 --> 00:30:08,066
our ancestors had done
from tree to tree,
402
00:30:10,591 --> 00:30:15,341
bending gravity to human needs
on a slightly grander scale.
403
00:30:15,509 --> 00:30:19,819
But what gravity giveth,
it can also taketh away.
404
00:30:29,088 --> 00:30:33,348
TYSON: Why do some worlds
have rings, and others don't?
405
00:30:35,877 --> 00:30:38,307
Why no rings for Earth?
406
00:30:38,488 --> 00:30:40,748
Or Mars?
407
00:30:40,926 --> 00:30:43,886
We wouldn't recognize
Saturn without them.
408
00:30:44,059 --> 00:30:46,409
He looks naked
without his rings,
409
00:30:46,583 --> 00:30:49,463
but how did he get
them in the first place?
410
00:30:49,630 --> 00:30:53,110
This is exactly what
the French astronomer
EÉdouard Roche asked
411
00:30:53,286 --> 00:30:57,856
himself when he
looked at Saturn through
his telescope in 1848.
412
00:31:02,512 --> 00:31:05,952
Roche speculated
that Saturn's rings
were the debris of a moon,
413
00:31:06,125 --> 00:31:08,555
or moons, that
had ventured too close,
414
00:31:08,736 --> 00:31:12,166
and were pulled apart
by the massive planet.
415
00:31:18,311 --> 00:31:25,101
♪ ♪
416
00:31:27,537 --> 00:31:31,977
Roche was able to
devise an equation that
applies to all worlds.
417
00:31:32,151 --> 00:31:34,761
It tells you how closely
a body can come to a planet
418
00:31:34,936 --> 00:31:38,456
before it's pulled
apart by the planet's
tidal forces of gravity,
419
00:31:38,635 --> 00:31:42,195
and is turned into a ring.
420
00:31:44,032 --> 00:31:47,432
That's the Roche limit.
421
00:31:47,601 --> 00:31:50,211
But until NASA's Cassini
spacecraft executed a series
422
00:31:50,386 --> 00:31:52,996
of daredevil maneuvers
in the Saturn system,
423
00:31:53,172 --> 00:31:55,092
there was a vigorous
scientific debate about
424
00:31:55,261 --> 00:31:57,481
when his rings formed.
425
00:31:57,654 --> 00:31:59,354
Some astronomers
suggested they were nearly
426
00:31:59,526 --> 00:32:01,786
as old as the planet itself.
427
00:32:01,963 --> 00:32:04,923
More than 4 billion years ago,
when the planet coalesced out
428
00:32:05,097 --> 00:32:08,967
of the disc of gas and dust
that surrounded the newborn sun,
429
00:32:09,144 --> 00:32:13,934
a moon, or moons, likely
violated Saturn's Roche limit...
430
00:32:15,542 --> 00:32:18,412
Others thought the
rings to be fairly recent.
431
00:32:18,588 --> 00:32:21,498
Perhaps, only 100
million years old or so.
432
00:32:21,678 --> 00:32:25,678
And the Cassini spacecraft
proved them right.
433
00:32:27,510 --> 00:32:31,430
What is Earth's
own Roche limit?
434
00:32:33,081 --> 00:32:36,481
If the Moon were ever to come
closer than 12,000 miles,
435
00:32:36,650 --> 00:32:40,220
which, by the way,
it's absolutely in no
danger of doing.
436
00:32:50,142 --> 00:32:52,622
And it's a good thing, too,
437
00:32:52,796 --> 00:32:56,926
because I like our
Moon right where it is.
438
00:33:03,938 --> 00:33:06,328
There's only one other moon
in the solar system that moves
439
00:33:06,506 --> 00:33:08,506
me like ours does.
440
00:33:08,682 --> 00:33:10,902
Maybe it's because it's
the only one with a thick
441
00:33:11,076 --> 00:33:13,946
atmosphere like Earth's, and
the kind of surface features,
442
00:33:14,122 --> 00:33:17,602
lakes and mountains,
that remind me of home.
443
00:33:17,778 --> 00:33:21,778
All of this was hidden
from view by a dense layer
444
00:33:21,956 --> 00:33:25,256
of orange smog, until
the European Space Agency
445
00:33:25,438 --> 00:33:28,568
collaborated with NASA
to send a spacecraft to land
446
00:33:28,745 --> 00:33:31,785
on his mysterious surface.
447
00:33:31,966 --> 00:33:35,056
Yes, that would be
the one named after you,
448
00:33:35,230 --> 00:33:40,710
Christiaan Huygens,
first to see that world
through your telescope.
449
00:33:48,330 --> 00:33:51,380
After an interplanetary
voyage of seven years,
450
00:33:51,551 --> 00:33:55,211
the Cassini-Huygens spacecraft
arrived in the Saturn system,
451
00:33:55,381 --> 00:33:58,081
the fourth of our
ships to venture there.
452
00:33:58,253 --> 00:34:03,083
But the first to send a
probe to explore the surface
of Saturn's moon, Titan
453
00:34:09,047 --> 00:34:12,217
and to reveal a moon of far
greater complexity and splendor
454
00:34:12,398 --> 00:34:15,838
than our own rather
dull and lifeless Moon.
455
00:34:27,282 --> 00:34:31,072
As Carl Sagan had predicted
more than two decades before,
456
00:34:31,243 --> 00:34:33,813
there were seas of
methane, and ethane,
457
00:34:33,984 --> 00:34:37,034
and there was water-ice.
458
00:34:38,728 --> 00:34:41,558
When Cassini first
arrived in 2004 at Saturn's
459
00:34:41,731 --> 00:34:46,001
northern hemisphere, it
was in the depths of winter.
460
00:34:46,171 --> 00:34:48,961
And the Sun didn't come
out until five years later,
461
00:34:49,130 --> 00:34:52,390
when Saturn's
northern spring began.
462
00:34:52,568 --> 00:34:56,618
Is it just me, or is this
whirling hexagon at Saturn's
463
00:34:56,790 --> 00:35:01,010
North Pole every bit as exotic
as the fantasies our ancient
464
00:35:01,186 --> 00:35:04,146
ancestors had of these worlds?
465
00:35:04,319 --> 00:35:07,059
The geometrically regular
hexagonal shape of this
466
00:35:07,235 --> 00:35:11,365
feature brings to mind the
handiwork of intelligence,
467
00:35:11,544 --> 00:35:16,464
terraforming,
re-working the surface
for some unknown purpose.
468
00:35:17,463 --> 00:35:20,553
But it's actually the result
of the sudden change in wind
469
00:35:20,727 --> 00:35:25,377
speeds as vast upwellings
of ammonia rise near the poles.
470
00:35:25,558 --> 00:35:28,078
It's the mother
of all hurricanes,
471
00:35:28,256 --> 00:35:30,686
a frenzy of thunder
and lightning,
472
00:35:30,867 --> 00:35:34,087
containing countless
hurricanes within it.
473
00:35:34,610 --> 00:35:37,920
Spring can be a violent,
stormy season, on Earth, too.
474
00:35:38,092 --> 00:35:41,572
But it was during Saturn's
seven year-long summer that
475
00:35:41,748 --> 00:35:45,748
Cassini was commanded
to take her own life.
476
00:36:04,423 --> 00:36:10,123
♪ ♪
477
00:36:10,298 --> 00:36:13,778
TYSON: There's a human conceit
that at the moment of death,
478
00:36:13,954 --> 00:36:17,184
we re-live our
greatest memories.
479
00:36:21,744 --> 00:36:25,234
You are riffling through the
memory bank of a doomed robot,
480
00:36:25,400 --> 00:36:29,320
about to carry out
the cruelest command.
481
00:36:44,854 --> 00:36:51,384
♪ ♪
482
00:37:12,491 --> 00:37:18,281
♪ ♪
483
00:37:39,300 --> 00:37:46,090
♪ ♪
484
00:38:05,979 --> 00:38:12,249
♪ ♪
485
00:38:32,179 --> 00:38:38,619
♪ ♪
486
00:38:39,099 --> 00:38:42,279
The mission planners at
NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory
487
00:38:42,450 --> 00:38:45,540
call this the "“ball of yarn,"”
488
00:38:45,714 --> 00:38:49,984
13 years of exploration
through the Saturn system.
489
00:38:53,809 --> 00:38:58,469
From the time
of her launch in 1997 and
throughout her epic voyage,
490
00:38:58,640 --> 00:39:05,130
she has used the gravity
assist conceived 100 years
before by Yuri Kondratyuk.
491
00:39:06,256 --> 00:39:08,646
But it was her supply of
rocket fuel that made it
492
00:39:08,824 --> 00:39:11,874
possible for her Earthbound
controllers to steer her into
493
00:39:12,045 --> 00:39:15,345
new trajectories
of exploration.
494
00:39:15,527 --> 00:39:20,177
In April of 2017, Cassini
was running low on that fuel.
495
00:39:20,358 --> 00:39:23,838
It was time for her most
daring maneuvers of all,
496
00:39:24,013 --> 00:39:27,763
before she was to be
sent into a final death dive.
497
00:39:38,680 --> 00:39:41,900
These are the mission
scientists of Cassini,
498
00:39:42,075 --> 00:39:43,945
some of whom have been
working on the project since
499
00:39:44,120 --> 00:39:48,260
the 1990s, when it
was no more than a dream.
500
00:39:48,429 --> 00:39:52,429
They know that
Cassini must die.
501
00:39:52,607 --> 00:39:55,387
It's too dangerous to
let her wander aimlessly.
502
00:39:55,567 --> 00:39:58,307
She might crash into one of
the moons in the Saturn system
503
00:39:58,483 --> 00:40:00,963
where life might be hiding.
504
00:40:01,137 --> 00:40:04,007
This would violate
NASA's planetary protection
505
00:40:04,184 --> 00:40:08,144
conventions on quarantine
in the book of space laws.
506
00:40:08,841 --> 00:40:11,191
If left to chance,
Cassini could alter the
507
00:40:11,365 --> 00:40:15,845
possible biological destiny
of Titan or Enceladus.
508
00:40:18,459 --> 00:40:22,809
A terrible command
must now be given.
509
00:40:31,385 --> 00:40:34,605
Cassini is so far away,
it will take the message,
510
00:40:34,780 --> 00:40:36,650
traveling at
the speed of light,
511
00:40:36,825 --> 00:40:39,125
more than an
hour to reach her.
512
00:40:39,306 --> 00:40:42,436
Every microchip in her
has been programmed to resist
513
00:40:42,614 --> 00:40:45,494
the commands
she's now receiving.
514
00:40:45,660 --> 00:40:48,880
The inner-turmoil of the
loyal robot commanded to defy
515
00:40:49,055 --> 00:40:52,535
her own instincts
must be fierce.
516
00:40:52,711 --> 00:40:55,501
The same engineers who
ordered her to protect herself
517
00:40:55,670 --> 00:41:00,680
in every situation now force
her to plunge to her death.
518
00:41:02,285 --> 00:41:04,635
They must be obeyed.
519
00:41:04,810 --> 00:41:06,550
MAN [over radio]:
System lead ace.
520
00:41:06,725 --> 00:41:10,375
We have telemetry
AOS at zero one.
521
00:41:10,555 --> 00:41:13,775
One, niner.
One two.
522
00:41:15,560 --> 00:41:17,740
TYSON: She fights off the
immense forces by struggling
523
00:41:17,910 --> 00:41:20,650
to right herself
one last time.
524
00:41:20,826 --> 00:41:23,566
She fires her
thrusters at 100%,
525
00:41:23,742 --> 00:41:26,442
all the while faithfully
sending back more data than
526
00:41:26,614 --> 00:41:29,364
her designers
ever hoped she would.
527
00:41:29,530 --> 00:41:31,140
WOMAN [over radio]: Project
Manager. Flight Director.
528
00:41:31,314 --> 00:41:33,144
MAN [over radio]: Go ahead.
529
00:41:33,316 --> 00:41:36,226
WOMAN [over radio]: Okay. We'd call loss of signal at 11:55:46.
530
00:41:37,886 --> 00:41:40,756
TYSON: She fights the brutal
atmospheric resistance until
531
00:41:40,933 --> 00:41:43,203
her fuel tanks are empty,
532
00:41:43,370 --> 00:41:46,330
and there's no
more fight left in her.
533
00:41:47,983 --> 00:41:52,123
MAN [over radio]: Project
manager on, maybe a trickle
of telemetry left, but,
534
00:41:52,292 --> 00:41:56,732
just heard the signal
from the spacecraft is gone
535
00:41:56,905 --> 00:42:00,945
and within the next 45 seconds
so will be the spacecraft.
536
00:42:14,096 --> 00:42:19,096
♪ ♪
537
00:42:19,275 --> 00:42:24,445
TYSON: Official time of
death: 11:55 universal time.
538
00:42:27,022 --> 00:42:31,462
There are all kinds of
stories in the struggle
to understand the cosmos.
539
00:42:31,636 --> 00:42:34,596
Sometimes your
dreams die with you,
540
00:42:34,769 --> 00:42:39,119
but sometimes the scientists
of another age pick them up,
541
00:42:39,295 --> 00:42:43,035
and take them to the
Moon, and far beyond.
542
00:42:45,693 --> 00:42:49,523
The name of Yuri
Kondratyuk was forgotten,
543
00:42:49,697 --> 00:42:53,267
but there was
one who remembered.
544
00:42:56,356 --> 00:42:59,706
When Neil Armstrong returned
from his trip to the Moon,
545
00:42:59,881 --> 00:43:03,361
he made a pilgrimage to
the childhood home of the man
546
00:43:03,537 --> 00:43:06,577
who made his
mythic voyage possible.
547
00:43:08,847 --> 00:43:13,587
♪ ♪
548
00:43:53,065 --> 00:43:54,975
Captioned by
Cotter Captioning Services.
46316
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