Original subtitles

Bettany Hughes: ANCIENT ROME:

ONE OF THE GREATEST SUPERPOWERS IN HISTORY

\h\hWHOSE FAR-REACHING LEGACY CONTINUES TO SHAPE OUR LIVES.

FOR CLOSE ON 1,000 YEARS,

THE ROMANS DOMINATED \h\hTHE KNOWN WORLD.

\h\h\h\h\h\h\hTHEIRS WAS AN EXTRAORDINARY EMPIRE

THAT HERALDED AN AGE

OF UNPRECEDENTED PROSPERITY \h\h\h\h\h\h\hAND STABILITY,

BUT THAT ALSO RULED THROUGH \h\hVIOLENCE AND OPPRESSION.

[THUNDER]

ROME’S RISE TO GREATNESS \h\h\hWASN’T INEVITABLE;

\hITS EPIC HISTORY WAS OFTEN DECIDED

BY SINGLE CRITICAL MOMENTS.

[YELLING]

[GASP]

\h\h\h\h\h\h\hIN THIS SERIES I’M EXPLORING EIGHT KEY DAYS

THAT I BELIEVE HELP TO EXPLAIN \h\hROME’S REMARKABLE SUCCESS.

\h\h\h\hTO UNDERSTAND THE FULL SIGNIFICANCE

OF THESE EIGHT DAYS,

\h\h\h\h\hI’M TRAVELING ACROSS THE ROMAN WORLD.

I AM INCREDIBLY LUCKY \h\h\h\hTO GET ACCESS

TO THIS ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE.

EXAMINING REMARKABLE FINDS.

\h\h\h\hMan: THE GERMANS ARE DESCRIBED BY CAESAR

AS KIND OF TERRORISTS.

[CLANGING]

Bettany: AND INVESTIGATING \h\h\h\h\hTHE COMPLEXITIES

OF WHAT IT WAS TO BE ROMAN.

[SCREAMING]

Man: POMPEY AND I HAD AN AGREEMENT!

\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\hBettany: THIS IS THE DAY IN 49 B.C.

\h\h\h\hWHEN JULIUS CAESAR CROSSED THE RUBICON RIVER

\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\hAT THE HEAD OF HIS ALL-CONQUERING ARMY.

\h\h\h\h\hIT WAS THE START OF A BLOODY REVOLUTION...

\h\h\h\hMan: CICERO, JOIN THE LIBERATORS.

[SPLASHING]

Bettany: THAT WOULD LEAD \h\h\hTO THE DESTRUCTION

OF ROME’S 500-YEAR-OLD REPUBLIC.

GAIUS JULIUS CAESAR WAS BORN

JUST A FEW HUNDRED YARDS \hFROM HERE IN 100 B.C.,

\h\h\hAT A TIME WHEN ROME STILL REFERRED TO HERSELF

AS A REPUBLIC.

NOW, THE ROMANS WERE VERY PROUD OF THEIR IDEAL OF LIBERTY,

AND THAT, AS A REPUBLIC,

\h\h\h\hHER CITIZENS HAD BOTH A VOICE AND A VOTE.

RULE WAS, IN THEORY AT LEAST,

"FOR THE PEOPLE."

\h\h\h\hASSEMBLIES AND ELECTIONS WERE OPEN TO ORDINARY CITIZENS,

BUT THE POWERFUL SENATE

\h\h\h\h\hWAS DOMINATED BY A FEW ELITE FAMILIES.

AS A REPUBLIC, ROME HAD GONE \hFROM STRENGTH TO STRENGTH.

BY THE 1st CENTURY B.C.,

ROME WAS THE MOST POWERFUL STATE IN THE ANCIENT WORLD.

HER EMPIRE NOW STRETCHED

FROM WHAT IS NOW GREECE \hAND TURKEY IN THE EAST

\hACROSS NORTH AFRICA TO SPAIN IN THE WEST.

\h\h\h\h\h\h\hSHE’D DEFEATED HER GREAT RIVAL CARTHAGE...

Man: VICTORY FOR ROME!

\h\h\h\h\hBettany: AND OVERCOME A SLAVE REVOLT LED BY SPARTACUS.

BUT ROME’S VICTORIES \h\hCAME AT A PRICE.

\h\h\h\h\h\h\hHER LUST FOR LAND LED TO THE RISE OF ARMY GENERALS

WHO COULD DELIVER FOREIGN CONQUESTS.

ENRICHED BY PLUNDER,

\h\h\hTHESE MEN ACCUMULATED DANGEROUS AMOUNTS OF POWER.

AND ONE STOOD HEAD AND SHOULDERS ABOVE THE REST.

AS A GENERAL AND STATESMAN,

\h\h\h\h\h\h\hJULIUS CAESAR WAS IN A CLASS OF HIS OWN--

\h\hA MAN SAID TO HAVE RAZOR-SHARP INTELLECT

AND A CLINICAL, STEELY \hAMBITION TO SUCCEED.

CAESAR’S RISE WOULD CHALLENGE

\h\h\hTHE VERY EXISTENCE OF THE REPUBLIC ITSELF.

AT THIS CRUCIAL MOMENT \h\hIN ROME’S HISTORY,

THE CITY HAD A STARK CHOICE--

TO STAY TRUE TO ITS PRINCIPLES \h\h\h\h\hOF RULE BY THE MANY,

OR TO STAND BY AND WATCH

\h\h\hAS POWER WAS SUBVERTED FOR THE BENEFIT OF THE FEW.

\h\hTHESE GROWING TENSIONS WOULD REACH A CRISIS POINT

ON WHAT WOULD PROVE TO BE \h\h\h\h\hA MOMENTOUS DAY,

WHEN CAESAR CROSSED \hTHE RUBICON RIVER,

\h\h\h\h\hDECLARING WAR ON THE REPUBLIC ITSELF.

\h\h\h\h\hI WANT TO EXPLORE THE EVENTS AROUND THAT DAY--

A MOMENT THAT WOULD HERALD

THE TRANSFORMATION \hOF THE REPUBLIC

INTO AN EMPIRE RULED \h\hBY A SINGLE MAN.

CAESAR FIRST MADE HIS NAME \h\h\h\h\hAND HIS FORTUNE

WHEN HE LED THE PITILESS \h\h\hINVASION OF GAUL,

A BLOODY MILITARY CAMPAIGN

THAT REACHED A TERRIBLE CLIMAX \h\h\hIN TODAY’S NETHERLANDS.

WHEN GERMANIC TRIBES

\h\hCROSSED INTO CAESAR’S NEWLY CONQUERED TERRITORY

\h\h\hWHAT FOLLOWED WAS ONE OF THE MOST VICIOUS MASS KILLINGS

IN ROMAN HISTORY.

IN CAESAR’S ACCOUNT OF THE GALLIC WARS,

\h\h\hHE WRITES THAT THE GERMANIC TRIBES

BEGGED HIM FOR A TRUCE.

[YELLING]

\h\hINSTEAD, HE ORDERED THAT THEY BE WIPED OUT--

A TASK HIS SOLDIERS CARRIED OUT WITH RUTHLESS SAVAGERY.

[SCREAMING]

AT CAESAR’S SIDE,

HIS LOYAL OFFICER, MARK ANTONY.

\h\h\h\h\h\hMark Antony: THESE REPRESENTATIVES OF THE PEOPLE

HAVE COME TO TALK PEACE.

\h\h\h\h\hCaesar: WE’LL HAVE TO DISAPPOINT THEM, THEN, WON’T WE?

[SCREAMING]

Man: RUN!

RUN INTO THE FOREST!

♪

♪

[MAN GROANS]

[CHUCKLING]

Caesar: HA!

Bettany: CAESAR BOASTED

\h\h\h\hTHAT HIS TROOPS ANNIHILATED THE TRIBES,

KILLING AROUND 150,000 MEN, \h\h\h\hWOMEN, AND CHILDREN.

[BABY CRYING]

UP UNTIL NOW,

HISTORIANS HAVE HAD TO RELY ON CAESAR’S WRITTEN ACCOUNT

\h\h\h\h\hAS THE ONLY PROOF FOR THIS HORRIFYING EPISODE.

\h\h\hREMARKABLY, ARCHAEOLOGISTS WORKING HERE IN THE NETHERLANDS

BELIEVE THEY MAY HAVE IDENTIFIED

\h\h\h\hDIRECT EVIDENCE OF THE EVENTS THAT DAY.

AND SOME OF THE KEY FINDS \h\h\hARE BEING HELD HERE

IN THE NATIONAL MUSEUM \h\h\h\h\h\hIN LEIDEN.

THIS NEWLY DISCOVERED, \h\hCHILLING EVIDENCE

\h\h\hWAS DREDGED FROM THE NEARBY MAAS RIVER

\h\h\h\h\h\hAND ANALYZED BY ARCHAEOLOGIST NICO ROYMANS.

\h\hWHAT KIND OF EVIDENCE HAVE YOU BEEN WORKING WITH

TO PIECE TOGETHER THIS STORY?

\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\hNico Roymans: HERE YOU HAVE A FEW EXAMPLES.

YOU HAVE HERE A SKULL \h\hOF AN ADULT PERSON

ABOUT 60 YEARS OLD,

\h\h\h\h\hWHERE THE FACE HERE WAS CUT OFF BY ONE SWORD BLOW.

\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\hSO THAT’S REALLY A MORTAL INJURY, I CAN TELL YOU.

\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\hBettany: THAT’S HORRIFIC, ISN’T IT?

Nico: HERE, AN ADULT WOMAN

\h\h\hWITH A HOLE HERE ABOVE ONE OF THE EYES,

CAUSED BY A ROMAN SPEAR HEAD.

\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\hBettany: I MEAN, IT’S INTERESTING

THAT YOU’RE FINDING WOMEN HERE

\hBECAUSE WE HEAR FROM THE ACCOUNTS

THAT WOMEN AND CHILDREN \hWERE ALSO SLAUGHTERED.

\hNico: THAT’S EXACTLY WHAT CAESAR DESCRIBES,

THAT HE TRIED TO SLAUGHTER \hTHE COMPLETE POPULATION.

Bettany: HISTORICALLY THIS IS VERY EXCITING

BECAUSE IT’S VERY RARE

THAT WE GET ARCHAEOLOGICAL \h\h\h\hEVIDENCE LIKE THIS

ABSOLUTELY BUTTRESSING IN A VERY PRECISE WAY

THE WRITTEN RECORD,

BUT EMOTIONALLY IT’S VERY HARD \h\h\hTO LOOK AT SOME OF THIS

BECAUSE YOU GET A SENSE \h\h\h\hOF THE FEROCITY

OF CAESAR AND HIS CAMPAIGN.

Nico: WHAT HE DID HERE IN THIS NORTHERN FRINGE AREA OF GAUL,

\h\h\h\h\hTHERE WAS CLEAR CASES OF MASSACRES AND EVEN GENOCIDE.

Bettany: FINDS LIKE THESE

\h\h\h\hSHOULD MAKE US RE-DRAW OUR MENTAL PICTURE OF CAESAR.

AS WELL AS BEING AN AMBITIOUS \h\h\h\hAND BRILLIANT GENERAL,

\h\hHE WAS A BRUTAL AND CALLOUS WARLORD.

TODAY HE’D BE CALLED \h\hA WAR CRIMINAL.

\h\hHE DESTROYED HUNDREDS OF TOWNS AND SETTLEMENTS,

\hENSLAVED AND KILLED HUNDREDS OF THOUSANDS

\h\h\h\h\h\hAND POSSIBLY EVEN MILLIONS OF GAULS.

\h\h\h\h\h\hWHAT CAESAR WANTED WAS PERSONAL POWER AND GLORY,

\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\hSETTING HIM ON A DIRECT COLLISION COURSE

\h\h\hWITH THE IDEALS OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC.

ROME’S OVERSEAS CONQUESTS

\h\h\h\h\h\hHAD PRODUCED A NEW BREED OF GENERAL--

MEN WHOSE ENORMOUS PERSONAL INFLUENCE

THREATENED TO DESTABILIZE

\hTHE ENTIRE SYSTEM OF ROMAN GOVERNMENT.

\hTHREE IN PARTICULAR WERE HUNGRY FOR POWER,

AND THE FOREMOST AMONGST THEM

WAS THE CONQUEROR OF GAUL,

JULIUS CAESAR.

\h\h\h\hA STATE WHOSE POLITICS WERE SUPPOSED TO BE PLAYED OUT

\h\h\hIN THE PUBLIC SPACES AND BUILDINGS OF THE FORUM

\h\hWAS ABOUT TO HAVE ITS FUTURE THREATENED

BY A SLEAZY BACKROOM DEAL.

170 MILES NORTH OF THE CAPITAL,

\h\h\h\h\h\h\hROME’S THREE MOST POWERFUL CITIZENS MET

TO LAUNCH A CONSPIRACY

\h\h\hTO DIVIDE UP CONTROL OF THE VAST ROMAN EMPIRE.

CALLING THE SHOTS, \hCAESAR HIMSELF.

BEFORE HIM, CRASSUS,

\h\h\h\h\h\hCOMMANDER WHO DEFEATED SPARTACUS

AND THE RICHEST MAN IN ROME.

POMPEY THE GREAT,

\hA BRILLIANT GENERAL, CONQUEROR OF THE EAST,

\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\hAND HUSBAND TO CAESAR’S DAUGHTER, JULIA.

[SLAM]

Caesar: SPAIN FOR YOU, POMPEY.

SYRIA FOR YOU, CRASSUS.

Crassus: SYRIA.

Caesar: MORE TRIUMPHS,

MORE TROPHIES,

MORE GOLD, CRASSUS.

\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\hPompey: HE DOESN’T NEED MORE GOLD.

Crassus: YOU DON’T NEED \h\h\hANY MORE TRIUMPH.

Pompey: AND FOR YOU, CAESAR?

\h\h\hCaesar: THE EXTENSION OF MY GOVERNORSHIP OF GAUL.

FIVE MORE YEARS,

SUPPORTED BY FRESH FINANCE \h\h\h\h\hFROM THE SENATE.

Pompey: THE STUBBORN OLD DOGS \hIN THE SENATE WILL FIGHT IT.

Caesar: THE STUBBORN OLD DOGS \h\h\h\h\h\h\h\hOF THE SENATE

\h\hWILL BE NO MATCH FOR THE THREE OF US.

Bettany: THIS WAS A POWER GRAB,

A PLAN TO SEIZE CONTROL \h\h\h\hOF THE REPUBLIC.

THREE OF THE RICHEST MEN \h\h\h\h\h\h\h\hIN ROME,

\h\h\h\h\hEACH AT THE HEAD OF A BATTLE-HARDENED ARMY,

WORKING TOGETHER TO FURTHER \h\h\h\hTHEIR OWN INTERESTS.

\hTRULY THE STUFF OF NIGHTMARES FOR THE OLD ORDER IN THE SENATE.

[THUNDER]

NOW, THERE’S A RATHER BRILLIANT THING ABOUT THE SITUATION HERE,

BECAUSE WE HAVE AN EYEWITNESS

\h\h\h\h\h\hRIGHT AT THE HEART OF THE ROMAN POLITICAL SYSTEM.

\h\h\h\h\hHIS NAME WAS MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO,

AND HE WASN’T JUST ANY OLD OBSERVER,

\hBUT AN INCREDIBLY ASTUTE AND PROLIFIC COMMENTATOR.

\h\h\hTHANKS TO HIS SPEECHES AND HIS HUNDREDS OF LETTERS,

WE KNOW WHAT WAS GOING ON

\h\hAT THE ACTUAL TIME THAT IT WAS HAPPENING.

\h\hCICERO CAME FROM OBSCURE BEGINNINGS,

HERE IN ARPINO,

SOME 60 MILES SOUTH OF ROME.

DESPITE THE WAY HE’S BEEN PORTRAYED IN THIS STATUE,

CICERO WASN’T A CONQUERING HERO.

\hHE WAS A LAWYER AND A POLITICIAN,

ALTHOUGH HE WAS WIDELY REGARDED

AS THE VERY BEST ORATOR \hIN THE WHOLE OF ROME.

BUT HIS POLITICAL INSTINCTS \h\hWERE VERY CONSERVATIVE.

THE VALUES OF THE REPUBLIC \hMEANT EVERYTHING TO HIM.

\h\h\h\h\hHE WAS ALSO ASTUTE ENOUGH TO KNOW

\h\h\h\hTHAT POLITICS WAS A DANGEROUS GAME.

VIOLENCE WAS A CONSTANT THREAT

FROM MOBS LOYAL TO CAESAR \h\h\h\h\hAND HIS ALLIES.

OPPOSE CAESAR, POMPEY, \h\h\h\h\hOR CRASSUS,

\h\hAND YOU RISKED INTIMIDATION OR SOMETIMES EVEN ASSASSINATION.

IT WAS SOMETHING THAT CICERO \hHAD EXPERIENCED FIRST-HAND

\hWHEN HIS BELOVED HOME IN ROME WAS RANSACKED BY A HOSTILE MOB.

SO CICERO FELT FORCED

TO PLEDGE HIS LOYALTY TO THE THREE GENERALS.

BUT WHAT IS FASCINATING

IS THAT IF YOU READ HIS PRIVATE LETTERS,

\h\h\hTHEN THESE REVEAL HIS REAL HEARTFELT FEARS FOR THE FUTURE.

\h\h\h\h\h\h\hHE WRITES IN THE SUMMER OF 56 B.C.

TO HIS FRIEND ATTICUS:

"YOU WILL NOT BELIEVE \h\h\h\hTHE TREACHERY

OF THESE, OUR ’LEADERS,’

AS THEY WOULD HAVE THEMSELVES.

\hFAREWELL TO STRAIGHT, TRUE, HONEST POLITICS."

BUT THE GANG OF THREE’S \h\h\hPOWER-SHARING PLOT

WAS SHORT-LIVED.

\h\h\h\h\hTHE GREAT CRASSUS MIGHT HAVE BEATEN SPARTACUS,

\h\h\h\hBUT OUT ON CAMPAIGN AGAINST THE PARTHIAN EMPIRE,

HE WAS DEFEATED IN BATTLE.

30,000 OF HIS SOLDIERS WERE LOST

AND THE GENERAL HIMSELF \h\hWAS TAKEN PRISONER.

Man: ARE YOU THIRSTY, ROMAN?

[GRUNTING]

[GRUNTING]

[SCREAMING]

[LAUGHING]

[SCREAMING AND SIZZLING]

[GAGGING]

[LAUGHING]

Bettany: LEGENDS ABOUT THE USE OF MOLTEN GOLD

\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\hTO MURDER THE INFAMOUSLY WEALTHY CRASSUS

WERE RECORDED BY THE ROMAN \h\hHISTORIAN CASSIUS DIO.

WITH CRASSUS GONE,

THE GANG OF THREE’S DEAL \hWAS DEAD IN THE WATER.

\hCAESAR ACTED SWIFTLY TO SHORE UP HIS POWER,

PUTTING HIMSELF FORWARD

\h\h\h\h\hFOR THE HIGHEST POLITICAL OFFICE IN ROME,

THE CONSULSHIP.

BUT THERE WAS A PROBLEM.

IN ORDER TO RUN FOR OFFICE,

ROMAN LAW STATED

THAT A GENERAL MUST GIVE UP \h\h\hCOMMAND OF HIS ARMIES.

\h\h\h\h\h\hTHE AGREEMENT THAT HAD BEEN THRASHED OUT

DOWN THERE IN THE HEART OF ROME

BY THE CITIZENS OF THE REPUBLIC

\hWAS THAT A CANDIDATE HAD TO BE A CIVILIAN.

THE THING WAS,

\h\h\h\h\h\h\hCAESAR HAD ABSOLUTELY NO INTENTION

\h\h\h\h\h\h\hOF GIVING UP THE SOURCE OF HIS POWER--

\h\hHIS POSITION AS GENERAL IN COMMAND OF A LOYAL ARMY.

SEEKING TO BUILD SUPPORT \h\h\hFOR HIS CANDIDACY,

CAESAR NEEDED THE ENDORSEMENT \h\h\h\h\hOF A SENIOR SENATOR.

Caesar: CICERO!

MY DEAR FRIEND.

Bettany: SO, HE SUMMONED \hROME’S GREATEST ORATOR

TO HIS MILITARY HEADQUARTERS \h\h\h\h\h\h\h\hIN RAVENNA--

THEN PART OF SOUTHERN GAUL.

Man: DON’T GO UPSETTING HIM, \h\h\h\h\h\h\h\hYOU OLD DOG,

OR YOU’LL HAVE ME TO ANSWER TO.

\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\hCicero: YOU WISH TO BE ELECTED CONSUL

IN THE UPCOMING ELECTIONS.

Caesar: YES.

MY GOVERNORSHIP OF GAUL \h\hIS COMING TO AN END.

Cicero: BUT YOU WANT TO KEEP YOUR ARMIES?

I DON’T THINK THAT WOULD BE \hACCEPTABLE TO THE SENATE.

\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\hCaesar: THE SENATE SEEMS DETERMINED

\hTO PUNISH AND HUMILIATE ME FOR BRINGING GLORY TO ROME.

\h\h\h\h\h\hCicero: THE LAW WOULD HAVE TO BE REWRITTEN.

Caesar: REWRITE IT, THEN.

WHY NOT?

THEY FOLLOW YOU LIKE SHEEP.

\h\h\hCicero: YOUR OPPONENTS RISE TO THEIR FEET EVERY DAY

\h\h\h\hTO DECLARE YOU AN ENEMY OF THE SENATE

AND OF ROME ITSELF.

THEY ARE TRYING THEIR BEST

TO TURN POMPEY ROUND \h\h\hTO THEIR SIDE.

Caesar: POMPEY AND I \hHAD AN AGREEMENT!

I CANNOT BE LEFT DEFENSELESS!

I SIMPLY ASK TO BE TREATED

\h\h\hWITH THE RESPECT DUE TO MY RANK AND EXPERIENCE.

\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\hCicero: I WILL SEE WHAT I CAN DO.

Caesar: I THINK YOU’LL FIND IT

\h\h\h\h\h\h\hTHE SAFEST AND MOST HONORABLE PATH.

Bettany: DESPITE CICERO’S \h\h\h\hPLEDGE OF SUPPORT,

CAESAR’S ENEMIES IN THE SENATE

\hDENIED HIS REQUEST TO KEEP HIS ARMIES,

\h\h\hARGUING INSTEAD THAT HE BE STRIPPED OF HIS COMMAND IN GAUL.

\h\h\h\hTHE STORY GOES THAT WHEN CAESAR HEARD

THAT THE SENATE PLANNED \hTO CANCEL HIS COMMAND,

HE CLAPPED HIS HAND TO THE HILT OF HIS SWORD AND DECLARED,

"THIS WILL GIVE IT TO ME."

\hBIG TALK WAS EDGING CLOSER TO THE POSSIBILITY OF OUTRIGHT WAR

\hBETWEEN CAESAR AND THE SENATE.

SO, WHERE DID POMPEY,

THE OTHER SURVIVING MEMBER \h\hOF THE GANG OF THREE,

STAND ON ALL OF THIS?

HE HAD TRIED TO REMAIN \h\h\h\hON GOOD TERMS

WITH BOTH CAESAR AND THE SENATE,

\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\hBUT NOW WITH THE REPUBLIC IN CRISIS,

HE’D HAVE TO PICK A SIDE.

CICERO WAS FOLLOWING ALL OF THIS CLOSELY

FROM ONE OF HIS VILLAS \h\h\h\hOUTSIDE ROME.

\h\h\h\h\h\hHIS LETTERS GIVE US A UNIQUE INSIGHT

INTO HISTORY AS IT HAPPENED,

AND AS EVENTS ESCALATED \h\h\h\h\hTOWARDS CHAOS,

THEY GROW EVER MORE DESPAIRING.

IN THE WINTER OF 50 B.C.,

HE WAS WRITING ALMOST DAILY \h\h\hTO HIS FRIEND ATTICUS.

JUST LISTEN TO THIS FROM EARLY DECEMBER.

"THESE MEN ARE FIGHTING \h\h\hFOR PERSONAL POWER

AT SOCIETY’S RISK.

CAESAR’S BECOME SO STRONG

\hTHAT ALL HOPE OF RESISTANCE RESTS WITH A SINGLE CITIZEN,"

MEANING POMPEY.

\hAND SOON AFTER THAT, ON DECEMBER THE 18th,

HE IS CRYSTAL CLEAR \hABOUT ROME’S FATE.

"THE POLITICAL SITUATION GIVES \hME GREATER TERROR EVERY DAY.

ALL WE WANT IS PEACE,

\h\h\h\hBUT A VICTORY MAY PRODUCE A TYRANT."

CICERO WAS DESOLATE,

\h\h\h\h\hWITH A FRONT-ROW SEAT AS ROME GEARED UP FOR CIVIL WAR,

\h\h\hA WAR THAT WOULD DESTROY THE REPUBLIC THAT HE SO LOVED.

\hJUST A FEW DAYS AFTER THAT LETTER,

MATTERS CAME TO A HEAD.

THE SENATE ASKED POMPEY TO DEFEND THE REPUBLIC,

WITH ARMS IF NECESSARY.

FORCED TO MAKE A DECISION, \h\h\h\h\h\h\hHE ACCEPTED,

AND A STATE OF EMERGENCY \h\h\h\h\hWAS DECLARED.

\h\h\hCAESAR WAS THEN ORDERED TO RELINQUISH HIS MILITARY COMMAND

AND TO RETURN TO THE CITY \h\h\h\hWITHOUT HIS ARMY.

\h\hCAESAR WAS NOW FACED WITH A CRITICAL DILEMMA.

\h\h\hTO REMAIN IN GAUL MEANT FORFEITING HIS POLITICAL POWER

TO HIS ENEMIES.

RETURNING TO ROME \hWITHOUT AN ARMY

WOULD VERGE ON THE SUICIDAL.

THE ONLY OTHER OPTION

\hWAS ONE THAT WOULD HAVE DEVASTATING CONSEQUENCES.

FROM HIS BASE IN RAVENNA,

\h\h\h\h\h\h\hCAESAR PLANNED TO TRAVEL THROUGH THE NIGHT

\h\h\hTO MEET HIS ARMY AT THE RUBICON RIVER,

\hTHE FRONTIER WITH THE ROMAN HOMELAND.

ACCORDING TO THE LAW,

ANY GENERAL LEADING TROOPS \h\h\h\hACROSS THIS BORDER

WOULD BE DECLARED \hA PUBLIC ENEMY.

CROSSING THE RUBICON WOULD BE, \h\h\h\h\h\h\h\hQUITE SIMPLY,

A DECLARATION OF WAR

AGAINST THE REPUBLIC OF ROME.

SECRECY WAS PARAMOUNT.

Soldier: NOT A WORD TO ANYONE,

OR I’LL COME TO THAT FILTHY \h\h\hLITTLE HOVEL OF YOURS

AND SLIT YOUR THROAT.

UNDERSTAND?

GOOD.

\hBettany: THE CHOICE THAT CAESAR WOULD MAKE

\h\h\h\hON THE BANKS OF THE RUBICON RIVER

THE FOLLOWING MORNING

CHANGED THE COURSE OF HISTORY.

CAESAR’S CONFLICT \hWITH THE SENATE

HAD REACHED CRISIS POINT.

HE RODE THROUGH THE NIGHT

TO MEET UP WITH HIS ARMY \h\h\h\hAT THE RUBICON,

\h\h\h\h\h\hTHE BORDER OF THE ROMAN HOMELAND.

Caesar: WHOA. WHOA. WHOA.

\hBettany: IF CAESAR CROSSED THE RUBICON AT THE HEAD OF HIS ARMY,

IT WOULD BE AN ACT OF TREASON,

AN OPEN VIOLATION OF ROMAN LAW.

\h\h\hTHIS WOULD TRIGGER A DEVASTATING CIVIL WAR

BETWEEN CAESAR AND THE REPUBLIC.

[HORSE NICKERS]

IF HE TURNED BACK,

\h\hHE’D LOSE HIS COMMAND AND BE TRIED AS A TRAITOR.

[WIND HOWLING]

♪

\hWoman, echoing: DO NOT GO FURTHER.

♪

Caesar: DID I, UH...

Soldier: YOU PASSED OUT.

\h\h\h\h\h\hI HAD TO HAUL YOU OUT OF THE RIVER LIKE A FISH.

Caesar: I SAW A FIGURE.

A WOMAN.

RISING OUT OF THE WATER.

SHE TOLD ME TO GO NO FURTHER.

Soldier: A DREAM?

[HORSES WHINNYING \hAND MEN YELLING]

Caesar: THEY’RE HERE.

SAY NO MORE OF THIS.

Bettany: THE AUTHOR LUCAN’S STORY OF THIS GHOSTLY VISION

AS CAESAR STOOD ON THE THRESHOLD OF ALL-OUT REBELLION

SPEAKS OF THE TROUBLED STATE \h\h\h\h\h\h\h\hOF HIS MIND.

THE DECISION THAT CAESAR \hWOULD MAKE ON THAT DAY

WOULD TRANSFORM THE FATE \h\hOF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.

[HORSE NICKERS]

\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\hCaesar: SOLDIERS OF THE THIRTEENTH,

LOYAL FRIENDS...

I HAVE BEEN YOUR COMMANDER \h\h\h\h\hFOR NINE YEARS.

WE MEET HERE TODAY,

ON THE BANKS OF THE RUBICON,

BECAUSE THE SENATE...

AND POMPEY

HAVE DECREED THAT UNLESS I RELINQUISH MY COMMAND,

I SHALL BE BRANDED AN ENEMY OF ROME.

GAIUS JULIUS CAESAR, \hAN ENEMY OF ROME!

HOW DARE THEY?

NOW WE HAVE A CHOICE.

WE TURN BACK...

OR WE CROSS THIS RIVER...

AND WE FIGHT AGAINST MY ENEMIES

TO PROVE MY HONOR \hAND MY STATION!

WHAT IS IT TO BE, MEN?

\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\hBettany: ON THE 10th OF JANUARY, 49 B.C.,

JULIUS CAESAR URGED HIS HORSE

\hINTO THE ICY WATERS OF THE RUBICON RIVER.

\h\h\hTHIS APPARENTLY SIMPLE ACT WOULD SET OFF A CHAIN OF EVENTS

THAT WOULD COME TO DEFINE \h\h\h\hTHE ROMAN EMPIRE.

EVEN NOW,

\h\h"CROSSING A RUBICON" MEANS REACHING A POINT OF NO RETURN,

\h\h\h\h\h\hAN ACT WITH PERMANENT CONSEQUENCES.

CAESAR HAD STARTED A CIVIL WAR,

AND THAT DECISION

WOULD SHAPE THE COURSE OF ROMAN CIVILIZATION,

WHICH MEANS THAT ITS FALLOUT

\h\h\hSTILL IMPACTS ON ALL OF US TODAY.

\h\h\h\hFOR CICERO, WHATEVER HE INTENDED

AND WHOEVER WON THESE BATTLES,

THE REAL LOSER COULD ONLY BE \hTHE 500-YEAR-OLD REPUBLIC.

"WE SHOULD HAVE RESISTED CAESAR WHEN HE WAS WEAK.

THAT WOULD HAVE BEEN EASY.

NOW WE FACE ELEVEN LEGIONS,

CAVALRY AT HIS COMMAND,

THE CITY RABBLE, CORRUPT YOUTH,

\h\h\hA LEADER OF SUCH AUTHORITY AND DARING.

\h\h\h\hAGAINST THIS WE MUST EITHER FIGHT

OR ADMIT HIS CANDIDATURE \h\h\h\h\h\hIN THE LAW."

\h\hAND THEN HE COMES UP WITH SOMETHING REALLY INTERESTING,

"BETTER FIGHT THAN BE A SLAVE, \h\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\hYOU SAY?

FOR WHAT?

\hA DEATH SENTENCE IF YOU’RE BEATEN,

\h\h\hAND IF YOU WIN, SLAVERY ALL THE SAME."

WHAT CICERO WAS SAYING

\h\hIS THAT BECAUSE THIS IS A CIVIL WAR,

EVERYTHING IS ALREADY LOST.

\hLEGITIMATE POLITICAL POWER CANNOT BE WON BY THE SWORD,

AND IF POMPEY TRIUMPHED,

THERE WAS NOTHING TO SAY

THAT HE WOULDN’T END UP \h\h\h\hBEING A TYRANT.

DEATH OR MORAL SLAVERY

WOULD BE THE ONLY OUTCOME.

AN EPIC SHOWDOWN LOOMED.

\h\h\hCAESAR MARCHED SOUTH FROM THE RUBICON TO ROME.

BUT POMPEY AND HIS SUPPORTERS \h\h\h\h\hABANDONED THE CITY,

\h\h\h\h\h\hFLEEING TO GREECE, WHERE THEY RAISED A HUGE ARMY.

CAESAR SAILED EAST TO MEET THEM,

\h\h\h\h\h\hAND THE TWO SIDES FINALLY CONFRONTED ONE ANOTHER

AT THE DECISIVE BATTLE \h\h\h\hOF PHARSALUS.

♪

\h\h\h\h\hFACING POMPEY’S FORCES ON THE PLAINS OF CENTRAL GREECE,

\h\hCAESAR FOUND HIMSELF IN A PERILOUS POSITION--

ISOLATED, SHORT OF PROVISIONS, \h\hAND SERIOUSLY OUTNUMBERED.

BUT THEN CAESAR’S MEN,

BATTLE-HARDENED VETERANS,

EMPLOYED SUPERIOR STRATEGY \h\h\hAND FIGHTING SKILLS

AND DEFIED MILITARY LOGIC

\h\h\h\hTO WIN CAESAR HIS GREATEST VICTORY.

AFTER THIS CRUSHING DEFEAT,

POMPEY WENT ON THE RUN, \h\h\hFLEEING TO EGYPT.

[BIRD SHRIEKS]

CAESAR PURSUED HIM THERE,

\h\h\h\h\hHOPING TO PERSUADE THE EGYPTIAN KING, PTOLEMY,

\h\h\h\hTO HAND OVER HIS GREAT ADVERSARY.

\hMan: CONQUEROR OF THE WORLD AND MIGHTIEST OF THE ROMANS...

YOU ARE MADE SAFE BY THIS GIFT.

Caesar: HOW IS THIS A GIFT?

Man: IT IS YOUR ENEMY’S RING

AND HIS HEAD.

Caesar: THIS IS THE HEAD \h\hOF A GREAT GENERAL,

A CONSUL OF ROME,

AND MY SON-IN-LAW.

TELL YOUR KING

I DEMAND THAT THE ASSASSINS \h\h\h\h\hOF THIS GREAT MAN

BE EXECUTED WITHOUT DELAY!

Bettany: CAESAR’S REACTION \h\h\h\hTO POMPEY’S DEATH

MIGHT SEEM STRANGE,

BUT IT COULD BE PUT DOWN

\h\h\h\h\h\hTO HIS ANGER AT A MISSED OPPORTUNITY.

\h\hRATHER THAN HAVE HIS ENEMIES KILLED,

HE PREFERRED TO OFFER THEM \h\h\h\hMERCY OR CLEMENCY,

PROVING THE REACH OF HIS POWER

AND PERSUADING PEOPLE \h\h\h\h\hTO HIS SIDE.

\h\h\h\hWHETHER CAESAR’S MERCY WAS SINCERE OR JUST FOR SHOW,

WITH POMPEY DEAD,

\h\hTHERE WAS NO DOUBT HE HAD ABSOLUTE POWER.

CICERO WAS ONE OF THE MANY \hWHO PUBLICLY PRAISED HIM

FOR HIS WILLINGNESS TO FORGIVE.

BUT IN TRUTH,

HE HELD OUT LITTLE HOPE FOR ROME UNDER CAESAR’S RULE.

\h\h\h\h\h\h\hIN THE SECURITY OF HIS PRIVATE CORRESPONDENCE,

\h\h\h\h\hCICERO WROTE, "LIBERTY HAS BEEN LOST."

\hIN 46 B.C., WHEN CAESAR FINALLY RETURNED TO ROME,

\h\h\h\h\h\hTHE SENATE GRANTED HIM A TRIUMPH,

A GLORIOUS PROCESSION \h\h\h\hINTO THE CITY.

THE ROMANS ALWAYS LOVED \h\h\hA MILITARY PARADE,

AND IT’S NO DIFFERENT TODAY.

\h\h\h\hCAESAR’S VICTORY APPEARED TO BE COMPLETE.

THE NEWLY TAMED SENATE AWARDED CAESAR WITH POWERS AND HONORS

UNHEARD OF IN THE HISTORY \h\h\h\hOF THE REPUBLIC--

\h\h\h\h\h\hTITLES LIKE "PREFECT OF THE MORALS"

AND "FATHER OF THE FATHERLAND."

\h\hTHEY EVEN GAVE HIM HIS OWN RELIGIOUS CULT

WHERE HE WAS WORSHIPPED \hAS A KIND OF DEMIGOD.

THEN, IN 44 B.C.,

HIS BIRTHDAY WAS DECLARED \h\h\h\hA PUBLIC HOLIDAY,

AND THE MONTH OF QUINTILIS WAS RENAMED JULIUS--JULY--

AFTER HIM.

BUT CAESAR WAS WALKING \h\hA DANGEROUS PATH.

TO MANY OBSERVERS,

\h\h\hHE SEEMED TO BE BEHAVING LIKE A KING,

AND SINCE THE FOUNDING \h\h\hOF THE REPUBLIC,

THE ROMANS HAD A DEEP HATRED \h\h\hOF KINGS AND TYRANTS.

\h\h\hUNDERGROUND OPPOSITION TO CAESAR’S AUTOCRATIC RULE

WAS GROWING.

[RUMBLING]

AND ANCIENT WRITERS TELL US

THAT CAESAR WAS PLAGUED \hWITH A MYSTERY ILLNESS

\h\hTHAT FURTHER THREATENED TO UNDERMINE HIS AUTHORITY.

[BREATHING HEAVILY]

PLUTARCH DESCRIBES CAESAR

\h\h\hAS SUFFERING FROM "DISTEMPER IN THE HEAD."

\hSUETONIUS WRITES OF "SUDDEN FAINTING FITS"

AND "NIGHTMARES."

Cicero: CAESAR, MIGHT WE HAVE \h\h\h\h\h\hA BRIEF AUDIENCE?

Caesar: CICERO, BRUTUS.

WHAT HAVE YOU COME TO SAY?

Brutus: CAESAR DICTATOR, \h\h\hHEAR MY PETITION.

Man: WILL HE NOT STAND TO SPEAK TO SENATORS?

\hCicero: PERHAPS CAESAR THINKS WE SHOULD ALL KNEEL BEFORE HIM,

LIKE SUBJECTS.

\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\hBettany: UNAWARE OF CAESAR’S ILLNESS,

\h\h\h\h\hTHE SENATORS WERE GREATLY OFFENDED

BY HIS FAILURE TO STAND.

THEY SAW IT AS AN INSULT \h\h\h\h\hTO THEIR RANK

AND EVIDENCE OF HIS DESIRE \h\hTO RULE AS THEIR KING.

Caesar: WELL, DO YOU HAVE \h\h\h\hSOMETHING TO SAY?

DO YOU?

[DOOR CLOSES]

\h\h\h\h\h\h\hBettany: ACCORDING TO PLUTARCH,

CAESAR LATER CLAIMED HIS FAILURE TO RISE

WAS DUE TO HIS SICKNESS,

CAUSING HIS SENSES TO BE

\h\h"SPEEDILY SHAKEN AND WHIRLED ABOUT."

CAESAR’S CURIOUS BEHAVIOR

WAS GREAT AMMUNITION \hFOR HIS OPPONENTS.

\h\h\h\hSOME ANCIENT SOURCES BLAMED HIS GROWING ARROGANCE

ON HIS RECURRENT SEIZURES,

AND THAT IDEA HAS BEEN DISMISSED AS JUST A CONVENIENT EXCUSE.

BUT INTRIGUING NEW RESEARCH \h\h\h\hIS NOW CASTING LIGHT

\h\hON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CAESAR’S HEALTH

AND HIS BEHAVIOR.

DR. HUTAN ASHRAFIAN HAS APPLIED MODERN MEDICAL KNOWLEDGE

\h\hTO THE SYMPTOMS OF CAESAR’S ILLNESS,

SYMPTOMS THAT WE KNOW ABOUT

ENTIRELY FROM DESCRIPTIONS \hIN HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS.

\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\hHutan Ashrafian: CLEARLY AS A SUCCESSFUL GENERAL,

JULIUS CAESAR WAS HEALTHY \h\hFOR MOST OF HIS LIFE.

BUT HE STARTS SUFFERING \h\h\hFROM SOME SYMPTOMS

OF FALLING AND HEADACHES,

AND THIS HAS BEEN BROUGHT DOWN \h\h\h\h\hTO US OVER THE YEARS

AS HAVING SUFFERED \h\hFROM EPILEPSY.

Bettany: WHY DID YOU HAVE \hA PROBLEM WITH EPILEPSY?

WHY DID YOU THINK THAT WAS UNLIKELY?

Hutan: EPILEPSY’S A DISEASE THAT TYPICALLY PRESENTS IN CHILDHOOD.

\hBUT WHAT WE KNOW FROM JULIUS CAESAR

WAS THAT HE WAS HEALTHY \hFOR MOST OF HIS LIFE,

AND THEN SUDDENLY IN MIDDLE AGE, HE HAS THESE DISEASES,

AND THAT’S HIGHLY UNUSUAL

\h\h\h\h\hAND DOESN’T FIT IN WITH THE STORY OF EPILEPSY.

IT FITS MUCH BETTER, ACTUALLY, \h\h\h\h\h\h\h\hWITH A DISEASE

\h\h\h\h\h\hOF THE FURRING UP OF THE ARTERIES GOING TO THE BRAIN,

OR CEREBROVASCULAR DISEASE.

Bettany: AND WHAT WOULD BE \h\hTHE SYMPTOMS OF THAT?

Hutan: SO TYPICALLY THE SYMPTOMS OF CEREBROVASCULAR DISEASE

ARE WEAKNESS IN A LIMB,

UH, BLINDNESS TEMPORARILY.

IT COULD BE DIFFICULTY \h\h\h\h\hIN HEARING,

\h\h\h\h\h\hIT COULD BE A DIFFICULTY OF BALANCE,

AND VERY RARELY IT COULD BE \h\h\h\hEVEN HAVING VISIONS.

\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\hBettany: AND THAT’S VERY INTERESTING.

DO YOU THINK THAT IS ACTUALLY \h\h\hAFFECTING CAESAR, THEN,

THAT KIND OF HISTORY IS BEING PLAYED OUT

\h\h\h\hBECAUSE HE’S GOT THIS PARTICULAR MEDICAL CONDITION?

\h\h\h\h\h\h\hHutan: I THINK SO, BECAUSE IN JULIUS CAESAR’S CASE,

\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\hHE BECAME QUITE EMOTIONALLY UNSTABLE

TOWARDS THE END OF HIS LIFE.

AND THIS WAS DESCRIBED \hIN SEVERAL SOURCES.

Bettany: IF CAESAR REALLY DID \h\h\h\h\hTHINK HE WAS DYING,

\hOR WAS SPURRED ON BY A KIND OF ENHANCED SENSE OF RECKLESSNESS,

THEN HE COULD WELL HAVE WANTED \hTO TRY TO SECURE HIS LEGACY.

AND IT SEEMS AS THOUGH

\h\h\h\h\hTHAT WAS EXACTLY WHAT HE WAS TRYING TO DO.

\h\h\h\h\h\h\hHE KICKED OFF A MASSIVE BUILDING PROGRAM,

REBRANDING THE CITY OF ROME.

\h\h\h\h\h\hHE ORDERED UP A WHOLE NEW SENATE HOUSE,

THE CURIA JULIA,

AND EVEN A NEW FORUM,

THE FORUM JULIUM,

AND RIGHT AT ITS CENTER

HE BUILT THIS MASSIVE TEMPLE \h\h\h\hTO VENUS GENETRIX--

VENUS THE MOTHER--

DECLARING TO THE ROMAN WORLD \hTHAT THIS WAS THE GODDESS

WHO WAS THE ANCESTOR \h\h\hOF HIS FAMILY.

THEN, IN 44 B.C.,

\h\h\h\h\hJUST A FEW DAYS AFTER HE’D FAILED TO STAND

FOR THE SENATORS,

CAESAR MADE HIMSELF DICTATOR FOR LIFE--

A KING IN ALL BUT NAME.

\hROME’S REPUBLIC HAD BEEN REPLACED

BY A MILITARY DICTATORSHIP.

\h\hTHE SENATE HAD BEEN SYSTEMATICALLY STRIPPED

OF ITS POWERS,

\h\h\h\h\h\h\hITS RANKS SWELLED WITH CAESAR’S LOYAL SUPPORTERS.

FIVE YEARS AFTER CAESAR \h\hCROSSED THE RUBICON,

A SMALL GROUP OF SENATORS

\h\h\h\h\h\hNOW DECIDED THAT HE’D GONE TOO FAR.

AND WHAT THEY DID NEXT WOULD REVERBERATE THROUGH HISTORY.

\h\h\h\hIN 44 B.C., FIVE YEARS AFTER HE CROSSED THE RUBICON,

CAESAR WAS ESTABLISHED AS DICTATOR FOR LIFE.

\h\h\h\hFOR SOME, YEARNING FOR THE LIBERTIES OF THE REPUBLIC,

CAESAR HAD PROVED HIMSELF \h\h\hA POWER-MAD TYRANT.

\hA SMALL GROUP OF SENATORS NOW DECIDED THEY HAD TO ACT.

Cicero: I HOPE THIS WON’T BE \h\h\hANOTHER WASTE OF TIME.

Bettany: ON THE IDES OF MARCH,

\h\h\h\hCICERO ATTENDED A MEETING OF THE SENATE,

\h\h\h\h\hUNAWARE THAT INSIDE, CAESAR’S FATE HAD BEEN SEALED.

Man: GET OUT NOW!

[CROWD MURMURING]

Cicero: WHAT’S HAPPENING? \h\h\h\h\hWHAT’S GOING ON?

Man: CICERO!

LIBERTY HAS BEEN RECOVERED!

WE ARE FREE!

JOIN THE LIBERATORS!

\h\hBettany: WHEN CAESAR HAD ENTERED THE CHAMBER,

\h\h\h\hHE WAS SURROUNDED BY AROUND 20 CONSPIRATORS,

WHO STABBED HIM TO DEATH.

Cicero: OH...

\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\hBettany: IN THE AUTOPSY AFTERWARDS,

\h\h\hDOCTORS COUNTED 23 WOUNDS ON HIS BODY.

♪

♪

\h\h\h\h\h\hTHE MURDER OF GAIUS JULIUS CAESAR

TOOK PLACE HERE,

RIGHT AT THE HEART OF POMPEY’S \h\h\hMASSIVE THEATER COMPLEX.

IT WAS A MESSY BUSINESS,

WITH THE CONSPIRATORS SLASHING ONE ANOTHER IN THE CONFUSION.

\h\h\hTHOSE WHO PHYSICALLY HAD CAESAR’S BLOOD ON THEIR HANDS

WERE CLOSELY CONNECTED \h\h\hTO THE DICTATOR.

CASCA, WHO STRUCK FIRST, \h\h\hWAS AN OLD FRIEND.

\hMARCUS BRUTUS WAS THE SON OF A LONG-STANDING MISTRESS,

AND DECIMUS BRUTUS WAS A COUSIN,

\hAS WELL AS OTHERS WHO’D BEEN PERSONALLY FORGIVEN BY CAESAR

FOR THEIR ALLEGIANCE TO POMPEY.

BUT ALL THESE PERSONAL HISTORIES WERE PUT ASIDE

\h\h\hIN A FRANTIC BID TO MURDER THEIR MASTER

AND TO RESTORE THE REPUBLIC \h\h\h\h\h\hAND ITS VALUES.

FOR CAESAR’S ENEMIES,

HE’D COME TO REPRESENT

\h\h\hEVERYTHING THAT THEY’D BEEN BROUGHT UP

TO FEAR AND TO DESPISE.

HE WAS A TYRANT,

AN ALL-POWERFUL DICTATOR,

AN ENEMY OF THE REPUBLIC,

AN ENEMY OF THE IDEA \h\h\hTHAT WAS ROME.

\h\h\h\hCICERO HAD SPENT MOST OF CAESAR’S TYRANNY

EITHER PRAISING THE DICTATOR

OR SULKING IN SEMI-RETIREMENT.

BUT WITH CAESAR’S MURDER,

HE SPRANG BACK INTO LIFE.

\h\h\h\hHE DIDN’T ACTUALLY GO AND JOIN THE MURDERERS

WHEN THEY REGROUPED ON CAPITOLINE HILL,

BUT HE DID WRITE THIS \h\h\hTO ONE OF THEM:

"CONGRATULATIONS!

I REJOICE.

\h\h\hI LOVE YOU, AND HAVE YOUR INTERESTS AT HEART."

AND THEN, HE LATER HE ADDED,

\h\h\h\h\h"HOW I WISH THAT YOU’D INVITED ME

TO THAT SPLENDID FEAST ON THE IDES OF MARCH!

THERE WOULD HAVE BEEN \h\h\h\hNO LEFTOVERS."

\h\h\hBY WHICH HE MEANT THAT HE’D HAVE MADE SURE

THAT MARK ANTONY AND CAESAR’S \h\h\h\h\h\h\hOTHER SUPPORTERS

HAD ALSO BEEN KILLED.

\h\h\hLATER HE WROTE, JUSTIFYING THE MURDER,

\h\h\h\h\h\h\hDESCRIBING TYRANNY AS A CRIME PUNISHABLE BY DEATH,

A CRIME AGAINST HUMANITY.

THROUGH HISTORY,

CAESAR’S NAME WOULD BE TAKEN

BY DESPOTS AND IMPERIAL LEADERS ACROSS THE WORLD,

FROM ROMAN CAESARS,

TO RUSSIAN TSARS

AND GERMAN KAISERS.

\h\h\hAND THE STORY OF HIS RISE AND FALL

\h\h\hREFLECTS A BATTLE THAT STILL RAGES TODAY,

WHEREVER DEMOCRACY, WITH ALL ITS FLAWS,

IS PITTED AGAINST TYRANNY.

IN THE DAYS AND WEEKS AFTER CAESAR’S MURDER,

CICERO AND OTHERS WORKED HARD \h\h\hTO RESTORE THE REPUBLIC,

TO AVOID MORE VIOLENCE.

BUT IT WAS TOO LATE.

CAESAR’S FOLLOWERS WHIPPED UP \h\h\h\h\hA HUNGER FOR REVENGE

AND CHASED HIS ASSASSINS \h\h\h\h\hFROM THE CITY.

\h\h\hSOON ROME WAS IN THE GRIP OF YET ANOTHER BRUTAL CIVIL WAR.

ALL THIS VIOLENCE STEMMED \hFROM ONE PIVOTAL MOMENT,

\hWHEN CAESAR CROSSED THE RUBICON IN 49 B.C.

IT WAS AN ACT THAT ENSURED

\h\h\hTHE DESTRUCTION OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

\h\h\h\h\h\h\h\hAND THE DOWNFALL OF SOME OF ITS GREATEST FIGURES.

WITHIN JUST 10 YEARS,

\h\hPOMPEY, BRUTUS, CAESAR, CATO, CICERO

\h\h\hHAD BEEN KILLED OR COMMITTED SUICIDE.

MURDER BEGAT MURDER,

CIVIL WAR BEGAT CIVIL WAR.

\h\hA POINT OF NO RETURN REALLY HAD BEEN CROSSED.

NEXT TIME...

\hTHE DAY THAT CAESAR’S ADOPTED HEIR, OCTAVIAN,

\h\h\h\h\hTRIUMPHED OVER HIS RIVAL, MARK ANTONY,

AND WAS ACCLAIMED AUGUSTUS,

THE FIRST EMPEROR OF ROME.

Cicero: ROME, STILL MOURNING THE DEATH OF JULIUS CAESAR.

\h\h\hWILL NOT BE PREPARED, NOR WILL IT SEE YOU COMING.

♪

♪

♪