Original subtitles

Narrator: An eerie discovery is made

Narrator: An eerie discovery is made at an ancient Siberian cemetery.

at an ancient Siberian cemetery.

Dr. Cantor: The first things they notice are the remains

of two adults and one child.

The adults have thin plaster masks, painted red and black,

covering their faces and ears.

Anthea Nardi: It's a bizarre sight overall,

so who were these people that practised

this strange burial ritual?

Narrator: Unusual structures emerge from the ground

high in the Norwegian arctic.

James Ellis: On the western side of the peninsula,

there are a series of geological shapes

rising up through the grass!

Dr. Agbedor: If this place was inhabited at some point,

who lived here, and what happened to them?

Narrator: Evidence of our ice age ancestors

is revealed in a British cave.

Dr. Leonard: There are several human bone fragments

suggesting they may belong to multiple individuals.

Among the findings are an upper jawbone, a forearm,

and parts of a skull.

♪ [show theme music]

Narator: These are the strangest mysteries

trapped in the coldest places.

♪♪

Lost relics.

♪♪

Forgotten treasures.

♪♪

Dark secrets.

♪♪

Locked in their icy tombs for ages.

♪♪

But now, as ice melts around the world,

♪♪

their stories will finally be exposed.

♪♪

♪♪

Narrator: Roughly 30 miles north of the city of Abakan

in Southern Siberia, lies the Minusinsk Valley,

a rugged stretch of land nestled in the Sayan Mountains.

Anthea Nardi: The winters here are frigid, snowy,

and mostly cloudy and temperatures can dip to

a bone-chilling -34 degrees Fahrenheit.

Dr. Agbedor: The Minusinsk Valley is home to several

ancient rock-art sites,

some dating back to the Early Bronze Age,

with evidence of human habitation in the area

going back roughly 4,000 years.

Narrator: A team of archaeologists are excavating

a grave at the Oglakhty cemetery,

a sprawling ancient burial site,

when they come across something surprising.

Dr. Cantor: The first things they notice

are the remains of two adults and one child.

All exceptionally well-preserved by the dry, cold climate.

And here's where it gets weird.

The adults have thin plaster masks painted red and black,

covering their faces and ears.

Anthea Nardi: So who were these people

that practiced this strange burial ritual?

Narrator: Throughout history, funerary masks were created

by many cultures and civilizations

as part of their burial customs.

Dr. Agbedor: Generally speaking, their purpose was to

depict the facial characteristics of the dead,

both to celebrate them

and to create a relationship with the spirit world.

In some cultures, they were made to protect the deceased

by scaring away evil spirits.

Dr. Riskin: The earliest known funerary masks

are the Jericho plastered skulls from the Middle East.

Those date back about 9,000 years.

Dr. Cantor: Considering the time in which they were created,

the Jericho masks are remarkable.

Complete with shells inset for eyes

and paint to imitate hair and mustaches.

The flesh and jawbones were removed from the remains

to mold the plaster.

And the physical characteristics of the faces

appear specific to individuals,

suggesting that these were, in effect,

portraits of the deceased.

So is that what we're seeing in the grave

at the Oglakhty cemetery?

Narrator: As the team gets a closer look at the remains,

further evidence of the burial practices

of these people becomes evident.

Dr. Riskin: The adult skulls both have large holes in them.

The male's is on the left side,

it's about 2 to 3 inches in diameter.

The female's is about the same size,

but it's on the back of her skull.

So were they both killed in some violent event?

Anthea Nardi: At first glance, it might seem that way,

but these aren't impact wounds.

The bone around the holes isn't damaged or fragmented,

like you'd see if they were hit with a weapon.

These holes were made for a purpose,

likely with a chisel or hammer tool - after death.

This is evidence of trepanation or the removal of the brain,

as part of a mummification process.

Narrator: The archaeologists turn their attention

to other areas of the tomb, and discover something

that leaves them taken aback.

Dr. Cantor: There are two more bodies,

only these aren't remains,

they're mannequins, dummies,

dressed in fur clothing that probably belonged

to the individuals they were modelled in.

And the remains were cremated,

then placed in leather cases

inside the chests of the dummies

which were then sewn up.

Dr. Agbedor: One of them is almost in perfect condition.

It has a leather head, and its face

is covered in red woolen fabric,

with horizontal black stripes.

Quite a similar design to the masks on the mummies.

It's dressed in a coat nearly 3 feet long,

made of strips of hair from the legs of a deer

and goatskin pants and boots.

It's quite the discovery!

Dr. Riskin: So we've got two different styles

of burial ritual found in the same grave.

You've got mummification and masking on one hand,

and then you've got evidence of cremation

and the use of mannequins on the other.

That's really unusual. What's going on here?

Narrator: Searching for answers, the team continues

to investigate the tomb and locates something interesting.

Dr. Agbedor: Beside the second dummy,

there are five small pieces of polychrome silk

with sophisticated weaving,

bright colours and complex patterns.

These fabrics were highly prized in China,

and are found mainly in burials in the Tarim Basin.

Narrator: About a thousand miles southwest

of the Minusinsk Valley, is the Tarim Basin.

A huge depression drained by the Tarim River,

covering roughly 350,000 square miles of western China.

Dr. Riskin: Hundreds of mummies have been unearthed

from the Tarim Basin since the turn of the 20th century,

and in 1978, one of the most famous of them all

was found near the town of Cherchen.

It's been called the Cherchen Man.

He was found along with the mummies

of three women and a baby.

Anthea Nardi: Cherchen Man is extraordinarily well-preserved.

One particularly noticeable thing are the markings

on his face - yellow and red symbols and patterns,

which could possibly be a tattoo.

Dr. Cantor: One of the females found with Cherchen Man,

maybe his wife, also has her face painted

with swirling designs.

And if you look at the mask of the female mummy

found at the Oglakhty cemetery,

it too has swirling designs.

And they both have what looks like a comma symbol

beside their noses.

So is it possible that the remains found

in the Oglakhty cemetery, are from the same ethnic group

as the mummies found in the Tarim Basin?

Dr. Agbedor: It's possible,

but there are noticeable differences.

The Cherchen Man and Woman are naturally preserved mummies.

There's no evidence of trepanation to their skulls,

like we see in the Oglakhty mummies.

Narrator: As the archaeologists continue their investigation

of the Oglakhty gravesite,

they discover something oddly familiar

on the male mummy's body.

Anthea Nardi: He has tattoos on his shoulders

and shoulder blades that are very similar

to patterns found on a woolen fabric from the Sampul cemetery,

which is also in the Tarim Basin,

and dates from roughly the 2nd century BCE

to the 3rd century CE.

Dr. Riskin: The silk fabrics found with the Olgakhty mummies

were especially popular during the Wei Jin period in China.

That spanned from 317 BCE to 220 CE,

overlapping with the Sampul cemetery dates.

That can't be a coincidence.

The mummies must be from a similar period.

Dr. Cantor: The Cherchen Man and Woman are thought to be about

a thousand years older.

So while it's improbable that the mummies are part of

their ethnic group, they could be part of a later group

in the Tarim Basin.

Or at least one that was influenced by them.

But what about the mannequins?

Narrator: Near the second mannequin,

the archaeologists find something that only serves

to deepen the mystery.

Dr. Agbedor: There's a model of a gorytos,

which is a case used to carry both a bow and arrows.

It contains five arrow shafts

and replicas of a bow and a whip.

Dr. Riskin: Gorytos are most commonly associated

with the Scythian culture,

a group of ancient tribes of nomadic warriors

who originally lived in what is now southern Siberia,

but eventually extended their influence all over Central Asia,

from China to the Northern Black Sea.

Anthea Nardi: The Scythians had a rich culture

that included horse rearing, and art featuring animals,

but they left behind no written records of themselves.

Instead, their story has been told primarily by people

who encountered them, and by all accounts

they were formidable warriors and expert horsemen.

Narrator: As the excavation continues,

the team discovers another item that complicates matters.

Dr. Cantor: Near the gorytos, there's a miniature model

of a horse bridle.

So we've got a Scythian style bow and arrow case

and a horse bridle.

And we know that the Scythians were master equestrians.

But we've also got evidence of influence

from the people of the Tarim Basin.

And examples of two different burial styles in the same grave.

It's all rather confusing.

So who exactly were these people?

Narrator: In 2016, a CT scan was performed

on the male mummy's head, and researchers

were able to produce a 3D model of his likeness.

Anthea Nardi: It's believed he was 25 to 30 years old

at the time of his death, and had brown hair with a ponytail,

that had been cut off before his burial.

They also found a severe laceration

on the left side of his face that may have been fatal,

and was sutured shut before his burial,

possibly so that he didn't go into the afterlife disfigured.

Dr. Agbedor: The Tagar Culture was a part of the

Scythian civilization and frequently buried its dead

with miniature models of real-life objects,

likely as symbolic items

that they thought were needed in the afterlife.

They're believed to have been prevalent

between the 7th and early 3rd century BCE,

in the Minusinsk Valley.

But here's the thing - the mummies from the Oglakhty grave

are from the 3rd or 4th century CE,

which is long after the Tagar

were the dominant people in the region.

Narrator: The researchers turn to DNA analysis,

using samples of biological material

from the mummies of the child

and two adults from the gravesite.

Dr. Cantor: The genetic profiles are similar to samples

from the preceding Tagar culture

and samples from eastern Kazakhstan,

that date to the first few centuries CE.

This means that the Oglakhty mummies have similar DNA

to the populations of East Asia,

as well as the population of the Minusinsk Valley

of the Scythian period.

Dr. Riskin: It was known as the Tashtyk culture,

which appeared as a result of the mixing of people

from the local Tagar population,

which was this Scythian Siberian civilization

and migrants from other parts of Asia.

So you have this kind of mishmash of different people

resulting in the Tashtyk culture,

which lasted until the 7th or 8th century BCE.

Dr. Cantor: As for the two styles of burial,

it's thought that the mummies and the mannequins represent

two distinct practices that existed simultaneously

among the Tashtyk people.

Local settlers who were likely Tagar or Scythian in origin,

favored mummification, while newcomers

from other parts of Asia preferred cremation.

Narrator: The divergent funeral practices discovered

in the same grave at the Oglakhty cemetery,

are a fascinating insight into the Tashtyk culture

and exemplifies how in ancient times,

civilizations merged with other populations

to create a new culture, with traditions drawn

from centuries of diverse history.

♪♪

Narrator: On the Northern tip of Arctic Norway

sits the Svaerholt Peninsula.

This desolate, frigid cape

is the northernmost point of mainland Europe.

James Ellis: The terrain is rugged, icy, and inhospitable.

The winters are extremely harsh,

with temperatures frequently dipping

from -10 to -20 Fahrenheit.

Dr. Agbedor: Svaerholt has always been sparsely populated,

mostly by groups of hunters and fishers,

who returned seasonally to a small hamlet

on the Eastern side of the cape,

to live and harvest during the warmer summer months.

Dr. Cantor: But for the last half century,

the hamlet has sat derelict and empty.

Weather-beaten houses that were once given life

as summer dwellings are abandoned and decaying.

The icy conditions and remote location make it

almost impossible for a community to survive.

And without road connections or proper harbor facilities,

Svaerholt was gradually abandoned

in the 1950s and 1960s.

Narrator: A team of archeologists is doing a survey

and excavation of the Svaerholt Peninsula,

when they make a remarkable discovery.

James Ellis: On the Western side of the peninsula,

there are a series of geological shapes

rising up through the grass!

Dr. Leonard: There are four circular shapes

and two rectangles, elevated from 2 to 3 feet off the ground.

The circles have a diameter of 18 feet across,

and the rectangles are roughly 28 feet long and 23 feet wide.

The whole scene looks like a UFO-inspired crop circle,

with a couple of blocks thrown in for good measure.

What are these things?

Dr. Agbedor: It's possible that the area was inhabited

at some point in time,

and these geological shapes might be the remaining outlines

of some kind of dwelling, or shelter.

So, if this place was inhabited at some point,

who lived here, and what happened to them?

Narrator: Historically, northern Norway has been home

to both Scandinavians and an indigenous population,

known as the Sami.

James Ellis: The Sami are the descendants of nomadic peoples

who had lived in northern Scandinavia

for thousands of years.

The actual origin of the Sami is obscure.

Some scholars include them among the Paleo-Siberian peoples.

Others maintain that they were Alpine

and came from central Europe.

Narrator: Further investigation of the site

leads to the discovery of an iron cauldron.

James Ellis: Given the proximity to the creek,

water was readily available if the cauldron was used

for food preparation.

But the soil samples surrounding the cauldron

showed no evidence of fish or animal bone,

so it likely wasn't used for cooking.

Is it possible that it was used by the Sami to bathe?

Or to clean their clothes, and hunting equipment?

Dr. Leonard: While it's true that the Sami lived

in circular tents, the presence of an iron cauldron suggests

it wasn't used by the nomadic reindeer herders.

The Sami needed lightweight, portable housing

in order to pack, move, and make camp quickly.

It's highly unlikely they carried large iron equipment,

especially to an area this remote.

So where did this cauldron come from?

And how is it connected to the shapes in the grass?

Narrator: In recent years, the coast of Norway has provided

archeologists with a treasure trove of hidden gems

and links to the past.

Dr. Cantor: A team from the Norwegian Institute

for Cultural Heritage Research,

exploring the Fjords near Oslo,

recently discovered a rare gauntlet or battle glove,

worn by a soldier in the Middle Ages.

There have also been daggers, swords and axes

found along the shore or under the sea,

and they all date back to between 500 and 1500 CE.

Dr. Leonard: So, if there's an abundance of artifacts

from the Middle Ages recovered on the Norwegian Coast,

is it possible the cauldron in Svaerholt

is also a relic from the 1500s?

♪♪

Narrator: When the researchers scoured below the surface

for more evidence, they uncovered

several more surprising clues.

Dr. Agberor: It was like pay-dirt!

They excavated multiple everyday personal items,

such as tin cans, knives,

coins, and bottles of medicine,

and even cologne!

There were also several items associated with pastimes,

like chess and game pieces!

James Ellis: There was also a fragment of a German newspaper

that made references to Winston Churchill,

the British prime minister, from 1940 to 1945.

Dr. Leonard: So we're not talking about

the Middle Ages anymore!

Plus, whoever it was, they weren't just passing through.

These retrieved items from daily life,

indicated they were dug in for a while.

Narrator: In their expanded search,

the archeologists discovered a second stone-lined hearth,

further away from the circle shapes.

This hearth was different from the first one.

It was wider, and in the center of the stonework,

there was a large rectangular opening

supported by a wooden frame.

The soot and surrounding soil fragments indicated

its use as an oven.

James Ellis: And not just any oven.

The unique design and stonemasonry were clear markers

of its' origin as a Russian oven!

Russian ovens, or Russian stoves,

were known for their efficient combination of functionality -

cooking, baking, domestic heating,

and as a 'smoker' of meat and fish.

Dr. Leonard: Beyond its multiple functions,

the Russian oven was actually an important object

in East Slavic culture,

and a vivid symbol of Russian spirit.

The ovens were the focus of the household

and they were frequently adorned

with trinkets and painted decorations.

James Ellis: So, putting it all together,

you've got evidence of German and Russian cultural artifacts,

mostly from the 20th century.

Historically, the strongest German presence in Norway

was the World War II Nazi occupation,

from 1940 to the Spring of 1945.

And since Russia was an Allied country

and neighbors to Norway,

is it possible this area was used as a prisoner of war camp

for captured Russian soldiers?

Narrator: A wide sweep of the area revealed traces

of barbed wire connected to fence posts in the debris.

It appeared to encircle a large encampment.

There was enough of the barbed wire still intact

to indicate the original size and shape of the camp.

It was essentially a square with a large perimeter

of about 140 feet by 140 feet.

There were two openings or gates,

one facing west, with a road towards

the original hamlet of Svaerholt.

The other, smaller gate faced east

and revealed a path to the creek.

James Ellis: The four circles and two rectangles

were revealed to be the remains of plywood huts

and tents the POWs both slept in and cooked in.

Dr. Leonard: The human element to these findings

made perfect sense.

The chess and gaming pieces were likely used by captured soldiers

to pass the time.

The Russian oven, built by the prisoners themselves,

was used to prepare food.

But one pressing question remained.

Why would the German army build a Russian POW camp,

in such a frigid and remote part of Norway?

Narrator: Looking for answers, the team expanded their search

to include the sharp cliffs

and rugged shoreline of the peninsula.

The strategy paid off.

Dr. Cantor: There appears to be evidence of some

military infrastructure.

Built right into the cliff and buried under the rocky terrain,

there's an entire system of bunkers,

tunnels and the remains of concrete barracks.

Narrator: Less than a hundred feet back from the shore,

they uncovered a trench system which connected supply bunkers

to the batteries.

Two of the trench routes led directly to the remains

of "lighter" gun placements with a concrete floor.

South of the gun placement,

there was a narrow, circular burrow,

lined with stack stones and turf,

measuring 3 feet across, and 3 feet deep.

Based on its position and clear view,

of both, the coast and the camp area,

researchers concluded it to be a guard station.

Dr. Agbedor: This was a massive and complex

military installation.

The infrastructure revealed a lot of firepower,

command bunkers, storage units,

barracks for sleeping soldiers,

and of course, the POW camp.

The German Nazi army had spent

a lot of time and effort on this battery.

And as it turned out,

it was one of hundreds just like it.

Narrator: In 1942, Adolf Hitler increased the number

of German troops to fight the Soviet Union

on the Eastern Front.

At the same time, Germany wanted to stave off

sea-borne and air-borne Allied invasions into Western Europe,

which was occupied by the Nazis.

The solution was called the "Atlantikwall.'

Dr. Cantor: The Atlantikwall was an extended series

of artillery, protected by manmade bunkers and barriers,

as well as natural obstacles like cliffs and rocky shores.

This wall stretched for 3,000 miles off the Atlantic coast,

from Norway, all the way to the Spanish border.

James Ellis: The goal was to turn the Nazi-occupied

west of Europe into an impregnable fortress,

that could be held by relatively few troops.

Narrator: The Svaerholt Peninsula was one of the

locations selected to play host

to a German battery that was completed.

Dr. Cantor: And don't forget, all of this had to be

constructed in the remote and inhospitable environment

of northern Norway.

It's not like there was easy road access

or a direct supply chain.

Narrator: The Russian POW camp was also a labour camp,

and the captured soldiers were used to construct the Battery.

James Ellis: The conditions must have been horrific,

for the prisoners, of course,

but even for the officers and guards.

Svaerholt is entirely exposed to the elements,

with little to no relief.

Dr. Agbedor: In late Fall of 1944, the entire camp

and fortress was abruptly abandoned

and destroyed by the Germans themselves,

when the German army staged a massive retreat

from the North and Eastern front.

The officers set explosives against the artillery units

and buildings, and applied a "scorched earth" approach

leaving nothing of value behind.

Narrator: The discovery at the Svaerholt Peninsula revealed

countless secrets from an important chapter in history.

And the archeologists' exploration continues

to fascinate us with human stories of World War II.

♪♪

Narrator: Formed over a million years ago

during the last Ice Age, the Cheddar Gorge

is the largest gorge in the United Kingdom,

at almost 400 feet deep, and 3 miles long,

boasting some of the most stunning natural views

in all of Great Britain.

Dr. Cantor: During the ice ages, permafrost sealed the caves

with ice and frozen mud,

making the limestone impermeable.

Snow melt floods during the brief summers

were forced to flow on the surface,

carving out the gorge in the process.

Today, winding roads follow the landscapes of dramatic cliffs,

grassy slopes and jagged rock formations.

Anthea Nardi: With a temperate climate that's typically

wetter and milder than much of the country,

Cheddar Gorge can still experience low temperatures

during the winter months,

along with freezing fog and a heavy dusting of snow

that blankets the mountains and cliffs.

Dr. Leonard: The area is steeped in a rich history,

thanks to archaeological discoveries

like the Cheddar Man.

The Cheddar Man was discovered here in Gough's cave in 1903,

and is a rare, near-complete skeleton

dating from the mid-to-late 9th millennium BCE.

Narrator: Archeological digs in Gough's cave have been going on

for over a hundred years,

searching for more evidence of early civilizations.

As one team digs away,

they find several specimens that excite them.

Dr. Leonard: There are rough tools such as perforated batons

crafted from reindeer antlers,

along with horse and deer bones,

a bevel-based rod of mammoth ivory,

flint flakes and handmade blades.

They also uncover several human bone fragments

of various shapes and sizes,

suggesting they may belong to multiple individuals.

Among the findings are an upper jawbone,

a forearm, and parts of a skull.

Dr. Cantor: The jawbone or mandible is in two parts

with distinct cut marks where it looks like

the flesh had been removed.

There are even more specific cut marks like that

on the facial bones, which could contribute to the removal

of the cheeks and tongue.

All of this evidence suggests

that these people were butchered.

Anthea Nardi: A 3D microscopic analysis

of the different cuts on the forearm showed that the bone

initially underwent filleting and chewing.

Later, a zig-zag pattern was engraved on the bone,

using the same stone tool before it was broken,

to extract the marrow, meaning,

it seems very likely, we're dealing with cannibals.

Could this be what is happening here in Gough's cave?

Narrator: There is a long history of cannibalism

within different cultures throughout the world

for a range of reasons,

often tied to religious, ritualistic,

or survival contexts.

James Ellis: One version of cannibalism is exocannibalism.

This is the consumption of flesh or blood

from individuals outside one's close social group,

such as an enemy.

Seen as the ultimate form of humiliation

and domination over a defeated foe,

this form of cannibalism

can be seen as the most savage.

Dr. Leonard: The Vikings were rumored to consume their enemies

during sieges, while engaging in raping and pillaging.

However, much of this evidence comes from accounts by

Christian monks and scholars of the Viking Age.

These were often biased and aimed at demonizing the Vikings,

while promoting Christianity over pagan beliefs.

While there are references in Norse mythology,

there is little concrete evidence to support the notion

that the Vikings practiced cannibalism.

Anthea Nardi: The ancient Aztecs are also known

to practice exocannibalism.

But they viewed it as a way to honor their Gods

and believed that by consuming the flesh of their enemies,

they could gain strength and power from them.

The victims were often sacrificed in large ceremonies,

where their hearts were offered to the Gods.

After the ritual, their bodies might be consumed

by the warriors or priests.

Narrator: The bones are sent for carbon-dating analysis,

giving the archaeologists a better understanding

of who these cave dwellers were.

Dr. Leonard: They date back to approximately 14,700 years ago,

indicating that the early modern humans inhabiting Gough's Cave

were Magdalenians;

a cultural group of Cro-Magnon people from southwest Europe.

These groups likely entered Britain from Belgium

and the Netherlands, around 15,000 years ago,

taking advantage of a land bridge that still connected

Britain to central Europe before tectonic shifts

altered the landscape.

James Ellis: Magdalenians was skilled hunter-gatherers

with a very diverse diet,

hunting large animals like reindeer, bison and horses

using weapons made from antlers and bones.

They also gathered plant materials and fish,

adapting to seasonal changes in their environment.

Dr. Leonard: The Magdalenians were notable

for their artistic achievements,

creating intricate cave paintings,

carvings, and engravings.

Their artwork often features animals,

human figures, and abstract symbols,

reflecting their cultural and spiritual beliefs.

The Magdalenian culture marks the last cultural phase

of Ice Age Europe, leading into the Mesolithic period,

as the climate warmed and human societies evolved.

Narrator: Thorough examination of the remains

gives researchers insight into

what the Magdalenians might have been up against,

at this specific time in our human history.

Anthea Nardi: None of the bones show evidence

that anyone suffered violence before they died,

which means they most likely died of natural causes

and were probably not enemies of the Magdelanians.

James Ellis: The Magdalenians were survivors,

and thrived as a people for thousands of years,

which points to their adaptability

and survival instinct,

which could have led them to cannibalize their own people

in times of despair.

Something that comes up again and again,

in cultures all over human history.

Narrator: In 1994, a cave named El Sidrón in Spain,

was found to have Neanderthal remains

from 50,000 years ago.

Altogether there were 13 individuals,

and DNA analysis showed that they were most likely

from the same family.

Anthea Nardi: Unfortunately, this group of Neanderthals

found themselves in a very unforgiving environment,

that didn't make their lives easy.

The bones showed that they suffered nutritional stress,

due to a diet made up mostly of plants and not much meat.

Similar to Gough's Cave,

the bones had cut marks made by stone tools,

and many of them had been cracked open

to get at the marrow.

Dr. Leonard: This evidence, along with deep scars

found on larger bones, indicates that this family

was likely a victim of survival cannibalism

by another Neanderthal group

that may have also been experiencing nutritional stress.

So is this what happened in Gough's Cave too?

Narrator: As the excavation of Gough's Cave continues,

the archaeologists discover something shocking.

Anthea Nardi: They find two human skulls that seem

manipulated into cups to drink or eat out of,

which suggests these cannibalistic acts

might have been ritualistic

and possibly part of funerary practices,

not acts of people desperate for sustenance.

Narrator: Cannibalism for funeral practices

is not unheard of in human history.

Dr. Cantor: The Wari People, who are indigenous to Brazil,

had very specific cannibalistic funeral practices,

which were performed out of respect

and affection for the dead.

It was seen as a way to help those left behind,

family and friends, cope with their grief.

In fact, some of the Wari People were just as uncomfortable

with burials, as we are with cannibalism.

Dr. Leonard: The process would start after death,

when blood relatives would plan the funeral

and relatives through marriage would execute it.

Preparation for the corpse would have to wait

for all relatives to come,

and during this period the body would start to rot,

until it was carved and barbecued.

The Wari People were very careful to make sure

the deceased were respected and not eaten like game meat.

Narrator: An examination of Magdalenian sites across Europe,

including locations in France, Germany,

Spain, Russia and Belgium,

revealed that 13 out of 25 sites

contained sufficient archaeological evidence

of funerary cannibalism.

Dr. Cantor: This included bones with chew marks,

cups made from skulls, and bones broken in a way

indicative of marrow extraction.

All very similar to what was found in Gough's Cave,

which supports the idea that this might have been

a shared practice throughout Europe,

that had a significant symbolic meaning.

Dr. Leonard: One of the most interesting finds

in Gough's Cave was the engraved zig-zag markings on the forearm.

The oldest example of this ever recorded.

What was the reasoning behind this?

A celebration of the life lost? Symbolism?

Or something much more complex,

from a belief system we don't even understand.

Narrator: While modern humans may find the practice

of cannibalism barbaric or abhorrent,

it's a complicated subject that signifies many different things

to various ancient cultures.

Perhaps unfair to judge in the context

of present-day belief systems.

♪♪

Narrator: Just north of the Arctic Circle,

in Canada's Nunavut Territory,

lies Prince Charles Island,

an uninhabited frozen landmass

in an arm of the Atlantic Ocean

called the Foxe Basin.

Dr. Leonard: Prince Charles is the biggest island

in the Foxe Basin, over 3,500 square miles,

and the topography is kind of monotonous and flat,

with the tallest point only around 240 feet.

Dr. Riskin: Prince Charles sits above the Arctic Circle.

So it goes without saying that the winters are long

and frigid and dark.

During most of December, the sun doesn't even come up

above the horizon.

And February sees an average temperature of an icy

-25 degrees Fahrenheit.

James Ellis: The island is renowned for its biodiversity

and ecological importance.

The coastal waters are rife with sea life,

including seals, walruses,

and various species of whales,

while polar bears, Arctic foxes, and lemmings

can be seen roaming the landscape.

This unspoiled natural environment makes

Prince Charles Island a focal point for scientific research.

Narrator: On a scouting mission to find a location

for a research station,

a scientist with Environment and Climate Change Canada,

is flying a small airplane around Prince Charles Island,

when he spots something strange on the ground below.

Dr. Riskin: At first glance, it looks like a bunch of odd,

white shapes on the earth like snow banks.

But as he gets in for a closer look,

he realizes, those are not snow banks.

Those are dead caribou, almost 50 of them!

The carcasses are mostly distributed along both sides

of an 80 foot high ridge, with a smaller number

right on top of that ridge.

It's a gruesome sight. What happened to those animals?

Narrator: Under a hundred miles east of Prince Charles Island,

is Baffin Island.

Measuring almost 200,000 square miles,

it's the 5th largest island in the world

and once home to a robust Caribou population.

Dr. Leonard: The Caribou in Northern Canada

are known as Barren Ground Caribou,

they're mostly migratory, often forming huge herds

that can number in the hundreds of thousands.

The average male stands around

3 and a half feet at the shoulder,

and weighs between 220 and 300 pounds,

while the females are slightly smaller.

Anthea Nardi: Research suggests a 98% decline

in the Baffin Island caribou population,

from over 200,000 in 1991,

to less than 5,000 in 2014.

Part of the decrease is due to the Caribou's natural cycle,

but there are other causes like climate change and over-hunting.

James Ellis: There are three demographically independent

subpopulations of caribou on Baffin Island,

and the animals on Prince Charles

are part of the south Baffin Island group,

their migratory patterns taking them across sea ice.

But what caused them to die off in such significant numbers?

Dr. Leonard: Maybe it's the work of predators.

The Baffin Island wolf is a subspecies of grey wolf,

that lives exclusively on Baffin Island

and several nearby islands, including Prince Charles.

They're the Caribou's primary predator and have been

known to engage in excessive hunting behaviour.

Narrator: In 2016, a pack of wolves killed 19 elk

on a snowy plain near the small town of Bondurant, Wyoming.

Dr. Riskin: This is what's known as surplus killing.

Sometimes predators kill more than they can eat,

especially in winter, when cold temperatures are going

to preserve those dead animals to be eaten later.

It's fairly rare, but it has been reported

in lots of predatory species, including mountain lions,

bears and wolverines.

Nardi: Nobody's quite sure what triggers surplus killing,

but livestock seem to be the most vulnerable to attack,

rather than animals with natural defense mechanisms.

Sheep, for example, occasionally react to predators

by running in circles as they would

when being herded by a sheep dog,

this makes them easy pickings for the hunter.

James Ellis: In the case of the elk in Wyoming,

it's possible that deep snow or disease

made them vulnerable and unable to escape,

so the wolves just went to town.

Maybe that's what happened to the caribou

on Prince Charles Island.

Dr. Riskin: But their bodies are intact.

They haven't been ripped apart, which obviously wouldn't be

the case if they'd been attacked by wolves.

There's no evidence of a violent death.

There's no blood, there's no injuries to any of them.

And you've got almost 50 dead,

which is way too many for a surplus killing.

There must have been something else.

Something like a disease.

Narrator: In 2015, over 200,000 Saiga Antelopes

died suddenly in Kazakhstan,

more than 60% of the global population of the species.

Dr. Leonard: In what's called a mass mortality event,

in just three weeks, entire herds of tens of thousands

of seemingly healthy animals dropped dead.

James Ellis: As it turned out, the Antelopes died

of hemorrhagic septicemia, a bacterial disease

that mainly affects cattle and water buffalo.

The baffling thing was that the bacteria

that caused their deaths,

was probably living harmlessly

in their tonsils up to that point.

Anthea Nardi: It was later determined that climatic factors

such as increased humidity and higher temperatures

in the days leading up to the deaths,

triggered a bacterial invasion of the bloodstream,

leading to blood poisoning.

So maybe a bacterial disease of some kind is also

what killed off the caribou on Prince Charles Island.

Narrator: The researcher, now joined by a team

from the Nunavut Territory's Department of Environment,

collects samples of the caribou remains for analysis.

Dr. Leonard: There's no evidence of bacterial disease,

but parasitic insects are another possible

cause of the die-off.

Warble flies lay their eggs on the hair of the caribou's legs

and lower body in mid-summer.

Through the winter and into the spring,

they migrate up to the spine and rump of the animal,

where they cut a breathing hole through the skin.

By early summer, the warbles emerge from the back,

then fall to the ground and pupate.

James Ellis: But generally speaking,

these infestations usually don't harm the caribou,

but what can happen is that when the flies hatch,

they swarm them, accompanied by very loud buzzing,

which can be very irritating.

To escape the flies, caribou will often run around

or either try to find a windier spot,

or even a patch of snow where there are fewer insects,

and this can mean wasting precious energy,

or even losing opportunities to feed.

So maybe, that's what happened on Prince Charles Island.

Dr. Riskin: It's possible.

And with climate change producing warmer weather,

insects are more prevalent than ever in the far north.

But insects reduce reproductive success,

or they make animals more skinny.

They don't suddenly kill 50 of them all at once.

My gut says it's something else.

Narrator: Looking to solve the mystery,

the team acts on a hunch,

and turns to historical satellite weather data.

Dr. Leonard: Weather events such as a rain-on-snow occurrence

in early winter can lead to the development of ice crust

on the ground, hindering the caribou's access

to food throughout the cold season.

However, during the winter, caribou can move

to find a more suitable place to forage,

but if severe weather events take place

in the late winter or early spring,

the results can be catastrophic.

Dr. Riskin: If you look at the meteorological data

from Prince Charles Island from right before the die off,

you can see that major storms occurred in April.

And April is a time when the caribou were already

in a weakened state from a long winter.

And those storms would cause a thick pack of ice and snow

on top of the ground, making it impossible for those caribou

to break through and get to the food they need.

So it really looks like these animals just starved to death.

Narrator: The caribou deaths are a stark reminder

of Mother Nature's occasional brutality.

Although the animals are well-adapted to surviving

the unforgiving Arctic winters,

a series of unusually severe spring storms

proved to be deadly.

♪♪