All language subtitles for Secrets.in.the.Sand.S02E06.1080p.WEB.h264-FREQUENCY_track3_[eng]

[narrator] A trove of artifacts
in the Persian Gulf disrupts

the established history
of early human migration.

The oldest date back more
than two 200,000 years.

Why did these early humans
choose to come here?

And how did they survive?

On the edge of
the unforgiving Gobi Desert,

an abandoned fortress is
unearthed, along with

an arsenal of weapons.

There are crossbows made
of copper, bronze, and iron,

sword guards, knives.

This place seems to have been
armed to the teeth.

But if this was a military
fortress, who built it and why?

Near the Valley of Elah,
where David is said to have

slain Goliath, a strange stone
is spotted by a young hiker.

She picked it up and told
her family it looked like

it had teeth.
This was no ordinary stone.

Ancient lost cities.

Forgotten treasures.

Mysterious structures.

As new technology uncovers
remarkable tales hidden beneath

the deserts of the world,
the secrets in the sand

will finally be revealed.

The emirate of Sharjah
extends across the northwestern

United Arab Emirates,

stretching east away
from the Persian Gulf.

Like much of the UAE,
Sharjah is dominated

by incredibly hot weather.

In the summer,
the temperatures average around

100 degrees Fahrenheit,
and the climate is extremely

dry, with only about
eight rainy days per year.

Despite the inhospitable
climate, people have been

living and thriving in the area
for millennia.

Over the years, Sharjah has
become renowned amongst

archaeologists for its
Iron and Bronze Age

tombs and settlements.

About 40 miles inland
from the Persian Gulf is

the Jebel Faya site.

It's located on a limestone
hill which forms part of

the Al Hajar Mountains.

At its northeastern end,
there's this prominent

rock shelter, which has turned
out to be an archaeological

treasure trove.

A team of archaeologists is
excavating the rock shelter

site when they uncover
something unexpected.

There's an assemblage of
stone tools primarily made up of

long flakes carefully shaped
with sharp, parallel edges.

The craftsmanship necessary
to produce these tools tells us

they had to have been made
by early humans.

But why were these tools
left here, abandoned

in the rock shelter?

The emergence of stone tools
during the Paleolithic era came

along with a whole host of
cultural changes for

anatomically modern humans.

Around the Middle Paleolithic
era, Homo Sapiens started to

develop more
sophisticated shelters.

And that is thought to have led
to advances in art,

in sculpture.

It's even been hypothesized
that this accelerated

the evolution of human rituals.

[Alison] We can't be sure
exactly what these rituals were

or what purpose they served,
but there are certain clues.

For instance, looking at many
cave paintings, we can see

large animals and hunting
scenes, which could mean that

the artworks were created as
a way to bring luck to a group

of outgoing hunters.

Similarly, small sculptures
might have been made to carry

around as a kind of talisman.

But some of the most convincing
evidence of Paleolithic rituals

comes from burials.

[Anthony] One of the most
impressive Stone Age tombs

comes from Sunghir, just over
100 miles from Moscow.

This is where archaeologists
uncovered three graves

belonging to an adult man
and two juveniles who had been

covered with thousands of
ivory beads and red ochre.

As well as the ornaments,
the younger two were buried

with over a dozen ivory spears,
daggers, and throwing javelins.

[Anthea] We don't know why
these weapons were left behind.

They may have been a way
to honor the dead.

Or they could even indicate
these ancient people had

a belief in the afterlife
and hoped the offerings would

travel with their loved ones.

But their presence
begs the question,

could the blades found
at the Jebel Faya site have also

served some ritual function?

Could this have been
a memorial of some sort?

The absence of certain clues
from the site in Sharjah

only raises more questions.

With so little else to work
with, the tools are the only

real clues as to who lived here
and how the shelter was used.

But they actually
tell us a lot.

For example, many of these
sharp blades were produced

using a method called
the Levallois technique.

Unlike earlier
stone technology,

the Levallois technique
showed a high level

of intentional design.

[Anthony] Rather than just
randomly chipping bits of rock,

the Levallois technique
involved carefully preparing

a large stone called a core.

[whacking]

Once the core was properly
sharpened and curved,

one large flake would be chipped
away from its center.

This final flake was flat
on one side

and had incredibly
sharp cutting edges.

[Anthea] Producing Levallois
blades left a lot of debris,

from removing the outer layers
of larger rocks

to chipping away
the final product.

We can see traces of all these
different steps and the debris

at Jebel Faya, which tells us
that this rock shelter was

likely used as a center for
blade production, kind of

like a workshop.

The sophistication of these
tools reveals crucial

information about where these
ancient Homo Sapiens came from.

[Dan] The Levallois technique
most likely originated

in East Africa and actually
predates Homo Sapiens.

The oldest known examples
of that technique come from

a sedimentary sequence called
the Kapthurin Formation

in Kenya and are more than
400,000 years old.

Over the course of millennia,
Homo Sapiens adopted

this technique and carried it
with them

as they began to migrate
out of Africa.

So it's likely the people
who set up shop

in the Jebel Faya shelter
were among these

early human migrants.

The team conducts further
analysis, using optically

stimulated luminescence
to date the objects.

Optically stimulated
luminescence, or OSL,

measures the natural radiation
in various minerals to find out

when a sample was last exposed
to sunlight.

The results in this case
demonstrated that these tools

date back roughly 80,000 years.

This means that Jebel Faya
contains the oldest known

examples of systematic
blade production

in the entire Arabian Peninsula.

And not only that,
the stone tools aren't even

the oldest evidence
of human occupation found here.

[Anthea] The oldest assemblages
at Jebel Faya date back

more than 200,000 years.

This challenges mainstream
interpretations

of early human history,

which often placed
the main migrations of humans

out of Africa between 70,000
and 50,000 years ago.

But this prompts the question,

why did these early humans
choose to come here?

And how did they survive?

Critical insight into the world
of these ancient humans

comes from a different
rock formation called

the Al Hoota Cave in Oman.

[Dan] Today, huge swaths of
the Arabian Peninsula are

covered by desert.

But tens of thousands
of years ago,

it looked really different.

Inside the Al Hoota Cave,
there are these stalagmites,

which only form when rainwater
seeps through the ground

and drips down gradually,

building up into these tall
mineral deposits.

Samples taken from the cave
show that between

82,000 and 78,000 years ago,
the stalagmites experienced

this period of rapid growth,
and that suggests more water,

which suggests
a wetter climate.

Looking back over tens
of thousands of years,

we find evidence of streams
and rivers carving their way

through the region,
leaving distinct channels

in the desert landscape
to this day.

This abundance of water
would have been invaluable

for early human migrants

and may well have attracted
them here as they followed

available water resources
into new territory.

The absence of any human
remains at the Jebel Faya site

tells us that these early
humans may not have stayed

in the area long
before moving on.

But even so, they went to
the trouble of setting up

a fairly sophisticated
tool production system.

This shows that these blades
were very important,

but what were they
being used for?

The search for answers invites
us to imagine the world

from the perspectives of these
ancient travelers.

[Anthea]
When Homo Sapiens began to
migrate across new continents,

they faced a world
full of danger.

Not only were they gonna
have to hunt to survive,

they may well have had to
defend themselves against

attacks from hyenas,
cave cats, and even wolves.

On top of the dangerous
carnivores,

these early modern humans

also faced competition
with their cousins,

the Neanderthals.

Neanderthals are thought
to have evolved mostly outside

of Africa, spreading throughout
Europe hundreds of thousands

of years before Homo Sapiens
ever got there.

For a long time,
they just dominated

those landscapes.

[Alison] As early modern humans
began to cross paths

with Neanderthals, they relied
on their stone technology

to help them compete
for resources.

It was several thousand years
before Homo Sapiens eventually

outcompeted Neanderthals.

Thanks in large part
to their advanced tools

like the ones discovered in
the rock shelter at Jebel Faya.

Layer by layer,
the excavations at Jebel Faya

continue to reveal traces of
our earliest modern ancestors

and their ancient
migration routes,

long hidden beneath the sand,
waiting to be discovered.

Bayankhongor province stretches
over 40,000 square miles

across southwestern Mongolia.

The province lies northwest of
the Gobi Desert,

one of the largest deserts
in the world.

Unlike many sandy deserts,

the Gobi is characterized
as a winter desert

because of its extreme weather.

The summers are
blisteringly hot,

well over 100 degrees
Fahrenheit.

But the winters are the polar
opposite, often plunging down

to minus 40 degrees.

That harsh climate has a huge
impact on Bayankhongor.

Like the Gobi, the province is
incredibly dry and endures

these long, frigid winters.

But as you head north
toward the foothills

of the Khangai Mountains,
the landscape starts to shift.

It becomes less sandy
and more rocky, opening up

into these vast plains.

A team of archaeologists is
working in the northwestern

district of Bayanbulag when
they unearth a surprise.

They found the remains
of an old structure,

specifically two massive walls
made of rammed earth.

It's an ancient building
technique that involves

compacting damp soil
and clay until it becomes

extremely dense.

These walls were incredibly
durable, well-insulated,

and even fireproof.

There are several chambers
associated with the walls,

which look like barracks
or some kind of bunkers.

And inside are
all kinds of weapons.

There are crossbows made
of copper, bronze, and iron,

sword guards, knives,

and pieces of iron armor.

But if this was
a military fortress,

who built it and why?

The answers may lie
in the pages

of one of the most important
historical documents
ever written,

a record known

as the Shiji.

It's difficult to overstate
the importance of the Shiji,

which is also known as

the "Records of the Grand
Historian of China."

It was written more than
2,000 years ago

by a man named
Sima Qian,

who served as a Grand Historian
to the Emperor Wudi.

[Dan] Wudi was the seventh
emperor of the Han Dynasty

and one of the most influential.

Under his reign,
the Han Dynasty dramatically

expanded its influence
and developed a strong,

centralized state.

Before the Shiji existed,
independent states would

chronicle their own histories,
which could often be confusing

and conflict with one another.

This was the first time
a historian

took the time to sift
through these accounts

and organize them
into a coherent structure.

This process took Sima Qian
almost two decades.

And by the time he had finished
the Shiji, it covered roughly

2,000 years of Chinese history.

In the record, there are
references to a military

structure built
in southern Mongolia

during the Han Dynasty,
around 104 BCE.

The fortress was called
Shouxiangcheng,

which roughly translates to,

"Fortification
for receiving surrender."

Its exact location has been
debated for centuries,

but the discovery at Bayanbulag
seems to fit the profile.

Could these be the ruins
of the very same fortress?

The archaeologists working at
the Bayanbulag site

come upon a second, far more
chilling discovery.

[sinister music plays]

The team was digging
in a second pit,

close to the fortress,

when they began to notice bones
sticking out of the earth.

But this wasn't just one body.

As they started to excavate
the skeletons,

they realized what they were
looking at was a mass grave.

The skeletons are tightly
mixed together,

and they're hard
to disentangle.

But based on
the number of skulls,

it looks like there are at least
17 individuals buried here.

The clay surrounding the bodies
preserved their positions,

and it seems as though
many were kneeling

when they were killed.

One of the victims appeared
to have been laying down,

attempting to cover or defend
himself with his hands

when his legs and arms
were cut off.

[Anthony]
All of the skeletons show
signs of dismemberment

or amputation,
and that's not all.

The bones also bear the scars
of sharp and blunt force trauma,

painting a picture of a group
that died

an exceptionally violent death.

But who were they?

The long-forgotten grave
at the Bayanbulag site

isn't the only astonishing
burial in the region.

Just over 200 miles northeast
of Bayanbulag,

in the Undur-Ulaan district
of Arkhangai Province,

archaeologists discovered
the remains of another

extraordinary resting place,
known today as Gol Mod II.

[Alison]
The Gol Mod II site isn't
so much a grave as a necropolis.

Over the years,
roughly 400 graves

have been uncovered here.

They are carefully arranged,
with the largest and grandest

elite tombs surrounded
by smaller satellite burials,

which suggest a clear
social hierarchy.

Inside the elite tombs,
there were elaborate

grave goods, including gold
and silver ornaments,

silk, and impressive felt rugs.

Gol Mod II is one of 10
enormous necropolises

scattered across
Mongolia and Russia.

These huge complexes belonged
to an ancient civilization

known as the Xiongnu.

They were a nomadic people
who dominated

the Eurasian steppe
for over 500 years.

They were actually a confederacy
of nomadic tribes,

but they banded
together to fight against

the Chinese who were
expanding from the south.

The Xiongnu were
formidable fighters,

both expert horseback riders
and archers.

They formed armies of up
to 300,000 mounted warriors,

strong enough to pose
an existential threat

to China's northern borders.

The Xiongnu rose in power

roughly alongside
the Han Dynasty,

and the two kingdoms went on
to fight a series of wars

over the course
of two centuries,

from about 133 BCE to 89 CE.

During Emperor Rudy's reign,
the tensions between

the Han and Xiongnu
escalated sharply.

The Han military began to build
more infrastructure than ever

to fight against the Xiongnu's
nomadic armies.

According to the Shiji,
one of these fortresses

was the Shouxiangcheng.

[Alison] Based on its location,
the Bayanbulag Fortress may well

be the Shouxiangcheng,

built to defend Han territory
from incoming Xiongnu attacks.

The mass grave could well
be the result

of one of these clashes.

But one question remains --

Which side do these bodies
belong to?

The archaeologists working in
Bayanbulag began to spot

clues that could point to where
these soldiers came from.

[Dan] Rather than digging a new
grave for these bodies,

it looks like the people
burying them took advantage

of a hole that was
already available.

The pit they were found in
was a mine beforehand,

and it was only repurposed
as a grave after the massacre.

So it definitely seems like
an undignified resting place.

Combine that with the level
of violence inflicted

on the victims, and you can see
this hypothesis that maybe

these were the bodies
of enemy soldiers

who had been taken prisoner.

[Amma] But other clues point
to a different possibility.

Alongside the bodies,
the team discovered

other objects, including shards
of Han-style pottery,

an iron halberd, and a clay
seal with the mark

of a Han official.

These artifacts suggest

that these men weren't
Xiongnu soldiers

taken to the fortress,

but actually Han soldiers
killed near their own fortress

and buried next to it.

To confirm the identities of
these forgotten soldiers,

the archaeologists gather
forensic evidence

from the mass burial
for testing.

[Anthony] Using samples pulled
from the bones and teeth,

they confirm that these
skeletons all belonged

to men of military age,

between 20 and 50 years old.

These samples were then
compared to a set of modern

East Asian populations,
which established

that the individuals were
genetically closer

to Han descendants
than any other group.

This single discovery sheds
new light on the chaos of

the burial itself.

It's possible that the Xiongnu
riders managed to lay siege

to the fortress,
successfully attacking

and killing some of the men
stationed there.

These deaths were
intentionally violent.

At the time, death by
dismemberment was considered

the most shameful way to die,
and the Xiongnu appeared

to have inflicted as much shame
on their victims as possible.

[Dan] But that isn't
the end of the story.

Once these Han soldiers
had been killed,

their comrades actually gathered
their dismembered bodies,

collecting the pieces
of severed arms and legs

to be buried all together.

Chinese beliefs at the time,
like those in a lot of

other cultures even today,
dictate that bodies should be

buried whole to rest peacefully
in the afterlife.

So this gesture might have
meant a great deal.

The Bayanbulag Fortress
remains the only example

of a mass grave from
the Han-Xiongnu Wars,

an enduring reminder of a long
forgotten conflict between

two of Asia's most powerful
ancient civilizations.

Located between
the Judean Mountains

and the Mediterranean coast,

Israel's Shephelah region runs
roughly 35 miles long

and eight miles wide.

Shephelah is a transition zone
between the highlands

of Jerusalem and Hebron
and the coastal plain.

It's made up of gently rolling
hills and sandy plateaus,

and it has a varied
semi-arid climate.

So while it can get
cool in the winter,

the summer months
are dry and hot,

and it receives between just 10

and 20 inches of rain all year.

Archaeologists have found
evidence of human habitation

in Shephelah going back as far
as 3,500 years

to the Bronze Age.

That was followed by centuries

of rising and falling
populations,

including a strong
Canaanite enclave

of over 50,000 settlers.

And like much of
the surrounding area,

the region continued
to be populated

during the Hellenistic,
Roman, and Byzantine periods.

But the lowlands of Shephelah
are best known for being

the site of the ancient city
of Tel Azekah,

which played a prominent role
in several biblical texts,

including the battle between
David and Goliath.

After the Babylonian siege
of Jerusalem in 587 BCE,

Tel Azekah was one of only two
fortified cities that remained.

And during
the Hasmonean dynasty,

from 140 to 116 BCE,

a second fortress was built

by King John Hyrcanus,

the remains of which can
still be seen today.

Despite this long history
of occupation and settlement,

Tel Azekah and its surroundings
were eventually abandoned

until the late 1800s

when it was rediscovered
by British archaeologists,

making it one
of the first biblical sites

ever excavated in Israel.

A family is out for a hike
in the Shephelah foothills

when they make
an incredible discovery.

They were walking along
a sandy dirt trail

when a small rock caught
the attention

of the young daughter.

She picked it up and told
her family it looked like

it had teeth, which was probably
the first indication

that this was no ordinary stone.

When they brushed the residual
sand and dirt away,

they saw that what looked like
teeth marks were

intricate markings,

the engravings of
a beautifully-crafted

amulet or talisman.

But where did it come from,
and how long has it been here?

A family is out for a hike

when they make
an incredible discovery.

It wouldn't be the first time
a young explorer stumbled upon

an ancient artifact in Israel.

[Teddy] A 13-year-old boy
was on a hike

with his family close
to Khirbet Shalala,

an archaeological site near
Mount Carmel in Haifa.

The boy picked up
what he thought was a rusty,

old metal bolt.

It was round, green,
and slightly corroded.

But a closer look revealed
it was a bronze ring

with an engraving of a human
figure holding a spear

like a warrior.

[Anthea]
When the family turned it over

to the Israel
Antiquities Authority,

they identified the ring as
being nearly 2,000 years old,

from the late Roman period.

The engraving was
the image of Minerva,

the Roman goddess of
wisdom and war,

known to the Greeks as Athena.

[Anthony] The exact provenance
of the ring remained a mystery,

but several intriguing
possibilities were considered.

It might have belonged
to a woman

who lived on a farm
on Khirbet Shalala,

or a worker at the nearby
rock quarry.

Or it may have been used
as an offering

at one of the many burial
sites close by.

[Alison] Depictions of Minerva
were extremely popular during

the Roman Empire, but not many
have been recovered

in present-day Israel.

So is it possible the amulet in
the Shephelah foothills was

from around the same era?

The amulet is tested
to determine its age

with surprising results.

It's from roughly 1800 BCE,
corresponding

to the Middle Bronze Age,
which is almost two millennia

before the Roman Empire expanded

into what's known
as the Southern Levant.

[Anthea] The people who lived
in the Southern Levant during

the Bronze Age were referred
to in ancient biblical text

as the Canaanites, who likely
were descendants

of various nomadic
Neolithic tribes.

And although they lived
in different city-states,

including the city of Azekah,
the Canaanites were culturally

and genetically very similar.

Much of what we know about
the Canaanites comes from

records left by the people
they encountered.

Some of the most detailed
surviving records come from

the Hebrew Bible,
and additional information

comes from artifacts recovered
from archaeological sites

where the Canaanites are
thought to have lived.

A recently-discovered
Canaanite artifact points

to a possible origin story for
the Shephelah amulet.

Once again, the discovery was
made by a junior archaeologist.

In this case,
a seven-year-old boy

who was exploring a section of
Tel Rehov in the Jordan Valley

with his father
and a group of friends.

The boy was climbing
an archaeological mound

when he came across
a stone that had shifted,

and he saw the image
of a person covered in dirt.

When he brushed away the soil,

the stone turned out to be
a clay figurine

in the shape of a woman.

Likely created by pressing
soft clay into a mold.

It was identified as being
roughly 3,400 years old

and was typical
of Canaanite artifacts

from the 15th
to the 13th century BCE.

It was believed the figurine
belonged to one

of the residents of
the ancient city of Rehov,

and that the figure depicted
was either that of a real

flesh-and-blood woman

or a representation of
the fertility goddess Astarte,

referenced in several
Canaanite sources

as well as in the Bible.

So given that the figurine's
unique design helped place it

both historically
and geographically,

maybe the key to determining
the amulet's origin might be

found in its engravings.

A close examination of
the amulet's intricate design

leads to a critical clue.

The flat side of the stone
has a beautifully rendered

engraving of a Scarab,

which has origins going
back to ancient Egypt.

Scarab beetles,
or dung beetles,

lay their eggs in balls of dung

from which a new
generation emerges.

The Egyptians saw this
as a powerful symbol

of rebirth

and an incarnation
of their sun god, Khepri.

A beetle rolling a ball of dung
was associated with Khepri

rolling the disc of the sun
across the celestial universe.

[Anthea] Scarab imagery appeared
in many different forms

in ancient Egypt.

As amulets, a Scarab beetle
could be made from

precious metals
like gold and faience.

They were worn as pins
or jewelry for protection

and to ensure a safe passage
into the afterlife.

A Scarab talisman was frequently
placed on the hearts

of mummies as a symbol
of eternal life.

The Scarab also appeared in
hieroglyphic form

on the walls of Egyptian tombs
and burial sites.

So, if the discovered amulet
features imagery

with Egyptian roots,

is it possible that Egypt had
some kind of cultural

or religious influence
over the Canaanites?

The discovery of a Canaanite
temple reveals the most likely

explanation for
the Shephelah Scarab.

[Teddy]
At the very top of the ancient
city of Azekah, the ruins of

a temple that appeared
to have been built to greet

the rising sun were discovered.

The Late Bronze Age compound
features an open-air sanctuary

with a stone-paved platform
that offered a spectacular

eastward view
of the Valley of Elah,

the setting of the duel between
David and Goliath.

[Anthea]
While worship of the sun
and various sun gods has been

a feature of Egyptian spiritual
life throughout

its long history, it was inside
the temple walls

where the biggest collection
of evidence was found.

Several of the temple's
chambers contained

cultic objects that blended
Egyptian and Canaanite elements,

including a bronze statue
of a Canaanite storm god

and an amulet made from
a mineral unavailable

in Canaan, which would have
been imported from Egypt.

[Anthony] The amulet's back was
covered with hieroglyphs,

while the front depicted
a triad of Egyptian deities,

the sun god Ra,

the lord of war
and mischief, Seth,

and the sky goddess Hathor.

Taken together, the findings
suggest a strong

influence of ancient Egyptian
culture on Canaanite

religious practices.

[Alison] And this is in line
with the historical record.

Canaanites, like others
in the region,

were fascinated by many aspects
of Egyptian culture.

They often imported or imitated
their food, clothing,

and even luxury items such as
jewelry and personal talismans,

like the one found on
the Shephelah hiking trail.

Plucked from thousands,

a single stone reveals just one

of the many hidden stories
buried in the former land

of Judea.

Discoveries like
the Shephelah amulet

strengthen our understanding of
the ancient connection

between the Egyptian
and Canaanite civilizations.

With a population
of over half a million,

Iraq's bustling city
of Nasiriyah lies

on the lower Euphrates River,

around 225 miles
south of Baghdad.

Founded in the late
18th century

by a tribal confederation
called the Muntafiq,

Nasiriyah's hostile climate did
not stop the city

from growing into
an important hub

for transportation
and industry.

But the history of
the surrounding area

goes back much further,

over 5,000 years.

As the location of
the ancient city of Lagash.

Lagash is known for being one
of the first urban centers

of the Sumerian civilization
of Iraq,

what was then called
Mesopotamia

between the 6th and 5th
millennium BCE.

Today, it's one of the largest
archaeological sites

in the region,

and its excavations
have provided

critical insights
into the Sumerian people.

A team of archaeologists is
working at Lagash

when they make
a rare discovery.

In the southern half
of the site,

they noticed traces
of waste material

from the manufacturing of
ceramics and pottery.

And when they continued to dig
beneath the elevated sections

of the sandy plateau,
they unearthed a large,

square trench containing
six kilns

for producing ceramics,

all right next to one another.

The lower half of the kilns
had oval pits made

from baked mud brick.

No upper portions remained,
but it was determined

that the tops were likely domed

and made from the same mud
and clay that lined them.

Just west of the kiln pits was
an open space

with benches and a table,

most likely used
by the ceramic makers.

The discovery of one kiln
in Lagash is not unusual

in the context of
a domestic dwelling.

In fact, in a nearby
open square,

a kitchen space had
already been excavated

to reveal clay jar stoppers,

a grinding stone and a toilet,
several rooms over.

But what makes this find
so compelling is

the six kilns together,

which suggests an organized
and concentrated approach

to ceramic production.

Is it possible the kiln trench
is just part of a larger

industrial complex?

For most of the third
millennium,

Lagash was one
of the largest cities

in all of southern
Mesopotamia.

Its strategic location between
the Tigris and Euphrates rivers

was the key to its growth as
a major political and religious

capital of Sumer.

In the early dynastic period,
2900 BCE to 2350 BCE,

the rulers of Lagash
called themselves kings.

Technically, that was a bit of
an exaggeration because

this city-state was never
officially included

in the Sumerian kingship.

Not surprisingly, most of
the recovered artifacts

and architecture of Lagash have
focused on the city's powerful

rulers and elites.

This has left many questions
about the lives of the often

overlooked middle-class
citizens who made up most

of the population of Lagash
and lived in the section

of the city where the kilns
were discovered.

An expanded survey of the area
surrounding the kiln site

leads to surprising results.

There was a large
courtyard space nearby,

but it was difficult
to excavate,

having already been
compromised by exposure.

So, a new cutting-edge
technique called

microstratigraphic sampling
was applied,

where high-tech tools are used

to uncover the surface
in thin sections,

one by one.

[Teddy] The approach paid off.

Just 19 inches below
the initial surface,

there was another kitchen area,

including an oven,
storage vessels for food,

and more benches and tables,

dating to roughly 2,700 BC.

But the most curious thing was
the sheer number of benches

and the size of the eating area.

This was no single-dwelling
dining room.

It was an open-air public space

dedicated to feeding
many people at one sitting.

So was this some 5,000-year-old
Sumerian food court or tavern

dedicated to feeding
the hungry masses of Lagash?

As the excavation
of the Legash site continues,

It wouldn't be the first time
that an archaeological dig

lead to the discovery
of what was thought to be

an ancient tavern.

If you want a really good look
at the dining habits

of the Romans, look no further
than the excavated remains

of a large communal space
in Lattes, France.

This place is more recent.

It dates to about 75 BCE,
but it probably reflects

what life was like
in Lagash, too.

The French site includes
these three indoor gristmills,

and three ovens
for baking flatbread.

So, it was initially believed
that these were the remains

of a bakery.

But further digging revealed
the presence of several benches

and a charcoal-burning hearth,

along with pieces of
large bowls and platters.

Suddenly, it looked less like
a takeout bakery and more

like a dining establishment
where the locals could sit

and share a meal.

The findings also provided
insight into the foods

that would have been
featured on the menu,

since bones from fish, sheep,
and cattle were also found

on the site.

[Teddy] The discovery cast
a critical light

on the history of the world's
earliest restaurants.

According to a recent study,
the first establishments

to sell food and drinks to
the public began to emerge

around 1550 CE
in Constantinople.

If it could be proven that this
2,000-year-old Roman tavern was

a commercial enterprise,

then it would challenge
the previous record.

However, the absence of
any coins from the period

at the site made it virtually
impossible to verify.

Maybe the discovery at Lagash
would prove different.

As the excavation of
the Lagash site continues,

compelling new evidence
comes to light.

[Anthea]
Across from where the oven
was discovered,

there's a large, circular
half-buried structure

containing a pot in layers
of pottery shards.

This was identified as a zeer,

an underground cooling device,

similar to a refrigerator that
was used to keep foods

and drinks cool.

There were also additional
benches and shelves

found close to the oven.

Now, those shelves
had collapsed,

but each one had four levels,

some of them stacked
with conical bowls.

And in some of those bowls,
you can still find

the remains of fish
and other food.

But the biggest surprise was
revealed when three levels

of a second building were
discovered to the east

of the large kitchen area.

This building had
an industrial-sized oven,

a large basin made
from baked brick,

and several ceramic vats.

In other words,

all the necessary ingredients
for a brewery.

There was even a recipe
for beer found

on a cuneiform tablet.

[Teddy] So at this stage, it's
safe to call the gathering place

a bona fide tavern.

There was a public courtyard
with benches and tables,

a kitchen area with an oven,
storage vessels for food,

and a refrigeration unit.

And of course,
the brewery to the east.

And at roughly 4,800 years old,
it would also be the oldest

known tavern
in recorded history.

But was the ancient tavern also
a business engaging in commerce

of some kind, or was it purely
for social congregation?

A closer look at the city's
growth pattern offers

an important clue.

The Sumerians in Lagash
were so successful

at domesticating crops

that it led to a food surplus,

but it also led to the emergence
of a new social class,

not directly involved
in food production.

In this case, a middle class
that had a sizable degree

of independence, that made
decisions, that had both

agency and mobility.

[Dan] The presence of the tavern
offers this snapshot

of a public gathering space
where people could sit down,

have a pint of beer,
and a little bit of fish stew.

This place suggests that
the middle class didn't

necessarily have wealth,
but they did have money.

Presumably, that's how they paid
for their food here,

and also at the site in France.

[Amma]
The middle class of Lagash
eventually developed trades,

produced and exchanged goods,

and became artisans
and craftsmen.

And one can easily imagine
they went to the tavern

to unwind after
a long day of work.

The initial discovery of
the six kilns close by,

supports the image
of a group of ceramicists

who were no doubt thirsty

after toiling over their hot
kilns in the desert.

The incredible Tavern of Lagash
is an important addition

to our understanding
of the Sumerian civilization

and a challenge to many
historical perspectives.

It suggests the lives of those
who built the city were more

varied, nuanced, and social
than previously believed.