1 00:00:12,789 --> 00:00:14,709 - I'm not universally beloved, 2 00:00:15,879 --> 00:00:17,289 to put it mildly. 3 00:00:18,000 --> 00:00:20,724 At one juncture in my life, I was perhaps, 4 00:00:21,639 --> 00:00:23,408 and maybe this is correct, 5 00:00:23,409 --> 00:00:26,348 the most reviled creature on the face of the earth 6 00:00:26,349 --> 00:00:28,208 because of the neutron bomb, 7 00:00:28,209 --> 00:00:31,984 which was unquestionably, at that time of its arrival, 8 00:00:32,409 --> 00:00:36,181 the most detested weapon on earth. 9 00:00:36,724 --> 00:00:39,914 [SUSPENSEFUL MUSIC] 10 00:00:42,009 --> 00:00:43,868 - [NEWSCASTER] We are in mortal peril. 11 00:00:43,869 --> 00:00:44,918 - [NEWSCASTER] The neutron bomb 12 00:00:44,919 --> 00:00:47,638 would operate as a kind of death ray. 13 00:00:47,639 --> 00:00:50,408 It will destroy all life in the targeted area. 14 00:00:50,409 --> 00:00:52,058 - [SAM COHEN] I began to see radiation, 15 00:00:52,059 --> 00:00:54,848 nuclear radiation, as an effective means 16 00:00:54,849 --> 00:00:57,908 of waging ground warfare in a relatively moral way. 17 00:00:57,909 --> 00:01:00,048 - [NEWSCASTER] First, there is an emission of thermal energy. 18 00:01:00,049 --> 00:01:02,868 - [NEWSCASTER] Enter the neutron bomb. 19 00:01:02,869 --> 00:01:04,616 - [NEWSCASTER] A neutron warhead 20 00:01:04,617 --> 00:01:06,388 is a defensive weapon designed to- 21 00:01:06,389 --> 00:01:07,925 - [NEWSCASTER] ...this particular bomb seems to 22 00:01:07,926 --> 00:01:10,868 have discovered that radiation kills people. 23 00:01:10,869 --> 00:01:13,421 The neutron bomb is no exception, it will kill people. 24 00:01:13,422 --> 00:01:15,845 - This technology kept ramping up 25 00:01:15,846 --> 00:01:18,098 and becoming even more lethal, 26 00:01:18,099 --> 00:01:19,853 and now we have the neutron bomb. 27 00:01:20,259 --> 00:01:22,058 I mean, it was the whole idea with the neutron bomb, 28 00:01:22,059 --> 00:01:25,388 was it so that they could go into an area and drop this bomb 29 00:01:25,389 --> 00:01:26,948 and it wouldn't destroy buildings, 30 00:01:26,949 --> 00:01:28,808 it would just kill people, right? 31 00:01:28,809 --> 00:01:30,076 - Yes. 32 00:01:31,719 --> 00:01:35,378 [SUSPENSEFUL MUSIC] 33 00:01:35,379 --> 00:01:37,538 - Since the beginning of time, 34 00:01:37,539 --> 00:01:40,746 man has been devising weapons of destruction. 35 00:01:41,919 --> 00:01:46,118 The slingshot, employed by David against Goliath 36 00:01:46,119 --> 00:01:49,898 and used by the armies of Alexander the Great. 37 00:01:49,899 --> 00:01:52,448 The catapult and the ballista, 38 00:01:52,449 --> 00:01:55,058 formidable weapons of their time. 39 00:01:55,059 --> 00:01:58,216 The great spears of the Greek warriors, 40 00:01:58,869 --> 00:02:03,078 and the broad swords of the armored knights. 41 00:02:04,209 --> 00:02:06,998 The invention of gunpowder by the Chinese 42 00:02:06,999 --> 00:02:09,218 revolutionized warfare 43 00:02:09,219 --> 00:02:12,008 and ushered in a new era of explosive munitions 44 00:02:12,009 --> 00:02:15,938 through the creation of crude bombs, field artillery, 45 00:02:15,939 --> 00:02:18,722 and even hand grenades. 46 00:02:19,509 --> 00:02:22,808 World War I saw the development of automatic weapons 47 00:02:22,809 --> 00:02:24,560 like the machine gun, 48 00:02:25,539 --> 00:02:28,108 the giant artillery cannons, 49 00:02:28,989 --> 00:02:32,354 the tank, and the airplane. 50 00:02:33,549 --> 00:02:35,528 Toward the end of World War II, 51 00:02:35,529 --> 00:02:38,408 man created the first atomic bomb 52 00:02:38,409 --> 00:02:42,015 and plunged the world into the atomic age. 53 00:02:42,839 --> 00:02:44,198 [SUSPENSEFUL MUSIC] 54 00:02:44,199 --> 00:02:46,088 - [NARRATOR] Nuclear weapons, 55 00:02:46,089 --> 00:02:49,598 created in all shapes and sizes, 56 00:02:49,599 --> 00:02:52,810 large ones and small ones. 57 00:02:53,614 --> 00:02:55,988 For nearly 75 years, 58 00:02:55,989 --> 00:02:59,948 the United States designed and tested these weapons 59 00:02:59,949 --> 00:03:04,118 to improve their size, weight, and purpose, 60 00:03:04,119 --> 00:03:07,283 for a war which may never be waged. 61 00:03:08,289 --> 00:03:10,988 One weapon stood out amongst all others 62 00:03:10,989 --> 00:03:12,848 in purpose and function, 63 00:03:12,849 --> 00:03:16,808 enhancing an invisible yet deadly characteristic 64 00:03:16,809 --> 00:03:18,619 of nuclear fusion. 65 00:03:19,079 --> 00:03:22,608 This was the neutron bomb. 66 00:03:22,609 --> 00:03:26,989 [DRAMATIC MUSIC] 67 00:03:27,468 --> 00:03:30,632 [MACHINE WHIRRING] 68 00:03:30,844 --> 00:03:32,555 [ROCKET LAUNCH] 69 00:03:33,699 --> 00:03:36,212 [DRAMATIC MUSIC] 70 00:04:18,986 --> 00:04:21,651 - Enter the neutron bomb. 71 00:04:23,079 --> 00:04:25,538 - [NARRATOR] At the center of this weapon is the neutron. 72 00:04:27,039 --> 00:04:29,648 Nestled within the structure of an atom 73 00:04:29,649 --> 00:04:32,408 exists a tranquil sub-atomic particle 74 00:04:32,409 --> 00:04:35,603 that possesses no electric charge, called the neutron. 75 00:04:36,339 --> 00:04:40,874 - Neutrons were discovered in England in 1932. 76 00:04:41,469 --> 00:04:44,618 They were immediately perceived to be immensely valuable 77 00:04:44,619 --> 00:04:48,278 for sub-nuclear research, 78 00:04:48,279 --> 00:04:50,798 because unlike the particles that had been used 79 00:04:50,799 --> 00:04:52,268 to bombard atoms, 80 00:04:52,269 --> 00:04:54,934 to look at them, if you will, up to that time, 81 00:04:55,869 --> 00:04:58,268 neutrons could slip into the nucleus, 82 00:04:58,269 --> 00:05:00,818 positively charged nucleus, of an atom, 83 00:05:00,819 --> 00:05:04,268 without being repelled by that positive charge. 84 00:05:04,269 --> 00:05:06,548 They would just kind of fall into the nucleus 85 00:05:06,549 --> 00:05:10,238 and then all sorts of interesting things would happen. 86 00:05:10,239 --> 00:05:11,678 - [NARRATOR] These free neutrons 87 00:05:11,679 --> 00:05:14,318 can invade the foundation of matter 88 00:05:14,319 --> 00:05:18,783 and create useful isotopes for medicine and industry. 89 00:05:19,809 --> 00:05:21,518 Free neutrons, however, 90 00:05:21,519 --> 00:05:25,963 can be extremely hazardous to all living things. 91 00:05:27,279 --> 00:05:28,958 Free neutrons are produced 92 00:05:28,959 --> 00:05:31,239 within the heart of a nuclear reactor, 93 00:05:32,229 --> 00:05:34,988 or from a chain reaction created in the detonation 94 00:05:34,989 --> 00:05:36,627 of an atomic bomb. 95 00:05:38,739 --> 00:05:42,428 From the beginning of nuclear testing in 1945, 96 00:05:42,429 --> 00:05:45,068 neutrons have maintained a special interest 97 00:05:45,069 --> 00:05:46,961 in all atomic tests. 98 00:05:49,239 --> 00:05:51,458 - When the scientists at Los Alamos 99 00:05:51,459 --> 00:05:54,398 worked on the targeting of the first bombs 100 00:05:54,399 --> 00:05:57,118 on the Japanese cities during the Second World War, 101 00:05:57,969 --> 00:05:59,798 they were concerned that these weapons 102 00:05:59,799 --> 00:06:03,634 not be perceived to be some new kind of poison gas. 103 00:06:04,059 --> 00:06:07,658 They were concerned that the primary destructive force 104 00:06:07,659 --> 00:06:12,248 that was harnessed would be blast and fire, 105 00:06:12,249 --> 00:06:14,408 but not radiation. 106 00:06:14,409 --> 00:06:17,948 They were however, aware that one of the first kinds 107 00:06:17,949 --> 00:06:21,248 of radiation coming off a nuclear fireball 108 00:06:21,249 --> 00:06:27,068 would be prompt neutrons, a huge flux of neutrons, 109 00:06:27,069 --> 00:06:29,258 and that those neutrons would kill anyone 110 00:06:29,259 --> 00:06:31,088 within a certain range. 111 00:06:31,089 --> 00:06:32,948 What they calculated, however, 112 00:06:32,949 --> 00:06:36,578 was that anyone who would be killed by the neutron flux 113 00:06:36,579 --> 00:06:38,078 would probably be killed 114 00:06:38,079 --> 00:06:41,094 by the blast of the explosion as well. 115 00:06:42,039 --> 00:06:44,679 - [SCIENTIST] First, there is an emission of thermal energy, 116 00:06:45,159 --> 00:06:47,774 gamma rays, and neutrons. 117 00:06:48,669 --> 00:06:51,158 Depending upon the altitude of the burst, 118 00:06:51,159 --> 00:06:52,628 the neutrons reach the target 119 00:06:52,629 --> 00:06:54,516 in large or small quantities. 120 00:06:54,759 --> 00:06:57,805 The gamma rays extend far from the target center. 121 00:06:59,049 --> 00:07:01,688 In general, radiation causes ionization 122 00:07:01,689 --> 00:07:04,053 in the component atoms of cells, 123 00:07:04,479 --> 00:07:06,378 altering their chemical nature 124 00:07:06,639 --> 00:07:09,937 and impairing or destroying their normal function. 125 00:07:10,719 --> 00:07:12,728 With whole body radiation, 126 00:07:12,729 --> 00:07:15,068 ionization causes loss of function 127 00:07:15,069 --> 00:07:17,828 of the more sensitive tissues and organs. 128 00:07:17,829 --> 00:07:20,434 The degree of loss depends upon the dosage. 129 00:07:21,429 --> 00:07:24,493 If the exposure is both general and severe, 130 00:07:25,389 --> 00:07:26,802 death results. 131 00:07:28,359 --> 00:07:30,785 [SUSPENSEFUL MUSIC] 132 00:07:36,939 --> 00:07:39,368 [CROWD APPLAUDING] 133 00:07:39,369 --> 00:07:41,648 - [NARRATOR] In May of 1945, 134 00:07:41,649 --> 00:07:43,727 the war in Europe came to an end. 135 00:07:44,349 --> 00:07:46,442 Nazi Germany was defeated. 136 00:07:48,009 --> 00:07:50,768 Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin 137 00:07:50,769 --> 00:07:53,168 met cordially at Yalta and Potsdam 138 00:07:53,169 --> 00:07:55,628 to discuss the fate of Germany. 139 00:07:55,629 --> 00:07:58,898 The allies agreed that the countries they had occupied 140 00:07:58,899 --> 00:08:00,128 should be liberated 141 00:08:00,129 --> 00:08:01,380 and that freely elected 142 00:08:01,381 --> 00:08:03,253 governments should be encouraged. 143 00:08:03,879 --> 00:08:06,341 But for the countries occupied by Russia, 144 00:08:06,639 --> 00:08:08,933 Stalin had other plans. 145 00:08:10,659 --> 00:08:13,148 The Russians kept their army intact, 146 00:08:13,149 --> 00:08:14,678 overwhelmingly maintaining 147 00:08:14,679 --> 00:08:17,377 the largest military force in Europe. 148 00:08:18,909 --> 00:08:21,548 Then Russia decided to cut off 149 00:08:21,549 --> 00:08:24,142 the allied sectors of Berlin from the west. 150 00:08:29,169 --> 00:08:32,462 Trains and road transports were stopped. 151 00:08:33,279 --> 00:08:34,929 Electric power was cut. 152 00:08:35,259 --> 00:08:38,596 West Berlin was isolated from the free world. 153 00:08:40,029 --> 00:08:42,310 The response was the Berlin Airlift. 154 00:08:43,589 --> 00:08:45,248 For the next 11 months, 155 00:08:45,249 --> 00:08:48,758 American, British, and French planes 156 00:08:48,759 --> 00:08:50,648 landed one after another, 157 00:08:50,649 --> 00:08:54,848 delivering supplies of food, coal, and petroleum 158 00:08:54,849 --> 00:08:56,745 into the besieged city. 159 00:08:57,519 --> 00:08:59,288 The Russian blockade of Berlin 160 00:08:59,289 --> 00:09:01,928 had brought Europe to the brink of war. 161 00:09:01,929 --> 00:09:05,408 It was at last clear that only a strong defensive alliance 162 00:09:05,409 --> 00:09:08,048 could deter them from further aggression. 163 00:09:08,049 --> 00:09:10,928 On April 4th, 1949, 164 00:09:10,929 --> 00:09:15,128 the North Atlantic Treaty was signed by 12 western nations. 165 00:09:15,129 --> 00:09:16,568 This alliance became known 166 00:09:16,569 --> 00:09:19,452 as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. 167 00:09:21,104 --> 00:09:22,589 [MILITARY MUSIC] 168 00:09:23,319 --> 00:09:27,098 - In 1949, there were a series of very momentous events 169 00:09:27,099 --> 00:09:29,138 happening on the geopolitical stage. 170 00:09:29,139 --> 00:09:31,358 One of them, of course, in April, 1949, 171 00:09:31,359 --> 00:09:34,748 was the formation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. 172 00:09:34,749 --> 00:09:36,968 This was a group of 12 nations, 173 00:09:36,969 --> 00:09:38,348 including the United States 174 00:09:38,349 --> 00:09:40,448 and several other European nations, 175 00:09:40,449 --> 00:09:43,088 which, together, created a security alliance 176 00:09:43,089 --> 00:09:45,938 where the whole would be greater than the sum of the parts. 177 00:09:45,939 --> 00:09:47,648 - The fact that the Soviet Union 178 00:09:47,649 --> 00:09:49,988 had taken over Eastern Europe 179 00:09:49,989 --> 00:09:52,688 in the aftermath of the Second World War 180 00:09:52,689 --> 00:09:55,178 as part of the spoils of victory, 181 00:09:55,179 --> 00:09:56,978 the fact that therefore there was, 182 00:09:56,979 --> 00:10:01,028 as Winston Churchill famously said in 1946, 183 00:10:01,029 --> 00:10:03,728 an iron curtain drawn across Europe 184 00:10:03,729 --> 00:10:06,938 with the Soviet Communist world on one side 185 00:10:06,939 --> 00:10:10,058 and the western, we hoped, democratic world 186 00:10:10,059 --> 00:10:11,858 on the other side. 187 00:10:11,859 --> 00:10:15,733 - The loss of China, if you will, to the Communists, 188 00:10:15,734 --> 00:10:16,808 and then finally, 189 00:10:16,809 --> 00:10:19,478 I suppose we could say the sense of crisis culminated 190 00:10:19,479 --> 00:10:21,728 in August of 1949, 191 00:10:21,729 --> 00:10:24,878 when the Soviets detonated their first atomic bomb, 192 00:10:24,879 --> 00:10:27,038 which was then announced to the American people 193 00:10:27,039 --> 00:10:29,558 about a month later, in September, 1949. 194 00:10:31,219 --> 00:10:33,478 [SUSPENSEFUL MUSIC] 195 00:10:33,479 --> 00:10:38,518 - [ANNOUNCER] Eight, seven, six, five, four 196 00:10:38,519 --> 00:10:42,691 three, two, one, zero. 197 00:10:43,279 --> 00:10:46,695 [SUSPENSEFUL MUSIC] 198 00:10:54,367 --> 00:10:55,988 - [NARRATOR] Early nuclear operations 199 00:10:55,989 --> 00:10:59,348 focused on training American and NATO ground troops 200 00:10:59,349 --> 00:11:02,549 in the use of atomic weapons on the battlefield. 201 00:11:04,689 --> 00:11:07,815 [PENSIVE MUSIC] 202 00:11:11,493 --> 00:11:12,908 - [W. PATRICK MCCRAY] Nuclear weapons can, 203 00:11:12,909 --> 00:11:15,638 to put it crudely, be divided into two categories. 204 00:11:15,639 --> 00:11:17,768 One of them would be tactical nuclear weapons, 205 00:11:17,769 --> 00:11:19,628 which would be for use on a battlefield. 206 00:11:19,629 --> 00:11:21,908 These would be small-yield weapons 207 00:11:21,909 --> 00:11:24,038 that would be designed to be used in 208 00:11:24,039 --> 00:11:26,032 particular theaters of operation. 209 00:11:27,969 --> 00:11:30,218 - "Theater" and "tactical" nuclear weapons 210 00:11:30,219 --> 00:11:33,578 are to some degree, interchangeable terms, 211 00:11:33,579 --> 00:11:36,008 but "theater" basically refers to 212 00:11:36,009 --> 00:11:38,918 a particular area of conflict, 213 00:11:38,919 --> 00:11:41,737 thus the Korean War theater, 214 00:11:42,639 --> 00:11:44,365 the European theater. 215 00:11:44,889 --> 00:11:46,508 - And at the other end of the spectrum 216 00:11:46,509 --> 00:11:48,818 are the strategic nuclear weapons, 217 00:11:48,819 --> 00:11:53,055 the weapons that are large enough to destroy entire cities. 218 00:11:57,639 --> 00:11:59,888 - [NARRATOR] In the summer of 1951, 219 00:11:59,889 --> 00:12:02,498 more than 100 scientists and academics 220 00:12:02,499 --> 00:12:05,018 participated in Project Vista, 221 00:12:05,019 --> 00:12:06,398 a secret study 222 00:12:06,399 --> 00:12:09,457 hosted by the California Institute of Technology. 223 00:12:10,569 --> 00:12:13,988 Vista's purpose was to determine how existing technologies 224 00:12:13,989 --> 00:12:16,131 supported by nuclear weapons 225 00:12:16,599 --> 00:12:19,628 could offset NATO's weaker conventional forces 226 00:12:19,629 --> 00:12:22,389 and repel a massive Soviet invasion. 227 00:12:22,553 --> 00:12:25,623 [DRAMATIC MUSIC] 228 00:12:31,989 --> 00:12:33,728 - Vista was a special project, 229 00:12:33,729 --> 00:12:36,128 it was initiated both by the Air Force 230 00:12:36,129 --> 00:12:38,138 and then also by the US Army. 231 00:12:38,139 --> 00:12:42,038 And the whole idea of Vista was to study the ways 232 00:12:42,039 --> 00:12:44,678 in which Western Europe might be defended against 233 00:12:44,679 --> 00:12:46,688 a massive Soviet attack. 234 00:12:46,689 --> 00:12:49,778 And of course, one of the technologies that was looked at, 235 00:12:49,779 --> 00:12:51,758 and probably the most controversial aspect 236 00:12:51,759 --> 00:12:52,958 of the Vista report, 237 00:12:52,959 --> 00:12:55,118 was that the United States should develop 238 00:12:55,119 --> 00:12:59,048 lots of small-scale, low-yield, tactical nuclear weapons 239 00:12:59,049 --> 00:13:01,298 and deploy these for use on the battlefield, 240 00:13:01,299 --> 00:13:03,428 in that the United States would counter 241 00:13:03,429 --> 00:13:06,548 Soviet superiority, and manpower, and tanks, 242 00:13:06,549 --> 00:13:10,492 with American superiority when it came to nuclear armaments. 243 00:13:11,229 --> 00:13:14,915 - As Robert Oppenheimer told the army in his lecture 244 00:13:15,258 --> 00:13:18,427 in the early 1950s, they were always too big. 245 00:13:18,909 --> 00:13:20,672 How do you make them little? 246 00:13:21,609 --> 00:13:23,228 And if you make them little, 247 00:13:23,229 --> 00:13:26,318 does that put everything at risk of 248 00:13:26,319 --> 00:13:29,348 crossing what was an increasing barrier 249 00:13:29,349 --> 00:13:32,188 between conventional weapons, as we now call them, 250 00:13:32,189 --> 00:13:34,148 and nuclear weapons? 251 00:13:34,149 --> 00:13:36,758 - [NEWSCASTER] Mr. President, Bob Frank, CBS News. 252 00:13:36,759 --> 00:13:38,408 Yesterday at his news conference, 253 00:13:38,409 --> 00:13:39,938 Secretary of State Dulles, 254 00:13:39,939 --> 00:13:44,438 indicated that in the event of general war in the Far East, 255 00:13:44,439 --> 00:13:45,818 we would probably make use 256 00:13:45,819 --> 00:13:49,249 of some tactical, small atomic weapons. 257 00:13:49,585 --> 00:13:50,888 Would you care to comment on this 258 00:13:50,889 --> 00:13:52,928 and possibly explain it further? 259 00:13:52,929 --> 00:13:55,898 - Well, in any combat 260 00:13:55,899 --> 00:14:00,278 where these things can be used on strictly military targets 261 00:14:00,279 --> 00:14:02,198 and for strictly military purposes, 262 00:14:02,199 --> 00:14:03,938 I see no reason that they shouldn't be used 263 00:14:03,939 --> 00:14:07,113 just exactly as you'd use a bullet or anything else. 264 00:14:07,899 --> 00:14:10,628 - Can't we design some that could be used by the army? 265 00:14:10,629 --> 00:14:12,818 Remember, Eisenhower was an army man, 266 00:14:12,819 --> 00:14:14,888 he wasn't an Air Force pilot, 267 00:14:14,889 --> 00:14:18,878 he was concerned that the army had the benefit 268 00:14:18,879 --> 00:14:22,868 of these very powerful, and efficient, and lightweight, 269 00:14:22,869 --> 00:14:25,598 relatively speaking, explosives. 270 00:14:25,599 --> 00:14:27,938 Therefore, he commissioned all sorts of efforts 271 00:14:27,939 --> 00:14:30,037 to find ways to make 272 00:14:30,038 --> 00:14:33,761 battlefield-scale nuclear weapons. 273 00:14:34,056 --> 00:14:36,356 [DRAMATIC MUSIC] 274 00:14:45,909 --> 00:14:47,288 - The battleground of the future 275 00:14:47,289 --> 00:14:49,928 may well be a nuclear battleground, 276 00:14:49,929 --> 00:14:52,598 and the nuclear weapon is perhaps the greatest challenge 277 00:14:52,599 --> 00:14:55,268 to the foot soldier in military history. 278 00:14:55,269 --> 00:14:56,978 The United States Army believes 279 00:14:56,979 --> 00:14:59,648 it is a challenge that can be met 280 00:14:59,649 --> 00:15:02,618 and that today's soldier has a chance of surviving 281 00:15:02,619 --> 00:15:05,828 this new weapon, just as the soldier of the past 282 00:15:05,829 --> 00:15:09,248 was able to survive the weapons of his day. 283 00:15:09,249 --> 00:15:11,018 [DRAMATIC MUSIC] [GUNFIRE ECHOING] 284 00:15:11,019 --> 00:15:12,703 - [ARMY INSTRUCTOR] Keeping in mind that your first 285 00:15:12,704 --> 00:15:14,108 priority, as always, 286 00:15:14,109 --> 00:15:16,328 is to perform your assigned task, 287 00:15:16,329 --> 00:15:18,518 now let's see what protective measures you can take 288 00:15:18,519 --> 00:15:20,283 against an atomic attack. 289 00:15:21,729 --> 00:15:25,388 For atomic defense, you need a deeper hole than usual. 290 00:15:25,389 --> 00:15:28,058 Have a minimum of three feet between ground level 291 00:15:28,059 --> 00:15:30,818 and the top of your body in crouching position. 292 00:15:30,819 --> 00:15:32,438 The sides may crumble, 293 00:15:32,439 --> 00:15:35,198 but this foxhole will give you very good protection 294 00:15:35,199 --> 00:15:38,513 against flying missiles, heat, and radiation. 295 00:15:40,599 --> 00:15:42,488 Have faith in your leaders, 296 00:15:42,489 --> 00:15:45,098 they will ensure that you do not get more radiation 297 00:15:45,099 --> 00:15:47,230 than is absolutely necessary. 298 00:15:47,973 --> 00:15:49,023 [EXPLOSIONS ECHOING] 299 00:15:49,539 --> 00:15:50,858 Your weapons and equipment 300 00:15:50,859 --> 00:15:54,168 may also be contaminated by radioactive fallout. 301 00:15:54,169 --> 00:15:56,408 [EXPLOSIONS ECHOING] 302 00:15:56,409 --> 00:15:59,198 If your immediate assignment requires their use, 303 00:15:59,199 --> 00:16:00,848 go ahead and use them. 304 00:16:00,849 --> 00:16:03,068 The risk of not carrying out your job 305 00:16:03,069 --> 00:16:06,473 will be more critical than the amount of radiation you get. 306 00:16:09,219 --> 00:16:11,888 You can decontaminate your equipment in the field 307 00:16:11,889 --> 00:16:14,696 by sweeping or scraping it down. 308 00:16:17,619 --> 00:16:19,688 - Today, the army is training its soldiers 309 00:16:19,689 --> 00:16:22,028 against possible nuclear warfare, 310 00:16:22,029 --> 00:16:25,148 and teaching them the most effective methods of defense 311 00:16:25,149 --> 00:16:27,368 against atomic attack. 312 00:16:27,369 --> 00:16:30,878 There is no minimizing the potency of the nuclear weapon, 313 00:16:30,879 --> 00:16:32,198 but today's soldier, 314 00:16:32,199 --> 00:16:34,928 well-informed as to the nature of that weapon, 315 00:16:34,929 --> 00:16:36,968 and well-trained in test explosions 316 00:16:36,969 --> 00:16:38,738 over the last few years, 317 00:16:38,739 --> 00:16:42,350 has a better chance of survival on the atomic battlefield. 318 00:16:43,487 --> 00:16:44,687 [PENSIVE MUSIC] 319 00:16:45,219 --> 00:16:47,648 - [NARRATOR] In November of 1952, 320 00:16:47,649 --> 00:16:50,768 an event took place which was to have a profound effect 321 00:16:50,769 --> 00:16:53,966 on the scientific and political climate of the world. 322 00:16:54,909 --> 00:16:58,808 This event was the detonation of Ivy Mike, 323 00:16:58,809 --> 00:17:02,201 the first full-scale test of a thermonuclear device. 324 00:17:03,699 --> 00:17:06,603 The blast produced a flood of neutrons. 325 00:17:07,329 --> 00:17:10,208 In an instant, experiments were exposed 326 00:17:10,209 --> 00:17:12,398 to more than 10 times the neutrons 327 00:17:12,399 --> 00:17:15,368 that similar experiments could be exposed to 328 00:17:15,369 --> 00:17:18,083 by a nuclear reactor in a year. 329 00:17:19,029 --> 00:17:20,408 This got the interest of some 330 00:17:20,409 --> 00:17:23,108 in at least two separate fields, 331 00:17:23,109 --> 00:17:24,518 that of bomb design 332 00:17:24,519 --> 00:17:28,148 and the associated diagnoses of bomb performance, 333 00:17:28,149 --> 00:17:31,358 and those in interested in collateral effects, 334 00:17:31,359 --> 00:17:33,518 the incidental reaction to material 335 00:17:33,519 --> 00:17:35,678 and people in particular. 336 00:17:35,679 --> 00:17:38,558 The experimental hydrogen bomb test verified 337 00:17:38,559 --> 00:17:41,858 that an extremely high flux or surge of neutrons 338 00:17:41,859 --> 00:17:44,648 had occurred within the Ivy Mike detonation. 339 00:17:44,649 --> 00:17:46,058 - What comes off? 340 00:17:46,059 --> 00:17:49,058 Well, a lot of different kinds of radiation, 341 00:17:49,059 --> 00:17:50,918 but one of the most prominent kinds, 342 00:17:50,919 --> 00:17:53,108 an enormous flux of neutrons, 343 00:17:53,829 --> 00:17:56,588 and these neutrons in turn, 344 00:17:56,589 --> 00:17:59,528 as the scientist Philip Morrison commented about 345 00:17:59,529 --> 00:18:02,048 our first big test, 346 00:18:02,049 --> 00:18:07,118 those neutrons produced every element on the periodic table, 347 00:18:07,119 --> 00:18:09,068 and a bunch of manmade elements 348 00:18:09,069 --> 00:18:12,938 all the way up through from 92 to 116, 349 00:18:12,939 --> 00:18:16,568 on the now bigger periodic table of manmade elements. 350 00:18:16,569 --> 00:18:19,208 - [NARRATOR] Intrigued, the Atomic Energy Commission 351 00:18:19,209 --> 00:18:21,158 established a study program 352 00:18:21,159 --> 00:18:23,588 to investigate this particular characteristic 353 00:18:23,589 --> 00:18:25,223 of nuclear weapons. 354 00:18:27,519 --> 00:18:31,296 [SUSPENSEFUL MUSIC] 355 00:18:34,059 --> 00:18:35,948 Several subsequent events 356 00:18:35,949 --> 00:18:40,431 would help to shape the development of the neutron bomb. 357 00:18:40,688 --> 00:18:44,819 [SUSPENSEFUL MUSIC] 358 00:18:51,756 --> 00:18:55,196 [DRAMATIC MUSIC] 359 00:18:56,829 --> 00:18:58,748 Castle Bravo, 360 00:18:58,749 --> 00:19:03,245 the largest nuclear test conducted by the United States, 361 00:19:03,969 --> 00:19:05,498 exploded, 362 00:19:05,499 --> 00:19:09,728 delivering a promptly lethal dose of radioactive fallout 363 00:19:09,729 --> 00:19:13,757 to more than 6,000 square miles of the Pacific Ocean, 364 00:19:15,219 --> 00:19:19,238 injuring the Marshall Islanders and some Japanese fishermen 365 00:19:19,239 --> 00:19:22,019 caught inside the danger zone. 366 00:19:23,130 --> 00:19:26,403 [DRAMATIC MUSIC] 367 00:19:28,449 --> 00:19:31,810 [SOMBER MUSIC] 368 00:19:41,859 --> 00:19:44,784 In response to the public alarm over fallout, 369 00:19:45,519 --> 00:19:49,206 Lewis Strauss, Chairman of the AEC, 370 00:19:49,869 --> 00:19:51,878 requested both weapon laboratories 371 00:19:51,879 --> 00:19:53,588 to investigate the possibility 372 00:19:53,589 --> 00:19:55,808 of reducing radioactive fallout 373 00:19:55,809 --> 00:19:58,510 through designing clean multi-megaton weapons, 374 00:19:59,259 --> 00:20:02,375 relying almost entirely on fusion. 375 00:20:03,979 --> 00:20:08,044 [SUSPENSEFUL MUSIC] 376 00:20:14,199 --> 00:20:16,148 - I have been visited by people 377 00:20:16,149 --> 00:20:21,608 that certainly, by reputation and common knowledge, 378 00:20:21,609 --> 00:20:24,908 are among the most eminent scientists in this field, 379 00:20:24,909 --> 00:20:27,643 among them, Dr. Lawrence and Dr. Teller. 380 00:20:28,659 --> 00:20:30,518 What they're working on is this: 381 00:20:30,519 --> 00:20:33,208 the production of clean bombs. 382 00:20:34,479 --> 00:20:36,981 They tell me that already, 383 00:20:37,659 --> 00:20:43,658 they are producing bombs that have 96% less fallout 384 00:20:43,659 --> 00:20:45,338 than was the case in our original ones, 385 00:20:45,339 --> 00:20:46,973 or what they call dirty bombs. 386 00:20:47,799 --> 00:20:49,254 But they go beyond this. 387 00:20:49,255 --> 00:20:55,358 They say, "Give us four or five years to test 388 00:20:55,359 --> 00:20:56,678 each step of our development, 389 00:20:56,679 --> 00:20:59,678 and we will produce an absolutely clean bomb 390 00:20:59,679 --> 00:21:01,830 so that the weapon becomes completely military 391 00:21:01,831 --> 00:21:03,038 in its application. 392 00:21:03,039 --> 00:21:05,198 If you use it on the battlefield, 393 00:21:05,199 --> 00:21:10,328 you will have an effect only so far as its blast 394 00:21:10,329 --> 00:21:12,608 and heat waves reach, 395 00:21:12,609 --> 00:21:14,828 and there will be no fallout to injure 396 00:21:14,829 --> 00:21:16,748 any civilian or anyone, 397 00:21:16,749 --> 00:21:20,348 any innocent bystanders that are off for X miles 398 00:21:20,349 --> 00:21:22,288 or the necessary distance to get out 399 00:21:22,289 --> 00:21:24,852 of the area of heat and blast." 400 00:21:26,439 --> 00:21:28,440 Moreover, they go to say this: 401 00:21:29,019 --> 00:21:32,558 "If you are going to get the full value 402 00:21:32,559 --> 00:21:35,937 out of the atomic science in peaceful development, 403 00:21:36,879 --> 00:21:39,398 that is, let us assume that there are no more bombs 404 00:21:39,399 --> 00:21:41,078 made or used, 405 00:21:41,079 --> 00:21:44,108 and you want to make certain 406 00:21:44,109 --> 00:21:46,478 that you are getting the best out of this new science 407 00:21:46,479 --> 00:21:48,608 for the peaceful uses of mankind, 408 00:21:48,609 --> 00:21:50,415 these tests must go on." 409 00:21:52,269 --> 00:21:54,788 - [NARRATOR] The weapon laboratories vigorously pursued 410 00:21:54,789 --> 00:21:57,608 clean nuclear weapon technology, 411 00:21:57,609 --> 00:21:59,558 which would minimize fission 412 00:21:59,559 --> 00:22:02,607 in favor of radioactively cleaner fusion. 413 00:22:03,939 --> 00:22:05,438 This would be an important step 414 00:22:05,439 --> 00:22:07,982 toward development of the neutron bomb. 415 00:22:09,459 --> 00:22:12,908 However, success in developing clean nuclear weapons 416 00:22:12,909 --> 00:22:14,432 wasn't easy. 417 00:22:15,489 --> 00:22:18,848 At first, only extremely large nuclear bombs 418 00:22:18,849 --> 00:22:20,536 could be made clean. 419 00:22:22,719 --> 00:22:25,478 The government tested such devices in the Pacific 420 00:22:25,479 --> 00:22:29,353 as part of Operation Redwing in 1956. 421 00:22:30,969 --> 00:22:33,578 Conducted at Bikini Atoll, 422 00:22:33,579 --> 00:22:37,148 these megaton tests were over 200 times 423 00:22:37,149 --> 00:22:40,118 the yield of the bomb which leveled Hiroshima, 424 00:22:40,119 --> 00:22:43,298 and of which the majority of the explosive force 425 00:22:43,299 --> 00:22:45,749 was considered clean from fusion. 426 00:22:48,939 --> 00:22:51,608 These weapons could only be considered clean 427 00:22:51,609 --> 00:22:54,368 when compared to their dirty counterparts, 428 00:22:54,369 --> 00:22:56,194 yet still included tens of 429 00:22:56,195 --> 00:22:58,385 kilotons of fissionable material. 430 00:22:59,279 --> 00:23:05,269 [DRAMATIC MUSIC] 431 00:23:09,849 --> 00:23:12,908 The military needed small low-yield weapons 432 00:23:12,909 --> 00:23:14,916 for the future battlefields of Europe, 433 00:23:16,479 --> 00:23:19,743 small tactical weapons in the fractional kiloton range, 434 00:23:20,109 --> 00:23:23,786 only a thousandth the size of the Nagasaki atomic bomb. 435 00:23:26,799 --> 00:23:30,338 But these were still radiologically dirty devices 436 00:23:30,339 --> 00:23:32,888 and their fallout threatened collateral damage 437 00:23:32,889 --> 00:23:35,236 for allied troops on the battlefield. 438 00:23:36,349 --> 00:23:39,572 [SUSPENSEFUL MUSIC] 439 00:23:45,969 --> 00:23:49,838 Meanwhile, testing continued with tactical fission bombs 440 00:23:49,839 --> 00:23:51,310 for the battlefield. 441 00:23:52,209 --> 00:23:54,638 The government tested competing designs 442 00:23:54,639 --> 00:23:56,951 for the Davy Crockett battlefield nuke. 443 00:23:58,149 --> 00:23:59,768 During these tests, 444 00:23:59,769 --> 00:24:02,198 pigs placed in tactical environments 445 00:24:02,199 --> 00:24:05,048 were used as biological targets 446 00:24:05,049 --> 00:24:07,568 with immediate lethality from radiation 447 00:24:07,569 --> 00:24:09,679 as the principal objective. 448 00:24:12,769 --> 00:24:16,432 [BOMB EXPLOSION ECHOING] [SUSPENSEFUL MUSIC] 449 00:24:24,875 --> 00:24:26,648 [EXPLOSION ECHOING] 450 00:24:38,329 --> 00:24:39,690 - Can you move it up a little bit? 451 00:24:40,449 --> 00:24:41,558 Thank you. 452 00:24:42,879 --> 00:24:44,772 I'd like the first slide, please. 453 00:24:46,629 --> 00:24:48,458 Our primary objective was to determine 454 00:24:48,459 --> 00:24:51,390 the immediate lethal response to the Humboldt device. 455 00:24:51,884 --> 00:24:53,090 Next. 456 00:24:54,279 --> 00:24:57,389 Here are the animals 12 minutes after detonation. 457 00:24:57,819 --> 00:24:59,745 You can see that they hardly move at all. 458 00:25:00,879 --> 00:25:05,078 This one was very close to the front of the APC at 25 yards, 459 00:25:05,079 --> 00:25:08,528 and he is manifesting Central Nervous System Syndrome 460 00:25:08,529 --> 00:25:11,679 due to the acute central nervous system radiation injury. 461 00:25:12,339 --> 00:25:13,413 Next. 462 00:25:16,299 --> 00:25:18,638 All of these animals have received an average dose 463 00:25:18,639 --> 00:25:20,212 of 40,000 rads. 464 00:25:20,829 --> 00:25:21,900 Next. 465 00:25:23,169 --> 00:25:25,836 They were all alive for at least two and a half hours. 466 00:25:26,229 --> 00:25:28,600 You can obviously see how stunned these animals are. 467 00:25:29,259 --> 00:25:30,273 Next. 468 00:25:31,599 --> 00:25:35,524 This is pure prompt neutron gamma radiation injury. 469 00:25:37,419 --> 00:25:39,698 We've been getting requests from commanders repeatedly, 470 00:25:39,699 --> 00:25:41,708 concerning how much radiation it takes 471 00:25:41,709 --> 00:25:43,298 to kill a human immediately, 472 00:25:43,299 --> 00:25:44,708 or how much radiation it would take 473 00:25:44,709 --> 00:25:46,688 to stop an infantry man in his tracks, 474 00:25:46,689 --> 00:25:48,758 or to prevent him from driving a truck, 475 00:25:48,759 --> 00:25:50,557 or prevent him from pulling a trigger. 476 00:25:51,009 --> 00:25:53,648 Obviously, no one can give an exact answer on this 477 00:25:53,649 --> 00:25:55,293 with respect to human beings. 478 00:25:56,889 --> 00:25:59,888 The group decided a person had to be 10% efficient 479 00:25:59,889 --> 00:26:01,418 just to pull a trigger. 480 00:26:01,419 --> 00:26:03,728 To assault a position with any hope of survival, 481 00:26:03,729 --> 00:26:05,504 he should be 90% efficient. 482 00:26:06,429 --> 00:26:08,888 If a commander is interested in incapacitating 483 00:26:08,889 --> 00:26:10,268 50% of a group of troops 484 00:26:10,269 --> 00:26:12,788 so that 50% of them cannot pull a trigger, 485 00:26:12,789 --> 00:26:15,278 3,000 rads would be necessary. 486 00:26:15,279 --> 00:26:16,508 If the commander were interested, 487 00:26:16,509 --> 00:26:18,218 say, in a period of one hour, 488 00:26:18,219 --> 00:26:21,188 he would have to deliver 10,000 rads to incapacitate 489 00:26:21,189 --> 00:26:24,458 50% of these troops so that they couldn't pull a trigger. 490 00:26:24,459 --> 00:26:26,708 Now at eight hours, the dose is reduced again 491 00:26:26,709 --> 00:26:29,018 because radiation sickness has taken over, 492 00:26:29,019 --> 00:26:32,890 and by 24 hours, 1,000 rads would've sufficed initially. 493 00:26:34,269 --> 00:26:36,266 Now, with respect to killing immediately, 494 00:26:36,699 --> 00:26:38,498 no one knows how much radiation it would take 495 00:26:38,499 --> 00:26:41,493 to kill 50% of the unit within 5 minutes. 496 00:26:42,009 --> 00:26:44,021 The dose would certainly be most fantastic. 497 00:26:45,099 --> 00:26:46,928 At 30 minutes, it is estimated that the dose 498 00:26:46,929 --> 00:26:49,193 would still be greater than a 100,000 rads. 499 00:26:50,439 --> 00:26:52,028 Are there any questions? 500 00:26:52,029 --> 00:26:53,468 Anthony? 501 00:26:53,469 --> 00:26:56,018 - You see, here's the problem. 502 00:26:56,019 --> 00:26:58,958 Immediate lethality only occurred where the test subjects 503 00:26:58,959 --> 00:27:02,198 would've been killed by the force of the blast anyway. 504 00:27:02,199 --> 00:27:04,718 If you're gonna weaponize radiation, 505 00:27:04,719 --> 00:27:08,498 you want it to incapacitate the enemy immediately, 506 00:27:08,499 --> 00:27:11,510 not two days or a week later. 507 00:27:13,209 --> 00:27:14,978 - [NARRATOR] Enter Sam Cohen, 508 00:27:14,979 --> 00:27:17,618 the architect of the neutron bomb 509 00:27:17,619 --> 00:27:19,988 who began his career at Los Alamos, 510 00:27:19,989 --> 00:27:22,178 providing the neutron calculations 511 00:27:22,179 --> 00:27:24,404 for the Fat Man atomic bomb. 512 00:27:26,140 --> 00:27:27,343 - Real early on, 513 00:27:28,599 --> 00:27:30,633 I began to see radiation, 514 00:27:32,349 --> 00:27:33,737 nuclear radiation, 515 00:27:35,289 --> 00:27:39,332 as an effective means of waging ground warfare 516 00:27:40,389 --> 00:27:42,465 in a relatively moral way. 517 00:27:43,119 --> 00:27:45,608 - [NARRATOR] The army called for the use of atomic weapons 518 00:27:45,609 --> 00:27:47,989 to break the stalemate in the Korean War, 519 00:27:48,579 --> 00:27:50,198 advocating field tests 520 00:27:50,199 --> 00:27:52,858 to establish a doctrine for battlefield use. 521 00:27:53,279 --> 00:27:55,859 [GUNFIRE ECHOING] 522 00:27:56,209 --> 00:27:57,548 [EXPLOSION ECHOING] 523 00:27:57,549 --> 00:27:59,978 - And I was dispatched as an observer, 524 00:27:59,979 --> 00:28:02,688 to see what was happening there, 525 00:28:02,689 --> 00:28:04,658 and then in the back of my mind, 526 00:28:04,659 --> 00:28:09,289 wonder about the applications of tactical nuclear weapons. 527 00:28:09,736 --> 00:28:11,267 [HEAVY ARTILLERY FIRE] 528 00:28:13,719 --> 00:28:17,038 But now here I was, in the middle of a war going on, 529 00:28:17,039 --> 00:28:21,488 and I saw the hideous carnage of the innocents, 530 00:28:21,489 --> 00:28:24,488 and destruction of their habitats, 531 00:28:24,489 --> 00:28:26,638 and their industries, you know, 532 00:28:26,639 --> 00:28:31,165 and all the structures that made their lives viable. 533 00:28:32,049 --> 00:28:35,620 And this was all done by non-nuclear weapons, 534 00:28:36,399 --> 00:28:40,388 and we did just as good a job with our conventional weapons 535 00:28:40,389 --> 00:28:43,638 as the bomb that leveled Hiroshima did, 536 00:28:44,559 --> 00:28:46,172 so-called Little Boy bomb. 537 00:28:46,689 --> 00:28:48,218 What Seoul looked like 538 00:28:48,219 --> 00:28:51,268 when I entered Seoul for the first time, 539 00:28:51,269 --> 00:28:56,748 it looked almost exactly like Hiroshima after the bomb. 540 00:28:56,749 --> 00:29:00,344 [SOMBER MUSIC] 541 00:29:02,019 --> 00:29:04,118 And in wandering around the countryside 542 00:29:04,119 --> 00:29:08,038 and seeing the awful state of the peasantry 543 00:29:08,949 --> 00:29:11,528 and seeing how they were affected by the war 544 00:29:11,529 --> 00:29:13,211 and by our weaponry, 545 00:29:13,869 --> 00:29:16,280 and that's what it's always been about, 546 00:29:18,459 --> 00:29:19,872 and it's immoral, 547 00:29:23,679 --> 00:29:25,319 it's just plain immoral. 548 00:29:28,479 --> 00:29:29,817 Now, excuse me, 549 00:29:30,849 --> 00:29:32,223 it's not irrational 550 00:29:34,057 --> 00:29:36,401 because that's what war has always been about. 551 00:29:37,989 --> 00:29:39,979 Use the biggest bombs you can, 552 00:29:40,904 --> 00:29:44,073 blast the living daylights outta all these goddamn cities, 553 00:29:44,979 --> 00:29:47,614 which is precisely what we did at World War II. 554 00:29:48,879 --> 00:29:51,141 And we did a beautiful job 555 00:29:52,509 --> 00:29:54,321 against Germany and Japan 556 00:29:55,830 --> 00:30:00,638 with fire bombs and large high-explosive bombs, 557 00:30:01,909 --> 00:30:04,096 and we killed countless, 558 00:30:05,539 --> 00:30:09,071 hundreds of thousands, if not millions, 559 00:30:09,749 --> 00:30:13,426 of innocent urban dwellers, 560 00:30:16,492 --> 00:30:18,029 and that ain't right. 561 00:30:20,559 --> 00:30:22,734 That's immoral, but that's the way it was fought. 562 00:30:24,374 --> 00:30:27,527 [SOMBER MUSIC] 563 00:30:37,348 --> 00:30:39,169 [MUSIC CONTINUES] 564 00:30:57,279 --> 00:30:59,346 That's just the way that war was, 565 00:31:00,159 --> 00:31:01,622 and I was all for it, 566 00:31:03,459 --> 00:31:05,444 and I'm not about to damn myself 567 00:31:06,159 --> 00:31:07,336 and condemn myself 568 00:31:07,989 --> 00:31:10,981 for the attitude that I had, it was typically American. 569 00:31:11,739 --> 00:31:15,091 You blast the bad guys into oblivion, 570 00:31:15,709 --> 00:31:18,329 and bad guys being men, women, and children. 571 00:31:22,335 --> 00:31:26,168 I had not a feeling of wretchedness, of guilt. 572 00:31:27,069 --> 00:31:28,712 Not in the slightest. 573 00:31:34,599 --> 00:31:37,474 This began to put a little sense 574 00:31:38,229 --> 00:31:41,888 of what I would call normal decency, into me. 575 00:31:41,889 --> 00:31:45,123 Namely, if you wanna go to war, and sometimes you have to, 576 00:31:46,149 --> 00:31:49,095 try and keep it as clean as you can. 577 00:31:49,190 --> 00:31:51,747 [DRAMATIC MUSIC] 578 00:31:54,009 --> 00:31:55,739 So we drove into Seoul 579 00:31:56,289 --> 00:32:00,327 and we had to drive across a bridge on the Han River. 580 00:32:01,029 --> 00:32:05,108 And this bridge looked like it had a case of smallpox, 581 00:32:05,109 --> 00:32:06,488 it was just cratered 582 00:32:06,489 --> 00:32:09,518 as a result of countless high-explosive bombs 583 00:32:09,519 --> 00:32:10,718 that had pocked it up. 584 00:32:10,719 --> 00:32:14,412 But it was never destroyed, it was built so firmly. 585 00:32:16,359 --> 00:32:18,587 And so, the first question I asked myself, 586 00:32:18,939 --> 00:32:22,336 suppose we dropped a nuclear weapon on that bridge. 587 00:32:23,169 --> 00:32:24,827 It would go into the river. 588 00:32:25,629 --> 00:32:28,390 Now, that bridge was a very important part 589 00:32:29,289 --> 00:32:31,483 of our military exercises, 590 00:32:32,169 --> 00:32:34,788 and so it was a real military asset, 591 00:32:35,914 --> 00:32:37,924 so I began getting ideas. 592 00:32:39,069 --> 00:32:42,008 But now, from a moral standpoint, 593 00:32:42,009 --> 00:32:45,458 see, I would not have regarded the destruction of that bridge 594 00:32:45,459 --> 00:32:48,008 as immoral, because it could have been done 595 00:32:48,009 --> 00:32:49,380 with a very low-yield, 596 00:32:49,997 --> 00:32:51,975 accurately delivered nuclear weapon. 597 00:32:54,219 --> 00:32:58,528 [EXPLOSION ECHOING] 598 00:32:58,529 --> 00:33:02,468 [DRAMATIC MUSIC] 599 00:33:02,469 --> 00:33:05,378 And it would not have destroyed the town of Seoul 600 00:33:05,379 --> 00:33:06,608 or anything else like that, 601 00:33:06,609 --> 00:33:08,948 it simply would've destroyed the bridge. 602 00:33:08,949 --> 00:33:10,808 - But while the phones are ringing off the hook tonight, 603 00:33:10,809 --> 00:33:12,578 this is a very interesting topic. 604 00:33:12,579 --> 00:33:14,828 Do you think that using a neutron bomb, 605 00:33:14,829 --> 00:33:16,718 is that a moral issue? 606 00:33:16,719 --> 00:33:18,038 Because Sam Cohen, 607 00:33:18,039 --> 00:33:21,218 he talks about how he felt that it was a moral weapon 608 00:33:21,219 --> 00:33:22,858 to use this on somebody else. 609 00:33:22,859 --> 00:33:24,798 - [CALLER] I think drones are the way to go myself. 610 00:33:24,799 --> 00:33:26,128 - [PETER KURAN] Maybe I could fill in. 611 00:33:26,129 --> 00:33:27,728 - All right, well, thank you so much, Sam. 612 00:33:27,729 --> 00:33:29,348 We have another caller. 613 00:33:29,349 --> 00:33:30,818 Well, thank you. Thank you for calling. 614 00:33:30,819 --> 00:33:33,357 Do you think that it's a moral issue, the neutron bomb? 615 00:33:33,358 --> 00:33:36,188 I'm stuck on this moral issue. We have a caller on the line. 616 00:33:36,189 --> 00:33:37,579 This is a Jim from Orange County. 617 00:33:37,580 --> 00:33:38,618 - [JIM] Hi. 618 00:33:38,619 --> 00:33:41,528 - Are you familiar with the effects of a neutron bomb? 619 00:33:41,529 --> 00:33:42,636 And it's not just- We're not just 620 00:33:42,637 --> 00:33:44,648 talking about an immediate death. 621 00:33:44,649 --> 00:33:46,118 This is horrific. 622 00:33:46,119 --> 00:33:47,528 [TELEPHONE BEEPING] 623 00:33:47,529 --> 00:33:50,468 All right, Jim, well thank you very much for your call. 624 00:33:50,469 --> 00:33:52,268 Wow, pretty interesting, huh? 625 00:33:52,269 --> 00:33:53,530 They love or hate this guy. 626 00:33:56,019 --> 00:34:02,018 - I went to work for a very famous Air Force General 627 00:34:02,019 --> 00:34:04,785 who masterminded our ICBM development, 628 00:34:05,499 --> 00:34:08,498 and that's Benny Schriever, General Bernard Schriever. 629 00:34:08,499 --> 00:34:10,268 And here's a guy who would devise 630 00:34:10,269 --> 00:34:13,548 a thermonuclear, a ballistic missile, 631 00:34:13,549 --> 00:34:16,708 that would've killed God only knows how many millions. 632 00:34:16,709 --> 00:34:20,734 [PATRIOTIC MUSIC] 633 00:34:26,296 --> 00:34:30,488 But at the same time, regarding the battlefield, 634 00:34:30,489 --> 00:34:32,768 he began hammering at me. 635 00:34:32,769 --> 00:34:34,328 See, I was his nuclear advisor, 636 00:34:34,329 --> 00:34:36,128 he was running a planning shop 637 00:34:36,129 --> 00:34:38,198 for the Air Force and the Pentagon. 638 00:34:38,199 --> 00:34:40,748 He began hammering on me: "Sam," 639 00:34:40,749 --> 00:34:43,038 he says, "Why don't you give me a weapon 640 00:34:43,039 --> 00:34:45,248 that will produce all these horrendous effects 641 00:34:45,249 --> 00:34:46,388 on innocents?" 642 00:34:46,389 --> 00:34:49,791 He says, "It's the logical thing to do." 643 00:34:54,009 --> 00:34:56,623 Now, what I had to do is I had to look for a warhead 644 00:34:57,369 --> 00:34:59,759 that had the necessary characteristics, 645 00:35:00,819 --> 00:35:03,818 and so I used to pay very frequent visits 646 00:35:03,819 --> 00:35:05,978 up to the Livermore Nuclear Laboratory 647 00:35:05,979 --> 00:35:07,417 in Northern California. 648 00:35:08,139 --> 00:35:11,618 And I'd always visit with the director of the lab, 649 00:35:11,619 --> 00:35:12,908 we were very good friends, 650 00:35:12,909 --> 00:35:14,498 and I'd ask him if there was anything new 651 00:35:14,499 --> 00:35:16,058 in your developments. 652 00:35:16,059 --> 00:35:19,598 Well, this particular visit, he said yes. 653 00:35:19,599 --> 00:35:22,300 He said, "But I'm not quite sure if you'd be interested." 654 00:35:22,989 --> 00:35:27,698 I said, "Why are you hesitant about my interest?" 655 00:35:27,699 --> 00:35:31,268 He says, "This is a nonmilitary warhead. 656 00:35:31,269 --> 00:35:33,548 This is for peaceful applications 657 00:35:33,549 --> 00:35:35,828 for the so-called Project Plowshare." 658 00:35:35,829 --> 00:35:38,273 You know, "Turn swords into plowshares." 659 00:35:40,479 --> 00:35:42,608 [PROJECTOR WHIRRING] 660 00:35:42,609 --> 00:35:44,258 - [NEWSCASTER] The United States is conducting, 661 00:35:44,259 --> 00:35:46,478 for the benefit of all nations, 662 00:35:46,479 --> 00:35:49,102 a program it calls Plowshare. 663 00:35:51,413 --> 00:35:55,462 - The great and violent power of nuclear explosions 664 00:35:56,709 --> 00:35:59,037 can be used for peaceful purposes. 665 00:36:00,969 --> 00:36:03,468 We call this Project Plowshare. 666 00:36:05,439 --> 00:36:07,167 Geographical engineering, 667 00:36:08,079 --> 00:36:12,818 move great amounts of earth, build canals, harbors, 668 00:36:13,775 --> 00:36:15,646 use nuclear explosives 669 00:36:16,929 --> 00:36:19,174 like high explosives have been used, 670 00:36:19,989 --> 00:36:21,739 for the purpose of mining. 671 00:36:22,989 --> 00:36:27,638 Use nuclear explosives in the bowels of the earth, 672 00:36:27,639 --> 00:36:30,422 using the earth itself as the crucible. 673 00:36:31,653 --> 00:36:34,263 We built up a physics laboratory 674 00:36:34,419 --> 00:36:36,939 right down there in the salt mine, 675 00:36:38,079 --> 00:36:42,095 to find out more about the neutrons 676 00:36:42,889 --> 00:36:47,554 which make nuclear explosives and nuclear reactors tick. 677 00:36:48,484 --> 00:36:49,970 We try to do the best 678 00:36:50,729 --> 00:36:55,786 to develop further, this great tool, nuclear energy, 679 00:36:56,979 --> 00:36:58,408 for peaceful purposes. 680 00:36:59,319 --> 00:37:00,950 But at the very outset 681 00:37:01,589 --> 00:37:03,389 we were convinced of one thing, 682 00:37:04,779 --> 00:37:07,915 the most interesting thing that we might find out, 683 00:37:08,529 --> 00:37:12,055 maybe something which no one expects, a surprise. 684 00:37:13,289 --> 00:37:17,412 [DRAMATIC MUSIC] 685 00:37:24,649 --> 00:37:26,188 - And I really wasn't all that much interested 686 00:37:26,189 --> 00:37:30,534 in the peaceful application of nuclear devices, 687 00:37:31,174 --> 00:37:35,108 and he called the project heads of two projects 688 00:37:35,109 --> 00:37:38,588 who were working on these clean, peaceful nuclear weapons, 689 00:37:38,589 --> 00:37:41,900 to come in and brief me on these weapons. 690 00:37:42,243 --> 00:37:43,598 And when they were through briefing- 691 00:37:43,599 --> 00:37:46,504 see, they were thermonuclear, fusion, not fission. 692 00:37:48,069 --> 00:37:49,808 When they were through briefing me, I asked them, 693 00:37:49,809 --> 00:37:52,539 I said, "How many neutrons come out?" 694 00:37:53,026 --> 00:37:55,635 And they said, "Well, we have to make a quick calculation." 695 00:37:57,129 --> 00:37:58,538 And the answer was 696 00:37:58,539 --> 00:38:02,168 essentially, all of the neutrons came out, 697 00:38:02,169 --> 00:38:04,910 they weren't absorbed in the device. 698 00:38:06,699 --> 00:38:10,037 Well, with that I said, "Thanks a lot," 699 00:38:10,479 --> 00:38:13,249 and I excused myself and I raced for the airport, 700 00:38:14,079 --> 00:38:15,428 went back to Santa Monica 701 00:38:15,429 --> 00:38:18,037 and to the Rand Corporation where I was working. 702 00:38:19,879 --> 00:38:22,646 I went up to my office and I took out a slide rule 703 00:38:23,589 --> 00:38:25,898 my Dad had given me on my 15th birthday 704 00:38:25,899 --> 00:38:29,228 when I had displayed an interest in science, 705 00:38:29,229 --> 00:38:31,538 and I made the necessary calculations. 706 00:38:31,539 --> 00:38:34,875 I knew how to make neutron calculations real good. 707 00:38:36,159 --> 00:38:40,778 And lo and behold, what came out of these calculations, 708 00:38:40,779 --> 00:38:45,158 was a weapon, that if burst at a proper altitude, 709 00:38:45,159 --> 00:38:48,818 would kill the bad guys underneath 710 00:38:48,819 --> 00:38:51,648 but spare the properties, 711 00:38:51,649 --> 00:38:54,697 the cities and towns of the good guys. 712 00:38:55,899 --> 00:39:01,889 And vóila! Here is how the neutron bomb came about. 713 00:39:07,479 --> 00:39:13,358 - What would someone expect to feel or experience 714 00:39:13,359 --> 00:39:15,574 from the effects of the neutron bomb? 715 00:39:17,949 --> 00:39:20,647 - It all depends how close you are to the burst point. 716 00:39:21,869 --> 00:39:25,345 [PENSIVE MUSIC] 717 00:39:31,842 --> 00:39:34,241 [MUSIC CONTINUES] 718 00:39:40,249 --> 00:39:43,233 [DRAMATIC MUSIC] 719 00:39:46,689 --> 00:39:50,498 If you're roughly 1,000 yards away, 720 00:39:50,499 --> 00:39:52,764 you, within a matter of minutes, 721 00:39:53,619 --> 00:39:57,181 are going to be rendered totally incapacitated, 722 00:39:58,329 --> 00:40:00,878 and physiologically, you will be 723 00:40:00,879 --> 00:40:03,488 one of the most miserable creatures imaginable. 724 00:40:03,489 --> 00:40:05,968 You will be vomiting your guts out, 725 00:40:07,873 --> 00:40:09,687 your head will be bursting 726 00:40:11,409 --> 00:40:13,565 as your central nervous system 727 00:40:14,139 --> 00:40:16,979 has been knocked out of order. 728 00:40:18,199 --> 00:40:24,189 And within a matter of 729 00:40:25,436 --> 00:40:27,914 less... considerably less than an hour, 730 00:40:28,899 --> 00:40:30,044 you'll be dead. 731 00:40:31,179 --> 00:40:33,149 But within a matter of minutes, 732 00:40:35,019 --> 00:40:39,809 you'll be unable to conduct combat operations. 733 00:40:40,689 --> 00:40:42,202 So you're gone. 734 00:40:43,239 --> 00:40:46,300 If you go a few more 100 yards out, 735 00:40:47,619 --> 00:40:50,408 then you can pick up a nonlethal dose 736 00:40:50,409 --> 00:40:52,299 that will still have effects on you. 737 00:40:53,082 --> 00:40:55,057 And you'll survive it, 738 00:40:55,929 --> 00:40:57,605 you'll live through it, 739 00:40:58,694 --> 00:41:01,636 but you will not feel very well 740 00:41:02,769 --> 00:41:05,408 and you'll feel disoriented. 741 00:41:05,409 --> 00:41:07,226 You won't be violently ill 742 00:41:07,849 --> 00:41:11,468 like the poor guy at 1,000 yards, 743 00:41:11,469 --> 00:41:16,088 but nevertheless, you will not be physically 744 00:41:16,089 --> 00:41:20,180 or mentally capable of conducting combat operations. 745 00:41:21,099 --> 00:41:23,078 So if you're talking about a tank crew 746 00:41:23,079 --> 00:41:24,638 that picks up this dose, 747 00:41:25,959 --> 00:41:28,763 they won't be able to work their tank for a while. 748 00:41:31,089 --> 00:41:34,739 Now, if they were out of the combat theater, 749 00:41:35,469 --> 00:41:37,508 I'd say, well, fine and dandy, they'll pull through, 750 00:41:37,509 --> 00:41:39,241 they won't be very happy for a while. 751 00:41:40,251 --> 00:41:42,368 The dose is far less than the dose that produces 752 00:41:42,369 --> 00:41:45,398 these God-awful, hideous effects, 753 00:41:45,399 --> 00:41:48,728 but it will still have the desired military result 754 00:41:48,729 --> 00:41:52,035 of putting an enemy soldier out of action... 755 00:41:57,159 --> 00:41:58,848 because the neutron bomb 756 00:41:58,849 --> 00:42:01,800 is the most discriminate weapon ever devised. 757 00:42:03,789 --> 00:42:05,828 There's a very sharp cutoff 758 00:42:05,829 --> 00:42:10,478 between the radius out to which the enemy will be killed 759 00:42:10,479 --> 00:42:13,776 and where the friendly troops are positioned. 760 00:42:14,709 --> 00:42:16,298 After the war is over, 761 00:42:16,299 --> 00:42:18,548 instead of having a continent of devastation, 762 00:42:18,549 --> 00:42:20,348 physical devastation, 763 00:42:20,349 --> 00:42:23,301 it'll be a physically intact continent. 764 00:42:24,019 --> 00:42:26,168 [SUSPENSEFUL MUSIC] 765 00:42:26,169 --> 00:42:28,928 From a radioactivity standpoint, 766 00:42:28,929 --> 00:42:30,878 the radioactive effects will be, 767 00:42:30,879 --> 00:42:35,359 to a first approximation, zero, zilch, 768 00:42:36,454 --> 00:42:39,128 and the area that's under the burst 769 00:42:39,129 --> 00:42:42,158 will be inhabitable immediately. 770 00:42:42,159 --> 00:42:44,768 And if the burst is used in a city 771 00:42:44,769 --> 00:42:47,426 and the populace has taken common-sense steps 772 00:42:48,159 --> 00:42:50,867 to protect themselves by taking shelter 773 00:42:51,639 --> 00:42:54,457 against the radiation, the neutron radiation... 774 00:42:56,790 --> 00:43:00,818 [EXPLOSION ECHOING] 775 00:43:04,899 --> 00:43:06,980 then they won't be touched. 776 00:43:08,199 --> 00:43:10,298 - [NARRATOR] Further developments of the neutron bomb 777 00:43:10,299 --> 00:43:11,498 would have to wait 778 00:43:11,499 --> 00:43:15,248 as Eisenhower imposed a moratorium on nuclear testing 779 00:43:15,249 --> 00:43:17,592 through the end of his presidential term. 780 00:43:18,249 --> 00:43:20,648 Undeterred by the moratorium, 781 00:43:20,649 --> 00:43:23,678 Sam continued his research with fellow strategists 782 00:43:23,679 --> 00:43:25,208 at the Rand Corporation, 783 00:43:25,209 --> 00:43:27,548 whose responsibility was to formulate 784 00:43:27,549 --> 00:43:29,738 and shape military policy. 785 00:43:29,739 --> 00:43:33,728 At Rand, Sam continued to pursue his vision of a bomb 786 00:43:33,729 --> 00:43:36,684 that would one day weaponize neutron radiation. 787 00:43:37,449 --> 00:43:41,131 - I went into analysis, strictly Freudian, 788 00:43:41,854 --> 00:43:44,775 and this went on for about six years, 789 00:43:46,029 --> 00:43:49,944 and it was six of the most agonizing 790 00:43:50,529 --> 00:43:56,000 yet fascinating years of my life, 791 00:43:56,889 --> 00:44:00,690 because thanks to listening to myself, 792 00:44:02,199 --> 00:44:03,943 because I had no choice, 793 00:44:04,689 --> 00:44:06,326 see, now I have the analyst 794 00:44:07,329 --> 00:44:09,368 and the son a bitch, he would just sit there 795 00:44:09,369 --> 00:44:10,989 and he wouldn't say a word. 796 00:44:12,132 --> 00:44:14,381 I was, to a certain extent, 797 00:44:14,382 --> 00:44:18,551 and this would vary from individual to individual, 798 00:44:20,289 --> 00:44:21,455 a neurotic. 799 00:44:22,179 --> 00:44:23,741 I wasn't a psychotic, 800 00:44:24,519 --> 00:44:26,768 at this stage of the game, I might say. 801 00:44:26,769 --> 00:44:30,049 I was employed in security work, 802 00:44:30,172 --> 00:44:31,813 in doing nuclear weapons work, 803 00:44:31,814 --> 00:44:35,618 and I had top secret clearances and so on and so forth, 804 00:44:35,619 --> 00:44:37,868 so if I had been psychotic, 805 00:44:37,869 --> 00:44:42,085 I never would've gotten the job, or let alone clearances. 806 00:44:44,139 --> 00:44:46,448 I was working with a think tank 807 00:44:46,449 --> 00:44:47,888 called the Rand Corporation, 808 00:44:47,889 --> 00:44:50,588 which has become world famous, 809 00:44:50,589 --> 00:44:52,658 in Santa Monica, California, 810 00:44:52,659 --> 00:44:56,558 and I was in with a group of extremely bright guys, 811 00:44:56,559 --> 00:44:58,778 to put it mildly. 812 00:44:58,779 --> 00:45:01,218 They were not only bright 813 00:45:01,219 --> 00:45:03,848 but to a very, very high percentage level, 814 00:45:03,849 --> 00:45:09,528 they were neurotic as all hell, just like I was, okay? 815 00:45:09,529 --> 00:45:13,323 And now, having this analytic background 816 00:45:14,409 --> 00:45:17,185 and allowing me to understand people, 817 00:45:18,369 --> 00:45:21,758 I began to see these guys 818 00:45:21,759 --> 00:45:24,818 who were being driven by their neuroses. 819 00:45:24,819 --> 00:45:25,928 Now, the Rand Corporation 820 00:45:25,929 --> 00:45:28,923 had a huge effect on our nuclear policies. 821 00:45:29,884 --> 00:45:32,714 They had it all figured out on computers, 822 00:45:33,699 --> 00:45:36,898 and the computers were based on mathematical models, 823 00:45:36,899 --> 00:45:38,858 and the mathematical models 824 00:45:38,859 --> 00:45:41,480 were based on their neurotic way of thinking. 825 00:45:43,929 --> 00:45:45,848 But they're with us. 826 00:45:45,849 --> 00:45:48,038 Now, the question, 827 00:45:48,039 --> 00:45:52,448 if push came to shove and we wound up in a nuclear war, 828 00:45:52,449 --> 00:45:56,094 would it go according to these policies and strategies? 829 00:45:58,989 --> 00:46:00,578 No. 830 00:46:00,579 --> 00:46:02,738 Absolutely no way. 831 00:46:02,739 --> 00:46:05,648 How would it go? Heaven only knows. 832 00:46:05,649 --> 00:46:07,508 I don't. 833 00:46:07,509 --> 00:46:12,428 Despite all the profound calculations by such geniuses, 834 00:46:12,429 --> 00:46:14,948 as the late great Herman Kahn, 835 00:46:14,949 --> 00:46:19,528 you know, the master of thermonuclear war and so on. 836 00:46:19,529 --> 00:46:22,208 I would say Herman, 837 00:46:22,209 --> 00:46:24,788 who had a huge effect on Washington thinking, 838 00:46:26,919 --> 00:46:32,129 believed we could fight and win a thermonuclear war. 839 00:46:32,376 --> 00:46:34,921 [SUSPENSEFUL MUSIC] 840 00:46:55,233 --> 00:46:57,671 [MUSIC CONTINUES] 841 00:47:17,854 --> 00:47:19,861 [MUSIC CONTINUES] 842 00:47:27,369 --> 00:47:29,228 What a pile of crap. 843 00:47:29,229 --> 00:47:31,358 He pretended to really believe it. 844 00:47:31,359 --> 00:47:33,038 Now, the truth of the matter is 845 00:47:33,039 --> 00:47:34,688 he didn't believe it one bit, 846 00:47:34,689 --> 00:47:36,668 but he was a natural-born showman 847 00:47:36,669 --> 00:47:39,189 and he desperately needed attention. 848 00:47:39,939 --> 00:47:42,428 - [ADVERTISER] Man looks not only to their great energy 849 00:47:42,429 --> 00:47:45,255 but also to their relative size and cost. 850 00:47:45,729 --> 00:47:49,448 He sees that a 10 kiloton nuclear explosive, for example, 851 00:47:49,449 --> 00:47:51,497 could be as small as 15 inches 852 00:47:51,498 --> 00:47:54,218 in diameter, and three feet long. 853 00:47:54,219 --> 00:47:57,504 The price would be about $350,000. 854 00:47:59,409 --> 00:48:03,308 Furthermore, if he increases the nuclear yield 200 times, 855 00:48:03,309 --> 00:48:05,048 up to two megatons, 856 00:48:05,049 --> 00:48:07,898 the package is only about two feet greater in diameter 857 00:48:07,899 --> 00:48:11,873 and seven feet longer, and the price barely doubles. 858 00:48:12,605 --> 00:48:16,436 [DRAMATIC MUSIC] 859 00:48:18,349 --> 00:48:20,979 - I visited the Pentagon 860 00:48:21,459 --> 00:48:24,188 and I was introduced to Tom Moorer, 861 00:48:24,189 --> 00:48:25,868 who was a fledgling rear admiral 862 00:48:25,869 --> 00:48:28,958 in charge of long range planning for the Navy, 863 00:48:28,959 --> 00:48:31,028 by a colleague of his. 864 00:48:31,029 --> 00:48:33,098 So I come into Moorer's office 865 00:48:33,099 --> 00:48:35,408 and I take out my briefing charts 866 00:48:35,409 --> 00:48:37,448 and I go through my song and dance, 867 00:48:37,449 --> 00:48:39,026 and when I'm all through, 868 00:48:39,789 --> 00:48:42,424 he has practically gone through the ceiling. 869 00:48:43,509 --> 00:48:46,568 He really got excited and he said, 870 00:48:46,569 --> 00:48:50,738 "Do you mind if I ask you to give your briefing 871 00:48:50,739 --> 00:48:53,918 around certain quarters of the Navy in the Pentagon?" 872 00:48:53,919 --> 00:48:55,847 I said, "Of course I don't mind. 873 00:48:56,889 --> 00:48:58,843 You arrange for it and I'll show up." 874 00:48:59,679 --> 00:49:01,178 And before you knew it, 875 00:49:01,179 --> 00:49:03,774 you had an exponentiating chain reaction. 876 00:49:04,599 --> 00:49:07,478 I had briefed every significant quarter 877 00:49:07,479 --> 00:49:09,538 of the Navy in the Pentagon, 878 00:49:10,029 --> 00:49:12,791 all the way on up to the Chief of Naval Operations, 879 00:49:13,479 --> 00:49:15,325 and they wanted that bomb. 880 00:49:18,159 --> 00:49:20,436 Thanks to the Navy pressures, 881 00:49:21,039 --> 00:49:23,558 it worked its way out of the Navy 882 00:49:23,559 --> 00:49:26,442 and into the office of the Secretary of Defense. 883 00:49:27,039 --> 00:49:29,498 And there was this briefing in his conference room, 884 00:49:29,499 --> 00:49:31,680 the Secretary's conference room, 885 00:49:32,769 --> 00:49:36,368 and I was on stage with my charts, 886 00:49:36,369 --> 00:49:40,778 and in the audience were a bunch of very senior characters, 887 00:49:40,779 --> 00:49:43,808 you know, in the Pentagon, including an admiral 888 00:49:43,809 --> 00:49:45,458 by the name of Arthur Radford, 889 00:49:45,459 --> 00:49:49,388 who was then the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. 890 00:49:49,389 --> 00:49:53,558 And when I was all through, Admiral Radford muttered, 891 00:49:53,559 --> 00:49:57,308 "If we only had these weapons at Dien Bien Phu," 892 00:49:57,309 --> 00:50:00,758 this was during the French war in Indochina. 893 00:50:00,759 --> 00:50:05,288 And it would've been ideal for us in Vietnam. 894 00:50:05,289 --> 00:50:08,309 Had we used these weapons in Vietnam, 895 00:50:09,579 --> 00:50:11,996 we could have won that war in short order 896 00:50:13,269 --> 00:50:17,588 and saved God only knows how many thousands upon thousands 897 00:50:17,589 --> 00:50:20,123 of American soldier boys' lives. 898 00:50:22,809 --> 00:50:24,608 - [NARRATOR] Throughout 1959, 899 00:50:24,609 --> 00:50:27,668 Sam continued to pitch his fusion weapon concept 900 00:50:27,669 --> 00:50:30,278 to various agencies of the government, 901 00:50:30,279 --> 00:50:34,178 including the Department of Defense, the State Department, 902 00:50:34,179 --> 00:50:37,388 the CIA, the Atomic Energy Commission, 903 00:50:37,389 --> 00:50:40,332 and the National Security Council Planning Board. 904 00:50:40,899 --> 00:50:42,728 It was during this time period 905 00:50:42,729 --> 00:50:44,468 that this advanced weapon concept 906 00:50:44,469 --> 00:50:50,558 became popularly known by the press as the "neutron bomb." 907 00:50:50,559 --> 00:50:53,768 Generating the kind of hysteria that could only be created 908 00:50:53,769 --> 00:50:55,813 by the premiere of a Hollywood movie, 909 00:50:56,769 --> 00:50:59,708 news of the neutron bomb spread quickly. 910 00:50:59,709 --> 00:51:02,408 As the revelation of this newly proposed weapon 911 00:51:02,409 --> 00:51:06,398 raced across newspapers, television, and radio. 912 00:51:06,399 --> 00:51:09,248 It took root in the political landscape 913 00:51:09,249 --> 00:51:11,472 and resounded through Congress. 914 00:51:13,149 --> 00:51:16,478 Connecticut's Democratic Senator, Thomas J. Dodd, 915 00:51:16,479 --> 00:51:19,958 became the neutron bomb's most enthusiastic proponent, 916 00:51:19,959 --> 00:51:21,798 telling Congress... 917 00:51:21,799 --> 00:51:24,278 - [VOICEOVER] "We are in mortal peril. 918 00:51:24,279 --> 00:51:26,798 More than a year has passed since I first spoke 919 00:51:26,799 --> 00:51:29,618 on the folly of the test ban moratorium. 920 00:51:29,619 --> 00:51:30,938 I mentioned the neutron bomb 921 00:51:30,939 --> 00:51:33,501 would operate as a kind of death ray. 922 00:51:34,029 --> 00:51:36,068 It would do next to no physical damage 923 00:51:36,069 --> 00:51:38,378 and result in no contamination, 924 00:51:38,379 --> 00:51:40,688 but it would immediately destroy 925 00:51:40,689 --> 00:51:43,328 all life in the target area. 926 00:51:43,329 --> 00:51:46,718 Today, I doubt there is a single nuclear physicist of repute 927 00:51:46,719 --> 00:51:48,698 who would challenge the neutron bomb 928 00:51:48,699 --> 00:51:51,068 from the standpoint of feasibility. 929 00:51:51,069 --> 00:51:54,338 It can be built, but nothing can be done to build it 930 00:51:54,339 --> 00:51:57,098 until we are free to resume nuclear testing." 931 00:51:57,099 --> 00:51:59,198 - [NARRATOR] Responding to Senator Dodd, 932 00:51:59,199 --> 00:52:02,108 Linus Pauling proclaims... 933 00:52:02,109 --> 00:52:04,748 - We have had one principal reason 934 00:52:04,749 --> 00:52:06,578 for hope during the last three years, 935 00:52:06,579 --> 00:52:09,068 the negotiations for a bomb test agreement 936 00:52:09,069 --> 00:52:11,468 being carried out in Geneva. 937 00:52:11,469 --> 00:52:14,228 And now there is a great effort being made by the forces 938 00:52:14,229 --> 00:52:16,658 of militarism in the United States, 939 00:52:16,659 --> 00:52:19,718 to break off the negotiations in Geneva 940 00:52:19,719 --> 00:52:22,538 and to start up bomb tests again. 941 00:52:22,539 --> 00:52:26,108 The greatest foe of the peace movement 942 00:52:26,109 --> 00:52:28,178 and the committee for a sane nuclear policy 943 00:52:28,179 --> 00:52:30,518 is Senator Thomas J. Dodd. 944 00:52:30,519 --> 00:52:35,138 He, in his speech on the 12th of May, 1960, 945 00:52:35,139 --> 00:52:36,848 urged that we stop trying 946 00:52:36,849 --> 00:52:38,348 to make an international agreement 947 00:52:38,349 --> 00:52:40,388 to stop the testing of all nuclear weapons, 948 00:52:40,389 --> 00:52:42,968 that the United States immediately resume 949 00:52:42,969 --> 00:52:44,828 the testing of nuclear weapons, 950 00:52:44,829 --> 00:52:48,638 and now he is bally-hooing what he calls a neutron bomb. 951 00:52:48,639 --> 00:52:50,268 This is a great fraud. 952 00:52:50,269 --> 00:52:54,488 Senator Dodd said, "If the Soviets were to get it first, 953 00:52:54,489 --> 00:52:56,828 it might well cost us our freedom. 954 00:52:56,829 --> 00:52:58,208 If the day should ever come 955 00:52:58,209 --> 00:53:01,328 when the Kremlin forces a showdown crisis over Berlin 956 00:53:01,329 --> 00:53:04,868 and then demonstrates its possession of the neutron bomb, 957 00:53:04,869 --> 00:53:06,788 we would find ourselves confronted 958 00:53:06,789 --> 00:53:09,098 with the price of capitulation in Europe 959 00:53:09,099 --> 00:53:11,198 or all-out nuclear war." 960 00:53:11,199 --> 00:53:12,878 This is pure poppycock. 961 00:53:12,879 --> 00:53:16,988 The neutron bomb is a fraud, a hoax, and nothing more. 962 00:53:16,989 --> 00:53:18,668 - [NARRATOR] Former Atomic Energy Commissioner, 963 00:53:18,669 --> 00:53:21,638 Thomas Murray, sent an ominous letter 964 00:53:21,639 --> 00:53:24,548 to presidential candidates Kennedy and Nixon, 965 00:53:24,549 --> 00:53:26,288 warning that the Russians were developing 966 00:53:26,289 --> 00:53:28,508 new types of atomic weapons 967 00:53:28,509 --> 00:53:31,178 which could lead to nuclear blackmail 968 00:53:31,179 --> 00:53:34,292 unless the United States was allowed to resume testing. 969 00:53:36,519 --> 00:53:38,948 Murray identified two different weapons 970 00:53:38,949 --> 00:53:40,808 on the drawing board, 971 00:53:40,809 --> 00:53:44,679 whose code names were synonymous with the neutron bomb. 972 00:53:46,959 --> 00:53:49,688 Contemplated as a battlefield weapon, 973 00:53:49,689 --> 00:53:52,118 Eisenhower eventually had reservations 974 00:53:52,119 --> 00:53:55,062 about the concept of the neutron bomb. 975 00:53:56,679 --> 00:53:58,406 - He didn't like it. 976 00:54:00,069 --> 00:54:05,314 For his own, I consider to be, grossly immoral reasons, 977 00:54:06,939 --> 00:54:09,712 didn't believe in battlefield nuclear weapons 978 00:54:10,141 --> 00:54:12,540 regardless of how discriminate they might be. 979 00:54:14,991 --> 00:54:17,324 Even though he had these thousands 980 00:54:18,129 --> 00:54:20,078 of nuclear weapons under his command, 981 00:54:20,079 --> 00:54:24,368 battlefield weapons, tactical weapons, under his command, 982 00:54:24,369 --> 00:54:26,899 I don't think he ever would've made that call. 983 00:54:28,227 --> 00:54:31,808 [DRAMATIC MUSIC] 984 00:54:35,199 --> 00:54:36,502 We'll never know. 985 00:54:38,019 --> 00:54:40,358 - Our military organization today 986 00:54:40,359 --> 00:54:42,938 bears little relation to that known 987 00:54:42,939 --> 00:54:45,968 of any of my predecessors in peace time, 988 00:54:45,969 --> 00:54:49,994 or indeed by the fighting men of World War II or Korea. 989 00:54:51,279 --> 00:54:53,947 Until the latest of our world conflicts, 990 00:54:54,189 --> 00:54:57,400 the United States had no armaments industry. 991 00:54:58,239 --> 00:55:01,508 American makers of plowshares could, 992 00:55:01,509 --> 00:55:05,118 with time and as required, make swords as well. 993 00:55:05,119 --> 00:55:06,428 [EXPLOSION ECHOING] 994 00:55:06,429 --> 00:55:09,608 But we can no longer risk emergency improvisation 995 00:55:09,609 --> 00:55:11,287 of national defense. 996 00:55:12,039 --> 00:55:13,628 We have been compelled to create 997 00:55:13,629 --> 00:55:17,277 a permanent armaments industry of vast proportions. 998 00:55:18,219 --> 00:55:19,928 In the councils of government, 999 00:55:19,929 --> 00:55:21,678 we must guard against the 1000 00:55:21,679 --> 00:55:24,158 acquisition of unwarranted influence, 1001 00:55:24,159 --> 00:55:26,108 whether sought or unsought, 1002 00:55:26,109 --> 00:55:28,809 by the military-industrial complex. 1003 00:55:30,309 --> 00:55:33,488 Only an alert and knowledgeable citizenry 1004 00:55:33,489 --> 00:55:35,953 can compel the proper meshing 1005 00:55:35,954 --> 00:55:39,758 of the huge industrial and military machinery of defense 1006 00:55:39,759 --> 00:55:42,203 with our peaceful methods and goals. 1007 00:55:43,479 --> 00:55:45,968 - [NARRATOR] Soon after Eisenhower left office, 1008 00:55:45,969 --> 00:55:48,488 the newly elected president and NATO allies 1009 00:55:48,489 --> 00:55:51,818 were faced with renewed threats over West Berlin 1010 00:55:51,819 --> 00:55:53,678 by the Soviet Union. 1011 00:55:55,029 --> 00:55:56,828 [SUSPENSEFUL MUSIC] 1012 00:55:56,829 --> 00:55:59,888 On August 30th, 1961, 1013 00:55:59,889 --> 00:56:03,188 the Russians broke the nuclear testing moratorium, 1014 00:56:03,189 --> 00:56:04,898 culminating with the detonation 1015 00:56:04,899 --> 00:56:08,288 of a 57-megaton hydrogen bomb, 1016 00:56:08,289 --> 00:56:11,108 allowing the United States to proceed 1017 00:56:11,109 --> 00:56:13,418 with a new series of tests. 1018 00:56:13,419 --> 00:56:17,468 Many of those tests, conducted in the fall of 1961, 1019 00:56:17,469 --> 00:56:21,338 were designs considered for low-yield tactical use, 1020 00:56:21,339 --> 00:56:24,929 including continued development of the neutron bomb. 1021 00:56:26,049 --> 00:56:27,608 Despite its growing reputation 1022 00:56:27,609 --> 00:56:29,948 as the government's worst-kept rumor, 1023 00:56:29,949 --> 00:56:32,612 the neutron bomb was back in the news. 1024 00:56:33,230 --> 00:56:34,438 - [REPORTER] Mr. President, 1025 00:56:34,439 --> 00:56:35,618 there's been lots of talk recently 1026 00:56:35,619 --> 00:56:38,588 about the development of a neutron bomb. 1027 00:56:38,589 --> 00:56:40,628 Could you give us your estimate of the feasibility 1028 00:56:40,629 --> 00:56:44,468 of developing a weapon which would destroy human beings 1029 00:56:44,469 --> 00:56:46,548 without destroying real estate values? 1030 00:56:46,549 --> 00:56:48,068 - [PRESIDENT KENNEDY] No. 1031 00:56:48,069 --> 00:56:50,528 - [NARRATOR] Publicly, Kennedy refused to discuss 1032 00:56:50,529 --> 00:56:52,088 the neutron bomb. 1033 00:56:52,089 --> 00:56:55,208 Privately however, he debated the use of the weapon 1034 00:56:55,209 --> 00:56:57,918 he referred to as the "fusion bomb." 1035 00:58:06,639 --> 00:58:09,578 - [NEWSCASTER] These troops, forming a special task force, 1036 00:58:09,579 --> 00:58:11,408 were the first in our army's history 1037 00:58:11,409 --> 00:58:13,538 to engage in a tactical exercise 1038 00:58:13,539 --> 00:58:16,357 supported by live nuclear fire power. 1039 00:58:17,229 --> 00:58:23,219 [SUSPENSEFUL MUSIC] 1040 00:58:28,408 --> 00:58:31,299 [MUSIC INTENSIFIES] 1041 00:58:45,295 --> 00:58:46,912 [MUSIC CONTINUES] 1042 00:58:54,609 --> 00:58:58,146 [EXPLOSION ECHOING] 1043 00:59:00,114 --> 00:59:01,945 [MUSIC CONTINUES] 1044 00:59:05,599 --> 00:59:08,168 [PENSIVE MUSIC] 1045 00:59:14,919 --> 00:59:18,458 This field exercise was not a war gaming maneuver, 1046 00:59:18,459 --> 00:59:20,888 but rather a pre-designed demonstration 1047 00:59:20,889 --> 00:59:24,638 of the tactical employment of low-yield nuclear weapons 1048 00:59:24,639 --> 00:59:26,839 in conjunction with conventional weapons. 1049 00:59:29,799 --> 00:59:31,868 - [SOLDIER] By this time, I think the rest of the group 1050 00:59:31,869 --> 00:59:34,868 had all reached the same conclusion I had reached, 1051 00:59:34,869 --> 00:59:37,868 that some limited wars can best be fought 1052 00:59:37,869 --> 00:59:40,718 with a combination of conventional weapons 1053 00:59:40,719 --> 00:59:44,403 plus nuclear weapons, for appropriate tactical targets. 1054 00:59:45,069 --> 00:59:48,368 It could mean the difference between winning now 1055 00:59:48,369 --> 00:59:50,443 or fighting for months. 1056 00:59:51,369 --> 00:59:53,857 [PENSIVE MUSIC] 1057 01:00:02,023 --> 01:00:03,421 - [NEWSCASTER] In 1964, 1058 01:00:03,422 --> 01:00:05,348 important steps in this direction 1059 01:00:05,349 --> 01:00:06,878 were taken in experiments, 1060 01:00:06,879 --> 01:00:09,308 with nuclear explosives specially designed 1061 01:00:09,309 --> 01:00:12,548 to produce high-intensity neutron radiation, 1062 01:00:12,549 --> 01:00:16,388 the specific characteristic that promotes isotope formation. 1063 01:00:16,389 --> 01:00:19,118 In one hundred-millionth of a second, 1064 01:00:19,119 --> 01:00:21,908 more neutrons were released by each explosion 1065 01:00:21,909 --> 01:00:23,918 than could be released over decades 1066 01:00:23,919 --> 01:00:26,318 in the most efficient nuclear reactor. 1067 01:00:27,189 --> 01:00:30,218 The blast pumped these neutrons into targets of uranium, 1068 01:00:30,219 --> 01:00:33,789 producing isotopes of very heavy elements beyond uranium. 1069 01:00:35,109 --> 01:00:37,838 Eventually, Plowshare scientists hope to use 1070 01:00:37,839 --> 01:00:40,835 these heavier elements as targets in nuclear explosions. 1071 01:00:42,459 --> 01:00:43,868 - [NARRATOR] Over the next decade, 1072 01:00:43,869 --> 01:00:45,564 26 nuclear tests would be 1073 01:00:45,565 --> 01:00:47,968 conducted under Project Plowshare, 1074 01:00:47,969 --> 01:00:51,491 for the development of peaceful nuclear weapons. 1075 01:00:55,539 --> 01:00:57,848 The neutron bomb continued to be aided 1076 01:00:57,849 --> 01:01:00,111 by advancements in this technology. 1077 01:01:02,589 --> 01:01:06,227 The future looked bright for peaceful nuclear explosions, 1078 01:01:09,159 --> 01:01:11,378 but unrealized expectations 1079 01:01:11,379 --> 01:01:13,808 and public and political opposition 1080 01:01:13,809 --> 01:01:16,148 doomed the program to closure. 1081 01:01:16,149 --> 01:01:19,449 Plowshare quietly ended in 1977. 1082 01:01:20,919 --> 01:01:22,388 Without Plowshare, 1083 01:01:22,389 --> 01:01:25,223 the path the neutron bomb would take would be bumpy. 1084 01:01:26,649 --> 01:01:28,868 The neutron bomb found early success 1085 01:01:28,869 --> 01:01:31,568 as the warhead for the Sprint missile. 1086 01:01:31,569 --> 01:01:35,168 The SPRINT was an anti-ballistic missile, or ABM, 1087 01:01:35,169 --> 01:01:38,918 designed to explode and deliver a blast of neutrons, 1088 01:01:38,919 --> 01:01:41,770 rendering incoming ICBMs inoperable. 1089 01:01:43,509 --> 01:01:47,258 The Sprint was capable of hypersonic speeds, 1090 01:01:47,259 --> 01:01:50,378 reaching temperatures twice the melting point of steel, 1091 01:01:50,379 --> 01:01:52,508 [WHICH] would cause the missile to glow 1092 01:01:52,509 --> 01:01:54,424 as it shot through the atmosphere. 1093 01:01:57,159 --> 01:01:59,168 However, high costs, 1094 01:01:59,169 --> 01:02:00,578 questionable results, 1095 01:02:00,579 --> 01:02:02,558 and the lack of congressional support 1096 01:02:02,559 --> 01:02:05,612 retired the Sprint in 1975. 1097 01:02:06,298 --> 01:02:08,678 In the ever-changing world of defense, 1098 01:02:08,679 --> 01:02:11,108 Sam's advocacy for his neutron bomb 1099 01:02:11,109 --> 01:02:14,212 was falling increasingly on deaf ears. 1100 01:02:14,989 --> 01:02:19,058 [EXPLOSION ECHOING] 1101 01:02:19,059 --> 01:02:21,698 The Air Force favored its strategic programs, 1102 01:02:21,699 --> 01:02:24,878 like the ICBM and Long Range Bomber. 1103 01:02:27,879 --> 01:02:29,858 The Navy favored the Polaris 1104 01:02:29,859 --> 01:02:32,029 as its nuclear weapon of choice. 1105 01:02:39,399 --> 01:02:42,548 The army was preoccupied with the Vietnam War 1106 01:02:42,549 --> 01:02:46,038 and stewardship of the Sentinel ABM program. 1107 01:02:46,039 --> 01:02:50,438 [HELICOPTER ENGINES RUMBLING] 1108 01:02:50,439 --> 01:02:52,208 Lyndon Johnson had little interest 1109 01:02:52,209 --> 01:02:53,798 in Cold War confrontation, 1110 01:02:53,799 --> 01:02:56,498 as he reduced government support for many programs 1111 01:02:56,499 --> 01:02:58,514 to pay for the Vietnam War. 1112 01:03:01,299 --> 01:03:04,928 After Vietnam, the government and the military 1113 01:03:04,929 --> 01:03:08,258 returned to a strategy of flexible response, 1114 01:03:08,259 --> 01:03:12,428 reviving interest in tactical nuclear weapons. 1115 01:03:12,429 --> 01:03:14,648 [SUSPENSEFUL MUSIC] 1116 01:03:14,649 --> 01:03:18,698 - All right, you'll be working on this assignment in groups. 1117 01:03:18,699 --> 01:03:21,428 Barker, your group will develop plans 1118 01:03:21,429 --> 01:03:24,336 using only conventional weapons. 1119 01:03:26,529 --> 01:03:29,258 Fox, you have no restrictions, 1120 01:03:29,259 --> 01:03:31,838 you may use any weapons in the arsenal, 1121 01:03:31,839 --> 01:03:33,428 including nuclear ones, 1122 01:03:33,429 --> 01:03:36,002 against any targets you deem suitable. 1123 01:03:37,959 --> 01:03:40,568 Maloy, your group also has permission 1124 01:03:40,569 --> 01:03:42,158 to use nuclear weapons, 1125 01:03:42,159 --> 01:03:43,568 but you're restricted to using them 1126 01:03:43,569 --> 01:03:45,579 against tactical targets. 1127 01:03:47,529 --> 01:03:49,178 Our next get-together will be on Thursday 1128 01:03:49,179 --> 01:03:51,248 to receive your reports. 1129 01:03:51,249 --> 01:03:52,853 That's all, gentlemen. 1130 01:03:54,789 --> 01:03:57,848 - [NARRATOR] In 1973, the Army Chief of Staff 1131 01:03:57,849 --> 01:03:59,348 produced a memorandum 1132 01:03:59,349 --> 01:04:03,278 requesting a study to reexamine nuclear artillery. 1133 01:04:03,279 --> 01:04:05,858 The study requested radiation dose requirements 1134 01:04:05,859 --> 01:04:08,768 for incapacitating military personnel 1135 01:04:08,769 --> 01:04:11,134 and minimizing collateral damage. 1136 01:04:12,825 --> 01:04:14,108 - [NEWSCASTER] The goal is to establish 1137 01:04:14,109 --> 01:04:16,238 a valid and consistent model 1138 01:04:16,239 --> 01:04:19,118 from which military planners can predict the probability 1139 01:04:19,119 --> 01:04:20,498 of mission accomplishment 1140 01:04:20,499 --> 01:04:23,359 in a wide range of operational situations. 1141 01:04:24,699 --> 01:04:27,548 A project involving 10 primates was initiated 1142 01:04:27,549 --> 01:04:29,798 to determine gross performance efficiency 1143 01:04:29,799 --> 01:04:31,748 after irradiation. 1144 01:04:31,749 --> 01:04:34,748 The reactor is programmed and the subject positioned 1145 01:04:34,749 --> 01:04:36,428 to receive a mid-head dose 1146 01:04:36,429 --> 01:04:39,368 of approximately 10,000 rads of mixed gamma 1147 01:04:39,369 --> 01:04:41,018 and neutron radiation 1148 01:04:41,019 --> 01:04:43,448 in a period of about 50 microseconds. 1149 01:04:43,449 --> 01:04:46,628 These parameters approximate the dose and delivery rate 1150 01:04:46,629 --> 01:04:47,948 that might be anticipated 1151 01:04:47,949 --> 01:04:50,683 following the detonation of a nuclear weapon. 1152 01:04:51,489 --> 01:04:54,152 [SUSPENSEFUL MUSIC] 1153 01:05:02,779 --> 01:05:08,769 [DRAMATIC MUSIC] 1154 01:05:15,747 --> 01:05:17,614 [MUSIC CONTINUES] 1155 01:05:27,255 --> 01:05:29,325 [MUSIC CONTINUES] 1156 01:05:41,501 --> 01:05:43,376 [MUSIC CONTINUES] 1157 01:05:59,222 --> 01:06:01,159 [MUSIC CONTINUES] 1158 01:06:09,009 --> 01:06:12,531 [MONKEY SCREAMING SHRILLY] 1159 01:06:15,229 --> 01:06:18,239 [SUSPENSEFUL MUSIC] 1160 01:06:30,649 --> 01:06:34,348 [DRAMATIC MUSIC] 1161 01:06:42,079 --> 01:06:44,692 [MONKEY SCREAMING GUTTURALLY] 1162 01:06:46,629 --> 01:06:49,287 - Hello there, are you conscious? 1163 01:06:52,939 --> 01:06:55,188 - Can you hear us? 1164 01:06:55,189 --> 01:06:56,936 Can you see this light? 1165 01:07:03,849 --> 01:07:07,017 - We'd like to ask you some questions. Is that okay? 1166 01:07:11,049 --> 01:07:14,486 - What was the last thing you remember before the blast? 1167 01:07:19,139 --> 01:07:21,683 Were you unconscious at any time? 1168 01:07:24,319 --> 01:07:26,776 If so, do you know for how long? 1169 01:07:29,809 --> 01:07:32,948 In the period immediately following the blast, 1170 01:07:32,949 --> 01:07:37,201 do you remember any inability to perform major functions? 1171 01:07:38,349 --> 01:07:41,356 If so, how long did that impairment last? 1172 01:07:44,319 --> 01:07:46,778 - Are you sick or nauseated? 1173 01:07:46,779 --> 01:07:49,393 Did you vomit after the attack? 1174 01:07:51,089 --> 01:07:54,910 [SUSPENSEFUL MUSIC] 1175 01:08:02,989 --> 01:08:04,958 [MUSIC FADES] 1176 01:08:06,549 --> 01:08:08,869 [DRAMATIC MUSIC] 1177 01:08:14,059 --> 01:08:15,096 - Good evening. 1178 01:08:15,097 --> 01:08:17,640 The neutron bomb is back in the news. 1179 01:08:19,029 --> 01:08:20,948 - [NARRATOR] Senator Stuart Symington, 1180 01:08:20,949 --> 01:08:23,108 head of the Committee on Atomic Energy, 1181 01:08:23,109 --> 01:08:26,198 was a staunch opponent of the neutron bomb. 1182 01:08:26,199 --> 01:08:28,688 This opposition evaporated 1183 01:08:28,689 --> 01:08:32,828 when Symington retired from the Senate in 1976, 1184 01:08:32,829 --> 01:08:36,476 thereby opening the door to approval of the neutron bomb. 1185 01:08:37,329 --> 01:08:40,118 Quietly, the neutron bomb was reintroduced 1186 01:08:40,119 --> 01:08:42,670 into the energy department's budget request. 1187 01:08:47,214 --> 01:08:48,456 [RAPID TICKING] 1188 01:08:52,419 --> 01:08:54,458 The neutron bomb had reappeared 1189 01:08:54,459 --> 01:08:56,078 after secretly being inserted 1190 01:08:56,079 --> 01:08:57,788 into a House Appropriations Bill 1191 01:08:57,789 --> 01:08:59,721 during the Carter Administration. 1192 01:09:03,999 --> 01:09:05,518 - Do I have any questions? 1193 01:09:05,519 --> 01:09:08,018 [CROWD LAUGHING] 1194 01:09:08,019 --> 01:09:09,478 - How do you reconcile your decision 1195 01:09:09,479 --> 01:09:11,558 to go ahead with the neutron bomb 1196 01:09:11,559 --> 01:09:13,148 with your inaugural pledge 1197 01:09:13,149 --> 01:09:15,638 to eliminate all nuclear weapons? 1198 01:09:15,639 --> 01:09:19,058 Also, why didn't you know the money was in the bill? 1199 01:09:19,059 --> 01:09:22,328 And three, doesn't this escalate the arms race? 1200 01:09:22,329 --> 01:09:23,788 And I have a follow-up. 1201 01:09:23,789 --> 01:09:27,398 [CROWD LAUGHING] 1202 01:09:27,399 --> 01:09:29,348 - Well, it's a very serious question. 1203 01:09:29,349 --> 01:09:31,418 In the first place, I did not know it was in the bill. 1204 01:09:31,419 --> 01:09:35,198 The enhanced radiation or neutron bomb 1205 01:09:35,199 --> 01:09:37,238 has been discussed 1206 01:09:37,239 --> 01:09:41,228 and also has been under development for 15 to 20 years. 1207 01:09:41,229 --> 01:09:43,688 It's not a new concept at all, not a new weapon. 1208 01:09:43,689 --> 01:09:45,608 It does not affect our assault 1209 01:09:45,609 --> 01:09:49,298 or strategic weapons negotiations at all, 1210 01:09:49,299 --> 01:09:52,778 it's strictly designed as a tactical weapon. 1211 01:09:52,779 --> 01:09:54,248 Before I make a final decision 1212 01:09:54,249 --> 01:09:56,768 on the neutron bomb's deployment, 1213 01:09:56,769 --> 01:10:01,508 I would do a complete impact statement analysis on it, 1214 01:10:01,509 --> 01:10:03,908 I'll submit this information to the Congress. 1215 01:10:03,909 --> 01:10:05,078 But I have not yet decided 1216 01:10:05,079 --> 01:10:06,608 whether to approve the neutron bomb, 1217 01:10:06,609 --> 01:10:09,259 I do think it ought to be one of our options, however. 1218 01:10:10,179 --> 01:10:11,588 - [NARRATOR] Almost immediately, 1219 01:10:11,589 --> 01:10:13,928 funding from the neutron bomb faced opposition 1220 01:10:13,929 --> 01:10:16,808 by then Oregon Senator, Mark Hatfield, 1221 01:10:16,809 --> 01:10:18,622 who blocked finances for the weapon. 1222 01:10:20,259 --> 01:10:22,088 - I think that argument is the very reason 1223 01:10:22,089 --> 01:10:25,268 why we should be very reticent to embark upon this system, 1224 01:10:25,269 --> 01:10:28,238 because there's more of an invitation to use it 1225 01:10:28,239 --> 01:10:30,996 and to introduce it into conventional warfare. 1226 01:10:31,779 --> 01:10:34,688 - Some of the opponents of this particular bomb 1227 01:10:34,689 --> 01:10:38,498 seem to have discovered that radiation kills people. 1228 01:10:38,499 --> 01:10:40,759 They also seem to have discovered 1229 01:10:40,760 --> 01:10:42,308 that bombs kill people. 1230 01:10:42,309 --> 01:10:44,288 All weapons kill people. 1231 01:10:44,289 --> 01:10:47,588 Nuclear weapons are dangerous, there is no doubt about it. 1232 01:10:47,589 --> 01:10:50,588 The neutron bomb is no exception, it will kill people, 1233 01:10:50,589 --> 01:10:52,718 that's the express purpose of it. 1234 01:10:52,719 --> 01:10:55,508 - [NARRATOR] Initially, Carter opposed the neutron bomb, 1235 01:10:55,509 --> 01:10:58,418 which was on its way to being fitted for use 1236 01:10:58,419 --> 01:11:00,068 as an artillery shell 1237 01:11:00,069 --> 01:11:02,487 and as the warhead for the Lance Missile. 1238 01:11:05,469 --> 01:11:07,598 Although the Lance had been on the drawing board 1239 01:11:07,599 --> 01:11:09,548 since the mid 1950s, 1240 01:11:09,549 --> 01:11:13,058 and eventually introduced into the US arsenal, 1241 01:11:13,059 --> 01:11:15,548 it wasn't until 1977 1242 01:11:15,549 --> 01:11:18,338 when the Lance was ready to move into the production phase 1243 01:11:18,339 --> 01:11:20,270 for its neutron warhead. 1244 01:11:22,959 --> 01:11:25,186 - The six-kiloton device 1245 01:11:25,749 --> 01:11:29,558 was to be used in a tactical missile 1246 01:11:29,559 --> 01:11:32,611 called the Lance, a battlefield missile. 1247 01:11:33,739 --> 01:11:36,023 [SUSPENSEFUL MUSIC] 1248 01:11:45,222 --> 01:11:47,363 [MUSIC CONTINUES] 1249 01:12:01,087 --> 01:12:03,282 [MUSIC CONTINUES] 1250 01:12:12,049 --> 01:12:15,323 [MISSILE WHOOSHING] 1251 01:12:16,389 --> 01:12:20,076 [DRAMATIC MUSIC] 1252 01:12:20,879 --> 01:12:23,112 Now, the army never wanted those damn things, 1253 01:12:24,129 --> 01:12:25,808 they never did from the very beginning, 1254 01:12:25,809 --> 01:12:28,598 but it was forced upon them by the president, 1255 01:12:28,599 --> 01:12:31,003 toward keeping a promise, okay? 1256 01:12:32,199 --> 01:12:34,568 Well, in design specifications 1257 01:12:34,569 --> 01:12:36,378 for how the weapon would be used, 1258 01:12:37,179 --> 01:12:41,678 it was to be exploded as close to the surface as possible 1259 01:12:41,679 --> 01:12:43,225 to avoid contact, 1260 01:12:43,869 --> 01:12:45,368 which might've produced 1261 01:12:45,369 --> 01:12:47,954 your large-scale radioactive fallout, 1262 01:12:48,959 --> 01:12:51,733 like a few hundred feet above the surface, 1263 01:12:51,734 --> 01:12:52,898 the reason being 1264 01:12:52,899 --> 01:12:54,703 the army never trusted radiation. 1265 01:12:55,269 --> 01:12:58,178 What it wanted was physical demolishment 1266 01:12:58,179 --> 01:12:59,541 of enemy tanks. 1267 01:13:01,809 --> 01:13:05,048 [SUSPENSEFUL MUSIC] 1268 01:13:05,049 --> 01:13:08,519 The military did not want people to know 1269 01:13:09,399 --> 01:13:12,487 that it did not have a significant blast component. 1270 01:13:13,149 --> 01:13:16,785 That it had a reduced blast component, fine and dandy. 1271 01:13:17,821 --> 01:13:18,878 - [NARRATOR] The neutron bomb 1272 01:13:18,879 --> 01:13:21,848 would move from one conflict to another, 1273 01:13:21,849 --> 01:13:23,918 from the battlefields of Congress 1274 01:13:23,919 --> 01:13:25,493 to the front lines of Europe. 1275 01:13:26,649 --> 01:13:29,339 - That was where the battle would be fought, 1276 01:13:30,069 --> 01:13:33,398 but it was densely populated with human beings. 1277 01:13:33,399 --> 01:13:34,658 Germany in particular, 1278 01:13:34,659 --> 01:13:37,178 which was where the line was really drawn, 1279 01:13:37,179 --> 01:13:40,705 between east and west Germany, was densely populated. 1280 01:13:41,289 --> 01:13:43,448 How could you use nuclear weapons 1281 01:13:43,449 --> 01:13:46,628 without killing more friendly civilians 1282 01:13:46,629 --> 01:13:48,210 than enemy combatants? 1283 01:13:48,879 --> 01:13:50,648 The idea of a neutron bomb was 1284 01:13:50,649 --> 01:13:53,348 if you could suppress the blast and fire effects 1285 01:13:53,349 --> 01:13:54,998 of a nuclear weapon 1286 01:13:54,999 --> 01:13:59,018 and enhance the neutron effects of a nuclear weapon, 1287 01:13:59,019 --> 01:14:01,058 you might be able to have a weapon 1288 01:14:01,059 --> 01:14:04,538 that would kill those guys inside those tanks, 1289 01:14:04,539 --> 01:14:07,523 but with minimal damage to the German countryside. 1290 01:14:08,109 --> 01:14:11,168 Germany is a densely populated country. 1291 01:14:11,169 --> 01:14:13,778 The German leadership, really very early on 1292 01:14:13,779 --> 01:14:17,978 understood, as I think Helmut Schmidt said later on, 1293 01:14:17,979 --> 01:14:20,128 "One nuclear explosion in my country 1294 01:14:20,129 --> 01:14:22,508 and then the war would be over as far as we're concerned. 1295 01:14:22,509 --> 01:14:25,058 We'd stop, we wouldn't fight anymore, 1296 01:14:25,059 --> 01:14:26,080 because there's no point in 1297 01:14:26,081 --> 01:14:27,358 destroying our country to save it." 1298 01:14:28,814 --> 01:14:31,243 - [NARRATOR] NATO members could not agree on deployment 1299 01:14:31,244 --> 01:14:32,858 of the neutron bomb, 1300 01:14:32,859 --> 01:14:37,388 saying it is militarily useful but politically dangerous. 1301 01:14:37,389 --> 01:14:39,308 - And I can assure you that the SACEUR 1302 01:14:39,309 --> 01:14:41,544 would not ask for the use of those weapons 1303 01:14:42,036 --> 01:14:44,318 unless he projected 1304 01:14:44,319 --> 01:14:47,168 that the defense was no longer gonna be viable, 1305 01:14:47,169 --> 01:14:49,510 and therefore, we face two choices, 1306 01:14:50,949 --> 01:14:53,318 one to be overrun and to give up, 1307 01:14:53,319 --> 01:14:55,316 which is not very viable to me, 1308 01:14:56,049 --> 01:14:59,198 or two, to resort to the use of theater nuclear weapons, 1309 01:14:59,199 --> 01:15:01,364 which is also not very viable to me. 1310 01:15:02,909 --> 01:15:04,568 - [NEWSCASTER] The neutron bomb kills people 1311 01:15:04,569 --> 01:15:06,108 the same way monkeys are killed 1312 01:15:06,109 --> 01:15:07,928 in this armed forces laboratory, 1313 01:15:07,929 --> 01:15:10,226 by huge doses of radiation. 1314 01:15:10,959 --> 01:15:13,148 - [NARRATOR] While pressure erupted from all sides 1315 01:15:13,149 --> 01:15:15,128 and countries on the issue, 1316 01:15:15,129 --> 01:15:19,949 President Carter postponed production of the neutron bomb. 1317 01:15:20,709 --> 01:15:24,818 - And I'm looking forward to going to get some rest. 1318 01:15:24,819 --> 01:15:26,375 - [REPORTER] The Senate's saying it turned down 1319 01:15:26,376 --> 01:15:28,508 the neutron bomb by one vote today. 1320 01:15:28,509 --> 01:15:29,873 - Oh, did they? That's a matter I 1321 01:15:29,874 --> 01:15:31,702 haven't gotten into very deeply. 1322 01:15:32,139 --> 01:15:33,668 We'll look into it in the future. 1323 01:15:33,669 --> 01:15:35,762 - Do you think the neutron bomb is really essential? 1324 01:15:36,207 --> 01:15:37,243 - I don't know. 1325 01:15:37,244 --> 01:15:38,938 I'll see you later. 1326 01:15:38,939 --> 01:15:41,738 - [RONALD REGAN] The neutron warhead is a defensive weapon 1327 01:15:41,739 --> 01:15:44,978 designed to offset superiority 1328 01:15:44,979 --> 01:15:47,918 that the Soviet Union has on the Western front, 1329 01:15:47,919 --> 01:15:50,168 against the NATO nations. 1330 01:15:50,169 --> 01:15:52,238 You also have to remember 1331 01:15:52,239 --> 01:15:54,368 that those who are crying the loudest, 1332 01:15:54,369 --> 01:15:56,018 the Soviet Union, 1333 01:15:56,019 --> 01:15:57,458 and many of those who, 1334 01:15:57,459 --> 01:16:01,208 under the name of pacifism in Western Europe, 1335 01:16:01,209 --> 01:16:03,188 who are opposing things like this, 1336 01:16:03,189 --> 01:16:05,678 are really carrying the propaganda ball 1337 01:16:05,679 --> 01:16:07,046 for the Soviet Union. 1338 01:16:08,139 --> 01:16:10,178 - President Reagan, 1339 01:16:10,179 --> 01:16:11,888 many people don't realize this, 1340 01:16:11,889 --> 01:16:15,308 came to office with a personal dream 1341 01:16:15,309 --> 01:16:19,131 that he had been pursuing ever since 1945, 1342 01:16:20,229 --> 01:16:24,218 to get rid of all the nuclear weapons in the world. 1343 01:16:24,219 --> 01:16:28,041 That was the famous summit at Reykjavík in 1986. 1344 01:16:28,509 --> 01:16:30,308 But he was shrewd enough to realize 1345 01:16:30,309 --> 01:16:32,618 that he would have to start by 1346 01:16:32,619 --> 01:16:36,086 building up the US military to such a high level 1347 01:16:36,519 --> 01:16:39,188 that no one, domestically or on the Soviet side, 1348 01:16:39,189 --> 01:16:41,159 could claim he was weak on defense. 1349 01:16:41,639 --> 01:16:45,775 So the first thing he did was double the US defense budget, 1350 01:16:46,239 --> 01:16:47,858 and in doing so, 1351 01:16:47,859 --> 01:16:52,328 they had to go to the farthest reaches of their dream book 1352 01:16:52,329 --> 01:16:55,365 that they could use to spend all that money on. 1353 01:16:55,989 --> 01:16:57,188 And I think the reason 1354 01:16:57,189 --> 01:16:59,648 the neutron bomb reemerges a little bit 1355 01:16:59,649 --> 01:17:03,158 during the early years of the Reagan Administration, 1356 01:17:03,159 --> 01:17:06,218 we got all this money, the president wants us to spend it, 1357 01:17:06,219 --> 01:17:08,168 okay, let's throw that back into the mix, 1358 01:17:08,169 --> 01:17:09,961 maybe we should work on that a little more. 1359 01:17:10,679 --> 01:17:12,847 - Yeah, that was one of his principal themes 1360 01:17:13,419 --> 01:17:15,830 and he promised, you know, if elected president, 1361 01:17:16,329 --> 01:17:19,611 "I will develop and stockpile that weapon." 1362 01:17:20,829 --> 01:17:22,911 And he kept his promise, incidentally, 1363 01:17:23,799 --> 01:17:27,695 but he went back on it from the following standpoint. 1364 01:17:29,589 --> 01:17:33,462 He was stockpiling in the United States, not in Europe, 1365 01:17:33,908 --> 01:17:34,958 It was the only place 1366 01:17:34,959 --> 01:17:36,691 where they could have been of any good. 1367 01:17:37,559 --> 01:17:39,338 And the reason being 1368 01:17:39,339 --> 01:17:42,668 is that the Europeans, who were really detested my bomb, 1369 01:17:42,669 --> 01:17:44,472 wouldn't have anything to do with it. 1370 01:17:46,502 --> 01:17:48,487 [DISTORTED CROWD NOISE] 1371 01:17:51,009 --> 01:17:52,665 I put up a big holler, 1372 01:17:54,179 --> 01:17:56,226 and you know how much good that did me? 1373 01:17:57,909 --> 01:17:59,823 On the positive side, zero. 1374 01:18:00,459 --> 01:18:03,186 On the negative side, a lot of harm. 1375 01:18:05,739 --> 01:18:07,067 As a matter of fact, 1376 01:18:07,839 --> 01:18:10,315 the fellow who really ran the Air Force, 1377 01:18:10,749 --> 01:18:13,657 the famous infamous General Curtis LeMay, 1378 01:18:14,074 --> 01:18:16,118 he tried to crush me 1379 01:18:16,119 --> 01:18:19,598 and bring my briefings to a halt. 1380 01:18:19,599 --> 01:18:22,268 - But LeMay, as well as the other Air Force generals 1381 01:18:22,269 --> 01:18:24,248 who were part of strategic Air Command, 1382 01:18:24,249 --> 01:18:25,718 had a distinct preference, 1383 01:18:25,719 --> 01:18:29,108 not so much for small-scale tactical nuclear weapons, 1384 01:18:29,109 --> 01:18:31,928 but for the large, strategic nuclear weapons 1385 01:18:31,929 --> 01:18:35,798 that they wanted to use to lay waste to Soviet cities 1386 01:18:35,799 --> 01:18:38,018 and Soviet industrial infrastructure. 1387 01:18:38,019 --> 01:18:40,778 - General LeMay wanted all the bombs, 1388 01:18:40,779 --> 01:18:42,068 and he wanted big bombs, 1389 01:18:42,069 --> 01:18:43,388 the bigger the better, 1390 01:18:43,389 --> 01:18:46,058 because his idea of how to prevent 1391 01:18:46,059 --> 01:18:49,358 an attack on the United States by the Soviet Union 1392 01:18:49,359 --> 01:18:50,888 was to attack the Soviet Union 1393 01:18:50,889 --> 01:18:53,004 before they could attack us, 1394 01:18:53,559 --> 01:18:55,988 either in the final minutes of a conflict 1395 01:18:55,989 --> 01:18:57,638 before it went nuclear, 1396 01:18:57,639 --> 01:19:00,338 or God knows, as a preemptive war, 1397 01:19:00,339 --> 01:19:02,138 which was seriously discussed. 1398 01:19:02,139 --> 01:19:06,578 - Now, really and truly, from the very beginning, 1399 01:19:06,579 --> 01:19:12,569 the army never wanted battlefield nuclear weapons. 1400 01:19:13,959 --> 01:19:15,064 Never. 1401 01:19:15,759 --> 01:19:17,113 The reason being, 1402 01:19:17,949 --> 01:19:19,732 they had done some studies 1403 01:19:21,129 --> 01:19:23,571 which they decided to take seriously 1404 01:19:25,059 --> 01:19:26,543 for political reasons, 1405 01:19:27,069 --> 01:19:29,588 that showed it was impossible to fight 1406 01:19:29,589 --> 01:19:31,404 a battlefield nuclear war in Europe 1407 01:19:32,049 --> 01:19:33,668 without wiping out half of Europe 1408 01:19:33,669 --> 01:19:35,494 and contaminating the other half. 1409 01:19:36,499 --> 01:19:40,293 [SUSPENSEFUL MUSIC] 1410 01:19:42,219 --> 01:19:44,738 - The idea of a weapon that would just kill people 1411 01:19:44,739 --> 01:19:49,112 and leave the neighborhood intact, so to speak, 1412 01:19:51,579 --> 01:19:54,284 had a really bad smell to it, for most people. 1413 01:19:54,759 --> 01:19:56,658 It sounded like 1414 01:19:57,849 --> 01:20:00,428 what had gone on in Nazi Germany in the Second World War, 1415 01:20:00,429 --> 01:20:01,718 if you will. 1416 01:20:01,719 --> 01:20:03,488 Let's just kill everybody around 1417 01:20:03,489 --> 01:20:05,178 and then we'll take over their buildings, 1418 01:20:05,179 --> 01:20:08,648 and their houses, and their factories, and so forth. 1419 01:20:08,649 --> 01:20:11,738 So from that point of view, if you will, 1420 01:20:11,739 --> 01:20:13,118 I'm sure the Pentagon thought of that 1421 01:20:13,119 --> 01:20:14,987 as a public relations problem. 1422 01:20:15,699 --> 01:20:18,248 - [NARRATOR] A month after the surrender of Iraqi forces 1423 01:20:18,249 --> 01:20:20,288 in Operation Desert Storm, 1424 01:20:20,289 --> 01:20:23,798 President George H.W. Bush moved unilaterally 1425 01:20:23,799 --> 01:20:29,011 to denuclearize the US Army, including the neutron bomb. 1426 01:20:29,739 --> 01:20:33,589 - I am announcing today, a series of sweeping initiatives 1427 01:20:33,939 --> 01:20:37,658 affecting every aspect of our nuclear forces on land, 1428 01:20:37,659 --> 01:20:40,132 on ships, and on aircraft. 1429 01:20:41,229 --> 01:20:43,268 I'll begin with the category 1430 01:20:43,269 --> 01:20:45,848 in which we will make the most fundamental change 1431 01:20:45,849 --> 01:20:48,455 in nuclear forces in over 40 years. 1432 01:20:48,819 --> 01:20:52,050 Non-strategic or theater weapons. 1433 01:20:52,779 --> 01:20:55,718 I'm therefore directing that the United States 1434 01:20:55,719 --> 01:21:00,428 eliminate its entire worldwide inventory 1435 01:21:00,429 --> 01:21:03,128 of ground-launched, short-range, 1436 01:21:03,129 --> 01:21:05,831 that is, theater, nuclear weapons. 1437 01:21:06,609 --> 01:21:08,798 We will bring home and destroy 1438 01:21:08,799 --> 01:21:11,798 all of our nuclear artillery shells 1439 01:21:11,799 --> 01:21:14,382 and short-range ballistic missile warheads. 1440 01:21:15,609 --> 01:21:17,080 - We have zero, 1441 01:21:20,293 --> 01:21:21,855 thanks to two guys. 1442 01:21:23,259 --> 01:21:24,968 General Colin Powell 1443 01:21:24,969 --> 01:21:29,580 who advised President George Herbert Walker Bush, 1444 01:21:30,179 --> 01:21:32,885 this is right after the Persian Gulf War, 1445 01:21:33,429 --> 01:21:37,628 to get rid of all of the battlefield nuclear weapons. 1446 01:21:37,629 --> 01:21:39,932 He didn't need them, he didn't want them, 1447 01:21:40,629 --> 01:21:42,659 and so Bush put forth an edict, 1448 01:21:43,179 --> 01:21:44,778 destroy all of these weapons. 1449 01:21:46,119 --> 01:21:48,161 And so, here were all these thousands of weapons 1450 01:21:49,059 --> 01:21:52,086 which were destroyed, including my neutron bomb. 1451 01:21:52,754 --> 01:21:56,654 [PENSIVE MUSIC] 1452 01:21:57,069 --> 01:21:59,455 For the time being, it's gone for all time. 1453 01:22:00,849 --> 01:22:04,512 [SOMBER MUSIC] 1454 01:22:07,068 --> 01:22:09,208 [KEYBOARD KEYS CLICKING] 1455 01:22:09,715 --> 01:22:12,083 What I've always told myself, 1456 01:22:12,789 --> 01:22:15,810 it's not a question of if, but when. 1457 01:22:17,277 --> 01:22:18,847 The bombs that I've been discussing 1458 01:22:19,379 --> 01:22:21,309 are the bombs we've actually developed, 1459 01:22:22,089 --> 01:22:23,918 and so I've talked about their nature, 1460 01:22:23,919 --> 01:22:25,974 and their effects, and so on and so forth, 1461 01:22:26,575 --> 01:22:28,635 but let's talk about another bomb, 1462 01:22:30,094 --> 01:22:32,246 and I have a nickname for this. 1463 01:22:33,185 --> 01:22:35,704 I was the first guy to become aware 1464 01:22:35,705 --> 01:22:38,815 of this bomb and its implications, 1465 01:22:41,284 --> 01:22:46,884 and this bomb I call the Nothing Bomb. 1466 01:22:48,888 --> 01:22:51,388 It doesn't knock down buildings, 1467 01:22:52,647 --> 01:22:55,496 it doesn't contaminate the surface 1468 01:22:55,497 --> 01:22:59,213 over a huge area or anything else like that, 1469 01:23:00,304 --> 01:23:02,133 but there's one thing that it does do, 1470 01:23:02,134 --> 01:23:04,128 so it's not a totally nothing bomb. 1471 01:23:04,704 --> 01:23:08,048 It kills people with neutrons 1472 01:23:09,044 --> 01:23:10,519 from a device, 1473 01:23:12,005 --> 01:23:15,909 roughly speaking, the size of a baseball, 1474 01:23:17,358 --> 01:23:22,003 and a yield, not kilotons, 1475 01:23:22,004 --> 01:23:24,608 but at the ton level. 1476 01:23:26,203 --> 01:23:29,345 And that makes it the ultimate radiation weapon, 1477 01:23:30,189 --> 01:23:31,800 the ultimate neutron bomb. 1478 01:23:32,861 --> 01:23:35,147 And it was based, technically, 1479 01:23:35,473 --> 01:23:37,488 on a very exotic substance 1480 01:23:37,809 --> 01:23:39,968 to get the super effective explosives, 1481 01:23:39,969 --> 01:23:41,737 you know, for a peaceful application. 1482 01:23:43,578 --> 01:23:46,568 And it involves an explosive that didn't go bang, 1483 01:23:47,315 --> 01:23:50,911 instead what it did is it got extremely hot 1484 01:23:52,514 --> 01:23:54,599 and it glowed white hot, 1485 01:23:55,329 --> 01:23:58,088 and inside that glowing material, 1486 01:23:58,089 --> 01:24:01,884 the pressures were enormous beyond imagination. 1487 01:24:02,249 --> 01:24:05,456 They were comparable to the temperatures and pressures 1488 01:24:06,134 --> 01:24:08,283 that existed in the inside of the sun. 1489 01:24:08,553 --> 01:24:10,142 Now, you know what the sun does, 1490 01:24:10,724 --> 01:24:13,008 it produces thermonuclear reactions 1491 01:24:13,521 --> 01:24:15,950 where the ingredients are the two heavy forms 1492 01:24:15,951 --> 01:24:19,605 of hydrogen, deuterium, and tritium, 1493 01:24:19,606 --> 01:24:23,258 which are the same ingredients of a regular neutron bomb. 1494 01:24:23,259 --> 01:24:25,698 This one is pure fusion. 1495 01:24:26,703 --> 01:24:28,417 And would you like to know something? 1496 01:24:29,815 --> 01:24:33,775 Despite all of these treaties and agreements we've reached 1497 01:24:33,939 --> 01:24:35,895 regarding nuclear arms control, 1498 01:24:36,609 --> 01:24:39,386 for a country to produce these kinds of explosives 1499 01:24:39,944 --> 01:24:41,685 is strictly permissible. 1500 01:24:42,664 --> 01:24:44,883 Not one treaty that's ever come out, 1501 01:24:44,884 --> 01:24:47,398 not one agreement that's ever come out, 1502 01:24:47,399 --> 01:24:51,190 has forbidden the development of such devices. 1503 01:24:52,189 --> 01:24:58,179 [SINGER VOCALIZING] [ENERGETIC MUSIC] 1504 01:25:04,209 --> 01:25:07,822 So I don't claim any God-given uniqueness 1505 01:25:08,259 --> 01:25:10,048 as being the only one on Earth 1506 01:25:10,779 --> 01:25:13,598 that really understands what this business is all about. 1507 01:25:13,599 --> 01:25:17,008 I don't. I never have and I never will. 1508 01:25:17,649 --> 01:25:21,878 It's not about logic and it's not about rationality, 1509 01:25:21,879 --> 01:25:25,379 and I'll add one, it's not even about sanity. 1510 01:25:25,999 --> 01:25:29,477 [DRAMATIC MUSIC] 1511 01:25:31,989 --> 01:25:34,272 [DISTORTED VOICE] 1512 01:25:35,769 --> 01:25:39,332 My thinking along nuclear weapon lines 1513 01:25:39,905 --> 01:25:42,415 and what kinds of weapons ought to be developed 1514 01:25:42,697 --> 01:25:44,464 and stockpiled and so on, 1515 01:25:45,145 --> 01:25:51,244 has been my moral view of the subject of nuclear weapons, 1516 01:25:52,528 --> 01:25:55,686 and their use, and how they oughta' be used. 1517 01:25:57,219 --> 01:26:02,738 I'm being more than a little bit overly pompous here, 1518 01:26:02,739 --> 01:26:05,475 in acclaiming my morality, 1519 01:26:06,339 --> 01:26:08,285 because I ain't that moral. 1520 01:26:09,699 --> 01:26:14,798 You know, I've still got a lot of meanies inside of me, 1521 01:26:14,799 --> 01:26:19,358 but good, despite all the years of psychoanalysis 1522 01:26:19,359 --> 01:26:21,008 that I went through. 1523 01:26:21,009 --> 01:26:23,318 But I'm, relatively speaking, 1524 01:26:23,319 --> 01:26:25,554 whether you wanna make about morality, 1525 01:26:26,565 --> 01:26:29,848 a moral- a far more moral person 1526 01:26:29,849 --> 01:26:31,504 than I was before the analysis. 1527 01:26:32,499 --> 01:26:36,475 And not only more moral, but more rational. 1528 01:26:37,216 --> 01:26:39,276 [TELEPHONE RINGING] 1529 01:26:41,109 --> 01:26:44,708 - And we have Ray on the line and she had a question. 1530 01:26:44,709 --> 01:26:46,182 Ray, what's your question? 1531 01:26:47,259 --> 01:26:48,458 - [RAY] My question is, 1532 01:26:48,459 --> 01:26:53,078 why do I need to wait for 18 hours to die? 1533 01:26:53,079 --> 01:26:56,798 Why can't I just like, up and die? 1534 01:26:56,799 --> 01:27:01,778 Would it be better if one had a gun 1535 01:27:01,779 --> 01:27:06,008 or if one had a supply of pills, 1536 01:27:06,009 --> 01:27:09,098 and then one would just down it and pass out 1537 01:27:09,099 --> 01:27:11,198 or shoot one's brains out 1538 01:27:11,199 --> 01:27:13,882 instead of suffering the 18 hours? 1539 01:27:14,739 --> 01:27:16,868 - I would say, you know, for me, 1540 01:27:16,869 --> 01:27:19,509 I'm just gonna get a bottle of Jack.