1 00:00:55,730 --> 00:00:59,564 Imagine that we are travelers from the stars... 2 00:00:59,767 --> 00:01:02,099 ...bound for the sun. 3 00:01:02,303 --> 00:01:07,240 We would discover it surrounded by four giant, cloudy, gas worlds: 4 00:01:07,742 --> 00:01:11,269 Blue Neptune and its frozen moon, Triton. 5 00:01:14,148 --> 00:01:18,346 And then farther in, Uranus and its dark rings... 6 00:01:18,553 --> 00:01:21,852 ...made perhaps of organic matter. 7 00:01:37,204 --> 00:01:41,766 Saturn, the jewel of the solar system... 8 00:01:42,209 --> 00:01:46,111 ...set within concentric rings... 9 00:01:46,314 --> 00:01:51,013 ...composed of a billion icy moons. 10 00:02:02,797 --> 00:02:07,496 And finally, flanked by massive satellites... 11 00:02:07,702 --> 00:02:11,001 ...the largest planet, Jupiter. 12 00:02:11,472 --> 00:02:13,337 Its multicolored clouds... 13 00:02:13,541 --> 00:02:16,806 ...studded with flashes of lightning. 14 00:02:21,782 --> 00:02:23,613 Still farther in... 15 00:02:23,985 --> 00:02:26,249 ...closer to the sun... 16 00:02:26,621 --> 00:02:29,215 ...there are no more giant planets... 17 00:02:29,590 --> 00:02:32,957 ...only a host of lesser worlds... 18 00:02:33,160 --> 00:02:35,492 ...made of rock and metal... 19 00:02:35,696 --> 00:02:39,291 ...some with a thin envelope of air. 20 00:02:39,500 --> 00:02:41,127 They huddle about the sun... 21 00:02:41,335 --> 00:02:44,600 ...with almost no internal heat of their own... 22 00:02:45,172 --> 00:02:48,471 ...tiny places with solid surfaces... 23 00:02:48,676 --> 00:02:52,544 ...one of which is a blue and pretty world... 24 00:02:52,747 --> 00:02:54,305 ...called Earth. 25 00:02:55,383 --> 00:02:57,010 Half-covered with clouds... 26 00:02:57,218 --> 00:02:59,277 ...it is the home planet of travelers... 27 00:02:59,487 --> 00:03:02,820 ...who have just learned to sail the sea of space... 28 00:03:03,157 --> 00:03:05,455 ...to investigate close-up... 29 00:03:05,660 --> 00:03:08,356 ...Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune... 30 00:03:08,562 --> 00:03:13,329 ...its brothers and sisters in the family of the sun. 31 00:03:20,241 --> 00:03:23,733 Human voyages of exploration to the outer solar system... 32 00:03:23,944 --> 00:03:28,210 ...are controlled, so far, from a single place on the planet Earth... 33 00:03:28,783 --> 00:03:30,444 ...the Jet Propulsion Laboratory... 34 00:03:30,651 --> 00:03:33,211 ...of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration... 35 00:03:33,421 --> 00:03:35,981 ...in Pasadena, California. 36 00:03:41,162 --> 00:03:45,121 Here on Sunday, July 8th, 1979... 37 00:03:45,332 --> 00:03:47,266 ...the Voyager 2 spacecraft... 38 00:03:47,468 --> 00:03:50,926 ...began its close passage by Jupiter and its moons. 39 00:03:57,478 --> 00:03:58,968 General science systems... 40 00:03:59,180 --> 00:04:00,943 ...are you ready with status check? 41 00:04:01,148 --> 00:04:02,206 Yes, I am. 42 00:04:02,583 --> 00:04:04,483 The spacecraft had been instructed... 43 00:04:04,685 --> 00:04:06,448 ...how to explore the Jupiter system... 44 00:04:06,654 --> 00:04:08,622 ...by a sequence of commands radioed earlier... 45 00:04:08,823 --> 00:04:10,484 ...to its on board computers. 46 00:04:10,691 --> 00:04:12,625 Power, 450 watts. 47 00:04:12,893 --> 00:04:14,360 Power is go at this time. 48 00:04:14,562 --> 00:04:16,154 DSE systems. 49 00:04:19,767 --> 00:04:21,860 LACP mode is far and counter. 50 00:04:22,136 --> 00:04:23,967 We are at take 210. 51 00:04:24,171 --> 00:04:27,572 Direction last recorded was reversed, and the track is track one. 52 00:04:27,775 --> 00:04:31,142 Here we check how faithful an emissary Voyager is. 53 00:04:32,012 --> 00:04:33,946 Does it understand the commands? 54 00:04:34,148 --> 00:04:36,309 How is its health, its temperature... 55 00:04:36,584 --> 00:04:37,983 ...its brains... 56 00:04:38,185 --> 00:04:39,174 ...its heart? 57 00:04:40,087 --> 00:04:42,180 Yes, detailed science is coming up... 58 00:04:42,957 --> 00:04:44,822 "A" systems... 59 00:04:45,226 --> 00:04:47,160 ...completed the status check... 60 00:04:47,361 --> 00:04:49,386 ...and the spacecraft is go. 61 00:04:49,597 --> 00:04:50,586 Roger. Thank you. 62 00:04:50,798 --> 00:04:55,235 The modern ships that sail to the planets are unmanned. 63 00:04:55,436 --> 00:04:57,165 They are beautifully constructed... 64 00:04:57,371 --> 00:05:00,636 ...semi-intelligent robots. 65 00:05:01,242 --> 00:05:03,972 Voyager's eyes are two television cameras... 66 00:05:04,178 --> 00:05:08,808 ...designed to take many thousands of pictures in the solar system. 67 00:05:09,016 --> 00:05:12,747 Along with other instruments, they are mounted on a scan platform... 68 00:05:12,953 --> 00:05:15,615 ...which points at passing planets. 69 00:05:15,990 --> 00:05:20,791 Voyager's brains are three integrated computers set amidships. 70 00:05:20,995 --> 00:05:23,896 It communicates with Earth through a radio antenna... 71 00:05:24,098 --> 00:05:26,032 ...mounted like a sail. 72 00:05:26,233 --> 00:05:29,100 Voyager bears a message for any alien civilization... 73 00:05:29,303 --> 00:05:32,795 ...it may one day encounter in interstellar space. 74 00:05:33,641 --> 00:05:38,010 Its louvers open and shut to help control the on board temperature. 75 00:05:39,180 --> 00:05:41,944 But Voyager cruises so far from the sun... 76 00:05:42,149 --> 00:05:44,310 ...that it cannot depend on solar power. 77 00:05:44,518 --> 00:05:48,079 Instead, it has a small nuclear power plant... 78 00:05:48,289 --> 00:05:51,417 ...quarantined from the rest of the ship. 79 00:06:00,901 --> 00:06:03,870 Many things can go wrong in such pioneering missions. 80 00:06:04,338 --> 00:06:06,533 So people are a little uneasy... 81 00:06:06,740 --> 00:06:09,072 ...at Voyager mission control. 82 00:06:09,476 --> 00:06:13,037 Jupiter is surrounded by a shell of invisible but extremely dangerous... 83 00:06:13,247 --> 00:06:15,238 ...high-energy charged particles. 84 00:06:15,950 --> 00:06:17,747 If Voyager flies too close... 85 00:06:17,952 --> 00:06:21,080 ...its delicate electronics will be fried. 86 00:06:21,288 --> 00:06:24,485 A collision with a small boulder in the rings of Jupiter... 87 00:06:24,692 --> 00:06:27,855 ...could send the spacecraft tumbling wildly out of control... 88 00:06:28,062 --> 00:06:31,793 ...its antenna unable to find the Earth, its data lost forever. 89 00:06:37,004 --> 00:06:39,131 Voyager 1 and Voyager 2... 90 00:06:39,340 --> 00:06:43,436 ...were launched a month apart in late summer of 1977. 91 00:06:43,644 --> 00:06:45,942 After many alarms and close calls... 92 00:06:46,146 --> 00:06:49,877 ...they successfully arrived months apart at the Jupiter system... 93 00:06:50,084 --> 00:06:51,608 ...where they worked brilliantly... 94 00:06:51,819 --> 00:06:54,686 ...providing the first close-up views of mighty Jupiter... 95 00:06:54,889 --> 00:06:57,722 ...and its four large and mysterious moons: 96 00:06:57,925 --> 00:07:01,554 Io, the innermost of the four... 97 00:07:02,096 --> 00:07:03,586 ...Europa... 98 00:07:03,831 --> 00:07:07,096 ...and moving away from Jupiter... 99 00:07:07,301 --> 00:07:08,768 ...Ganymede... 100 00:07:10,170 --> 00:07:13,571 ...and the outermost big moon... 101 00:07:13,774 --> 00:07:15,139 ...Callisto. 102 00:07:16,844 --> 00:07:21,144 In a mission that costs a penny a world... 103 00:07:21,348 --> 00:07:24,681 ...for every human on the planet Earth. 104 00:07:31,091 --> 00:07:33,355 Voyager's passage by Jupiter... 105 00:07:33,560 --> 00:07:36,757 ...accelerated it towards the planet Saturn. 106 00:07:36,964 --> 00:07:40,024 Saturn's gravity will propel it on to Uranus... 107 00:07:40,234 --> 00:07:44,000 ...and in this game of cosmic billiards, after Uranus... 108 00:07:44,204 --> 00:07:48,402 ...it will plunge on past Neptune, leaving the solar system... 109 00:07:48,609 --> 00:07:51,009 ...and becoming an interstellar spacecraft... 110 00:07:51,211 --> 00:07:54,009 ...destined to wander forever... 111 00:07:54,214 --> 00:07:56,808 ...the great ocean between the stars. 112 00:07:57,017 --> 00:08:00,817 And if Voyager should, sometime in its distant future... 113 00:08:01,021 --> 00:08:05,720 ...encounter beings from some other civilization in space... 114 00:08:05,926 --> 00:08:08,360 ...it bears a message. 115 00:08:08,562 --> 00:08:12,430 A phonograph record. Golden, delicate... 116 00:08:13,500 --> 00:08:15,195 ...with instruction for use. 117 00:08:15,469 --> 00:08:20,099 And on this record are a sampling of pictures, sounds, greetings... 118 00:08:20,741 --> 00:08:23,005 ...and an hour and a half of exquisite music... 119 00:08:23,210 --> 00:08:25,770 ...the Earth's greatest hits. 120 00:08:25,980 --> 00:08:27,914 A gift across the cosmic ocean... 121 00:08:28,115 --> 00:08:32,279 ...from one island of civilization to another. 122 00:08:33,887 --> 00:08:37,015 The record bears in English... 123 00:08:37,224 --> 00:08:40,125 ...an additional handwritten greeting that says: 124 00:08:40,694 --> 00:08:45,427 "To the makers of music, all worlds, all times." 125 00:08:45,733 --> 00:08:49,134 These voyages of exploration and discovery... 126 00:08:49,503 --> 00:08:52,404 ...are the latest in a long series which have characterized... 127 00:08:52,606 --> 00:08:55,973 ...and distinguished the human species. 128 00:08:56,176 --> 00:08:58,406 In the 15th and 16th centuries... 129 00:08:58,612 --> 00:09:01,979 ...you could travel from Spain to the Azores in a few days. 130 00:09:02,182 --> 00:09:05,151 The same time it takes now to cross that little channel... 131 00:09:05,352 --> 00:09:07,411 ...from the Earth to the moon. 132 00:09:08,422 --> 00:09:11,789 It took, then, a few months to traverse the Atlantic Ocean... 133 00:09:11,992 --> 00:09:14,654 ...and reach what was called the "New World"... 134 00:09:14,862 --> 00:09:15,851 ...the Americas. 135 00:09:16,063 --> 00:09:19,829 Today it takes a few months to cross the inner solar system... 136 00:09:20,034 --> 00:09:23,094 ...and reach Mars and Venus, truly and literally... 137 00:09:23,303 --> 00:09:25,498 ...new worlds awaiting us. 138 00:09:26,840 --> 00:09:28,637 In the 17th and 18th centuries... 139 00:09:28,842 --> 00:09:33,074 ...you could travel from Holland to China, say, in a year or two... 140 00:09:33,280 --> 00:09:35,339 ...the same time it takes now for Voyager... 141 00:09:35,549 --> 00:09:37,949 ...to travel from the Earth to Jupiter. 142 00:09:41,722 --> 00:09:45,214 And in comparison to the resources of the society... 143 00:09:45,426 --> 00:09:48,759 ...it cost more then to send sailing ships to the Far East... 144 00:09:48,962 --> 00:09:52,489 ...than it does now to send spaceships to the planets. 145 00:09:56,236 --> 00:09:58,227 The passion to explore... 146 00:09:58,439 --> 00:10:00,771 ...is at the heart of being human. 147 00:10:00,974 --> 00:10:03,704 This impulse to go, to see, to know... 148 00:10:03,911 --> 00:10:06,436 ...has found expression in every culture. 149 00:10:08,182 --> 00:10:11,640 Africa was circumnavigated by Phoenician sailors... 150 00:10:11,852 --> 00:10:14,446 ...in the employ of an Egyptian pharaoh... 151 00:10:14,655 --> 00:10:17,681 ...in the 7th century B.C. 152 00:10:18,959 --> 00:10:21,393 The islands of the Pacific were settled... 153 00:10:21,595 --> 00:10:25,031 ...by skilled and heroic navigators from Indonesia. 154 00:10:26,500 --> 00:10:29,094 Great fleets of ocean-going junks... 155 00:10:29,303 --> 00:10:32,170 ...left the ports of Ming Dynasty China... 156 00:10:32,372 --> 00:10:35,136 ...to explore India and Africa. 157 00:10:35,843 --> 00:10:38,539 A century later, three ships left Spain... 158 00:10:38,745 --> 00:10:41,111 ...under the command of an Italian navigator... 159 00:10:41,315 --> 00:10:43,408 ...to discover the Americas. 160 00:10:44,284 --> 00:10:47,151 And then a Portuguese expedition succeeded... 161 00:10:47,354 --> 00:10:50,983 ...in sailing all the way around this blue globe. 162 00:10:52,426 --> 00:10:55,020 These voyagers of many cultures... 163 00:10:55,229 --> 00:10:57,891 ...were the first planetary explorers. 164 00:10:58,098 --> 00:11:01,192 They have bound the Earth up into one world. 165 00:11:01,401 --> 00:11:03,460 In our exploration of other worlds... 166 00:11:03,670 --> 00:11:06,298 ...we follow in their footsteps. 167 00:11:08,408 --> 00:11:11,468 Our present spaceships are the harbingers... 168 00:11:11,678 --> 00:11:16,615 ...the vanguard of future human expeditions to the planets. 169 00:11:17,217 --> 00:11:20,186 We have traveled this way before... 170 00:11:20,387 --> 00:11:23,550 ...and there is much to be learned... 171 00:11:23,757 --> 00:11:27,659 ...by studying those great voyages of a few centuries ago. 172 00:11:41,808 --> 00:11:43,366 In the 17th century... 173 00:11:43,577 --> 00:11:46,045 ...the citizens of the new Dutch Republic... 174 00:11:46,246 --> 00:11:50,808 ...pursued a course of vigorous planetary exploration. 175 00:11:52,486 --> 00:11:54,886 Holland was then a revolutionary society. 176 00:11:55,088 --> 00:11:58,057 It had just declared its independence from the powerful... 177 00:11:58,258 --> 00:12:00,249 ...but stagnant Spanish empire... 178 00:12:00,460 --> 00:12:02,655 ...and with a newfound self-confidence... 179 00:12:02,863 --> 00:12:05,798 ...Holland embraced, more fully than any other nation of its time... 180 00:12:05,999 --> 00:12:09,457 ...the spirit of the European Enlightenment. 181 00:12:14,208 --> 00:12:17,837 It was a rational, orderly and creative society. 182 00:12:18,045 --> 00:12:21,446 But because Spanish ports and vessels were closed to the Dutch... 183 00:12:21,648 --> 00:12:23,809 ...the economic survival of the tiny republic... 184 00:12:24,017 --> 00:12:28,249 ...depended on its ability to construct, man and operate... 185 00:12:28,455 --> 00:12:31,185 ...a great fleet of commercial sailing vessels. 186 00:12:35,495 --> 00:12:37,326 The Dutch East India Company... 187 00:12:37,531 --> 00:12:40,625 ...was a combined governmental and commercial enterprise... 188 00:12:40,834 --> 00:12:43,462 ...which sent shipping to the far corners of the world... 189 00:12:43,670 --> 00:12:48,164 ...to acquire rare commodities and resell them at a profit in Europe. 190 00:12:48,375 --> 00:12:51,970 Such voyages were the life's blood of the republic. 191 00:12:55,949 --> 00:13:00,181 Navigational charts and maps were classified as state secrets. 192 00:13:00,554 --> 00:13:03,682 Ships sometimes left with sealed sailing orders... 193 00:13:03,890 --> 00:13:06,882 ...the crews embarking for an unknown destination... 194 00:13:07,094 --> 00:13:10,894 ...more than a year away on the far side of the planet. 195 00:13:13,734 --> 00:13:16,999 These expeditions were not only commercial exploitations... 196 00:13:17,204 --> 00:13:19,263 ...although there was certainly plenty of that. 197 00:13:19,473 --> 00:13:22,704 Beside the usual appeals of ambition, greed... 198 00:13:22,909 --> 00:13:25,639 ...national pride and the thirst for adventure... 199 00:13:26,013 --> 00:13:29,847 ...the Dutch were also motivated by a powerful scientific curiosity... 200 00:13:30,050 --> 00:13:32,678 ...and a fascination with all things new. 201 00:13:32,886 --> 00:13:35,821 New lands, new peoples... 202 00:13:36,023 --> 00:13:37,650 ...new plants and animals. 203 00:13:43,330 --> 00:13:46,731 This building, then the Amsterdam town hall... 204 00:13:46,933 --> 00:13:50,061 ...still attests to the hardy self-assurance... 205 00:13:50,270 --> 00:13:52,204 ...of its 17th-century architects. 206 00:13:52,406 --> 00:13:55,864 Its lavish crystal adornments still reflect... 207 00:13:56,076 --> 00:13:59,068 ...the glittering pride they felt in their accomplishments... 208 00:13:59,279 --> 00:14:00,712 ...and their prosperity. 209 00:14:00,914 --> 00:14:04,315 It took shiploads of marble to build this place. 210 00:14:04,518 --> 00:14:08,614 Constantin Huygens, a poet and diplomat of the time... 211 00:14:08,822 --> 00:14:12,280 ...said that this town hall dispelled what he called... 212 00:14:12,492 --> 00:14:15,859 ..."the Gothic squint and squalor." 213 00:14:17,664 --> 00:14:22,499 The Middle Ages had ended, the Enlightenment had begun. 214 00:14:26,073 --> 00:14:28,303 Up there, do you see... 215 00:14:28,508 --> 00:14:32,945 ...is Atlas supporting the heavens on his shoulders. 216 00:14:33,547 --> 00:14:35,174 And beneath... 217 00:14:36,616 --> 00:14:39,585 ...is Justice with a golden sword... 218 00:14:39,786 --> 00:14:42,448 ...and golden scales flanked... 219 00:14:43,390 --> 00:14:46,450 ...by Death and Punishment. 220 00:14:46,960 --> 00:14:51,158 And who is it that Justice is trampling underfoot? 221 00:14:51,365 --> 00:14:55,734 Why, it's Avarice and Envy... 222 00:14:55,936 --> 00:14:58,666 ...the gods of the merchants. 223 00:14:58,872 --> 00:15:02,933 The Dutch knew that the unrestrained pursuit of profit... 224 00:15:03,143 --> 00:15:06,874 ...posed serious threats to the soul of the nation. 225 00:15:08,081 --> 00:15:10,549 A less allegorical symbol... 226 00:15:10,751 --> 00:15:13,447 ...is down here, on the floor. 227 00:15:16,757 --> 00:15:19,954 It is a great inlaid map... 228 00:15:20,160 --> 00:15:24,859 ...stretching from West Africa to the Pacific Ocean. 229 00:15:25,065 --> 00:15:28,933 The whole world was then Holland's arena. 230 00:15:30,470 --> 00:15:33,337 In a typical year, many sailing vessels... 231 00:15:33,540 --> 00:15:36,839 ...set out halfway around the world for the Far East... 232 00:15:37,043 --> 00:15:41,104 ...on voyages of exploration and discovery, of trade... 233 00:15:41,314 --> 00:15:44,112 ...journeys taking years to accomplish. 234 00:15:44,317 --> 00:15:48,276 Down the west coast of Africa, through what they called the Ethiopian sea... 235 00:15:48,488 --> 00:15:51,286 ...skirting the southern coast of Africa... 236 00:15:51,491 --> 00:15:54,221 ...through the Straits of Madagascar... 237 00:15:54,428 --> 00:15:58,228 ...and on past the southern tip of India... 238 00:15:58,432 --> 00:16:03,335 ...to the Spice Islands and present-day Indonesia. 239 00:16:08,442 --> 00:16:12,037 Another set of voyages went south then east, to New Holland... 240 00:16:12,245 --> 00:16:14,770 ...later renamed Australia. 241 00:16:20,320 --> 00:16:24,381 And still other journeys ventured through the Straits of Malacca... 242 00:16:24,858 --> 00:16:27,486 ...to the Empire of China. 243 00:16:29,129 --> 00:16:33,998 But Holland was a small country forced to live by its wits. 244 00:16:34,201 --> 00:16:36,897 There was a strong pacifist element in its foreign policy. 245 00:16:37,704 --> 00:16:41,435 Never before or since has Holland boasted such a galaxy... 246 00:16:41,641 --> 00:16:45,338 ...of scientists, mathematicians, philosophers and artists. 247 00:16:47,347 --> 00:16:50,783 This was the time of the great painters, Rembrandt... 248 00:16:51,952 --> 00:16:53,647 ...and Vermeer. 249 00:16:55,155 --> 00:16:59,922 Because Holland was tolerant of unorthodox opinions... 250 00:17:00,126 --> 00:17:02,890 ...it was a refuge for intellectuals... 251 00:17:03,096 --> 00:17:07,430 ...fleeing the thought control and censorship of other parts of Europe... 252 00:17:07,767 --> 00:17:11,533 ...much as the United States benefited enormously in the 1930s... 253 00:17:11,738 --> 00:17:14,400 ...from the exodus of intellectuals... 254 00:17:14,608 --> 00:17:16,803 ...from Nazi-dominated Europe. 255 00:17:17,010 --> 00:17:19,604 And so it was that 17th-century Holland... 256 00:17:19,813 --> 00:17:23,374 ...was the home of the great Jewish philosopher Spinoza... 257 00:17:23,583 --> 00:17:25,983 ...who Einstein admired so much... 258 00:17:26,186 --> 00:17:29,019 ...of René Descartes, a pivotal figure... 259 00:17:29,222 --> 00:17:32,282 ...in the history of philosophy and of mathematics... 260 00:17:32,492 --> 00:17:36,758 ...and the home of a political scientist named John Locke... 261 00:17:36,963 --> 00:17:40,194 ...who was to have a powerful... 262 00:17:40,400 --> 00:17:42,265 ...and profound influence... 263 00:17:42,469 --> 00:17:46,565 ...on a group of philosophically inclined revolutionaries... 264 00:17:46,773 --> 00:17:50,573 ...named Paine, Hamilton, Adams... 265 00:17:50,777 --> 00:17:52,938 ...Franklin and Jefferson. 266 00:17:55,649 --> 00:17:58,117 The Dutch University of Leyden... 267 00:17:58,318 --> 00:18:03,119 ...offered a professorship to an Italian scientist named Galileo... 268 00:18:03,323 --> 00:18:06,156 ...who had been forced by the Catholic Church... 269 00:18:06,359 --> 00:18:08,122 ...under threat of torture... 270 00:18:08,328 --> 00:18:11,229 ...to recant the heretical position... 271 00:18:11,431 --> 00:18:15,959 ...that the Earth went around the sun and not vice versa. 272 00:18:16,269 --> 00:18:18,703 Galileo had close ties with Holland. 273 00:18:18,905 --> 00:18:20,736 His first astronomical telescope was based... 274 00:18:20,941 --> 00:18:23,933 ...on a spyglass of Dutch manufacture. 275 00:18:24,144 --> 00:18:28,205 And with it, he discovered the craters of the moon... 276 00:18:28,415 --> 00:18:33,114 ...the phases of Venus and the four large moons of Jupiter. 277 00:18:35,522 --> 00:18:37,649 Becoming an exploratory power... 278 00:18:37,857 --> 00:18:41,953 ...made Holland a vital intellectual and cultural center as well. 279 00:18:42,162 --> 00:18:46,724 The improvement of sailing technology spurred technology in general. 280 00:18:47,334 --> 00:18:51,361 A key problem in navigation was the determination of longitude. 281 00:18:51,571 --> 00:18:53,539 Latitude could be determined easily... 282 00:18:53,740 --> 00:18:56,709 ...the farther south, the more southern constellations you could see. 283 00:18:57,310 --> 00:19:01,303 But longitude required precise timekeeping. 284 00:19:03,750 --> 00:19:04,717 An accurate shipboard clock... 285 00:19:04,918 --> 00:19:07,478 ...would continue to keep time in your home port. 286 00:19:07,687 --> 00:19:10,815 The rising and setting of stars would give you the local time... 287 00:19:11,024 --> 00:19:13,515 ...and the difference between the two... 288 00:19:13,727 --> 00:19:16,218 ...would tell you how far east or west you had gone. 289 00:19:19,599 --> 00:19:22,227 Technological advance required the freest... 290 00:19:22,435 --> 00:19:23,925 ...possible pursuit of knowledge. 291 00:19:24,337 --> 00:19:28,273 So Holland became the leading publisher and bookseller in Europe... 292 00:19:28,475 --> 00:19:30,534 ...translating works written in other languages... 293 00:19:30,744 --> 00:19:33,941 ...and printing books that had been censored elsewhere. 294 00:19:35,615 --> 00:19:38,140 Adventures into exotic lands... 295 00:19:38,351 --> 00:19:40,785 ...and encounters with strange societies... 296 00:19:40,987 --> 00:19:42,545 ...shook complacency. 297 00:19:44,724 --> 00:19:46,954 They challenged the prevailing wisdom... 298 00:19:47,160 --> 00:19:50,561 ...and showed that ideas accepted for thousands of years... 299 00:19:50,764 --> 00:19:52,959 ...might be fundamentally in error. 300 00:20:05,278 --> 00:20:09,271 In a time when kings and emperors ruled much of the planet... 301 00:20:09,482 --> 00:20:12,940 ...the Dutch Republic was governed, more than any other world power... 302 00:20:13,153 --> 00:20:14,552 ...by the people. 303 00:20:20,794 --> 00:20:24,321 They enjoyed a certain material well-being. 304 00:20:24,531 --> 00:20:26,624 But the interiors of their houses... 305 00:20:26,833 --> 00:20:29,563 ...celebrated by a generation of Dutch painters... 306 00:20:29,769 --> 00:20:33,796 ...suggest restraint and discretion. 307 00:20:40,447 --> 00:20:43,814 The officers of these ships of exploration and trade... 308 00:20:44,017 --> 00:20:46,315 ...would return from their long voyages... 309 00:20:46,519 --> 00:20:48,817 ...share in the goods they had acquired... 310 00:20:49,255 --> 00:20:53,419 ...and discuss the wonders they had encountered. 311 00:20:59,666 --> 00:21:03,625 Holland prospered in its freedom of thought. 312 00:21:16,783 --> 00:21:20,241 In Italy, Galileo had announced other worlds. 313 00:21:20,453 --> 00:21:24,412 Giordano Bruno had speculated on intelligent life elsewhere. 314 00:21:24,624 --> 00:21:28,116 For this they were made to suffer brutally. 315 00:21:29,729 --> 00:21:32,789 But in Holland, the astronomer Christiaan Huygens... 316 00:21:32,999 --> 00:21:37,527 ...who strongly supported both ideas, was showered with honors. 317 00:21:39,773 --> 00:21:43,573 Christiaan was the son of Constantin Huygens. 318 00:21:45,044 --> 00:21:47,535 The elder Huygens distinguished himself... 319 00:21:47,747 --> 00:21:51,046 ...as a master diplomat of the age, a man of letters... 320 00:21:51,251 --> 00:21:55,312 ...a close friend and translator of the English poet, John Donne. 321 00:21:57,724 --> 00:22:02,661 Constantin was also an accomplished composer and musician. 322 00:22:15,441 --> 00:22:17,875 It was Constantin who had discovered a young painter... 323 00:22:18,077 --> 00:22:20,068 ...named Rembrandt van Rijn... 324 00:22:20,280 --> 00:22:23,613 ...in several of whose works he subsequently appears. 325 00:22:24,684 --> 00:22:26,584 He opened the doors of his house... 326 00:22:26,786 --> 00:22:28,651 ...to artists, musicians, writers... 327 00:22:28,855 --> 00:22:31,255 ...statesmen and scientists. 328 00:22:32,025 --> 00:22:34,050 A feast of goods and ideas... 329 00:22:34,260 --> 00:22:37,093 ...from all over the world awaited them. 330 00:22:39,465 --> 00:22:42,263 The philosopher Descartes, who visited him here... 331 00:22:42,468 --> 00:22:44,163 ...said of Constantin Huygens... 332 00:22:44,370 --> 00:22:47,032 ..."I could not believe that a single mind... 333 00:22:47,240 --> 00:22:49,970 ...could occupy itself with so many things... 334 00:22:50,176 --> 00:22:53,475 ...and acquit itself so well in all of them." 335 00:22:54,514 --> 00:22:56,948 He even excelled at the art of parenthood. 336 00:22:57,150 --> 00:22:59,414 He was a tender and loving father. 337 00:22:59,619 --> 00:23:03,111 His son, Christiaan, flourished in this rich environment... 338 00:23:03,323 --> 00:23:06,724 ...demonstrating extraordinary talents for languages, drawing... 339 00:23:06,926 --> 00:23:10,726 ...law, science, engineering mathematics and music. 340 00:23:14,400 --> 00:23:17,528 "The world is my country," he said... 341 00:23:17,737 --> 00:23:20,763 ..."science my religion." 342 00:23:25,879 --> 00:23:29,110 Light was the motif of the age... 343 00:23:29,315 --> 00:23:33,479 ...the symbolic enlightenment of freedom of thought and religion... 344 00:23:33,686 --> 00:23:36,951 ...the light that suffused the paintings of the time... 345 00:23:37,156 --> 00:23:40,421 ...and light as an object of scientific study. 346 00:23:40,727 --> 00:23:43,662 The microscope was invented in Holland at this time... 347 00:23:43,863 --> 00:23:47,697 ...and became a drawing-room curiosity. 348 00:23:48,701 --> 00:23:50,896 Its inventor was a friend of Christiaan Huygens... 349 00:23:51,104 --> 00:23:53,197 ...a man named Anton Leeuwenhoek. 350 00:24:02,782 --> 00:24:05,512 The first microscopes were developed from... 351 00:24:05,718 --> 00:24:07,845 ...magnifying glasses used by drapers... 352 00:24:08,054 --> 00:24:11,285 ...to examine the quality of cloth. 353 00:24:17,931 --> 00:24:19,421 Leeuwenhoek and Huygens... 354 00:24:19,632 --> 00:24:22,362 ...are the grandfathers of much of modern medicine. 355 00:24:23,836 --> 00:24:26,828 Because, to his amazement... 356 00:24:27,040 --> 00:24:29,668 ...Leeuwenhoek discovered a universe... 357 00:24:29,876 --> 00:24:31,366 ...in a drop of water: 358 00:24:31,577 --> 00:24:35,445 The microbes, which he described as "animalcules"... 359 00:24:35,648 --> 00:24:38,208 ...and thought "cute." 360 00:24:46,359 --> 00:24:48,054 Leeuwenhoek and Huygens... 361 00:24:48,261 --> 00:24:51,025 ...were among the first people to see human sperm cells... 362 00:24:51,230 --> 00:24:55,132 ...a hitherto hidden microcosm of the human life cycle. 363 00:24:56,202 --> 00:24:59,330 Leeuwenhoek had discovered the microbial world. 364 00:24:59,906 --> 00:25:03,364 Huygens had argued from his telescopic observations... 365 00:25:03,576 --> 00:25:05,601 ...that Mars was another world... 366 00:25:05,812 --> 00:25:08,804 ...and probably, an inhabited one. 367 00:25:15,054 --> 00:25:17,545 What a waste of a planet, he thought... 368 00:25:17,757 --> 00:25:20,191 ...if Mars were barren. 369 00:25:22,929 --> 00:25:26,296 So the Viking search for microbes on Mars... 370 00:25:26,499 --> 00:25:30,458 ...can be traced directly back to Huygens and Leeuwenhoek... 371 00:25:30,670 --> 00:25:33,138 ...in 17th-century Holland. 372 00:25:37,677 --> 00:25:41,135 The telescope and the microscope developed here... 373 00:25:41,347 --> 00:25:44,111 ...represent an extension of human vision... 374 00:25:44,317 --> 00:25:46,717 ...to the realms of the very small... 375 00:25:46,919 --> 00:25:48,944 ...and the very large. 376 00:25:52,191 --> 00:25:56,025 Our observations of atoms and galaxies... 377 00:25:56,229 --> 00:25:59,130 ...were launched in this time and place. 378 00:26:02,769 --> 00:26:05,237 From the bending of light through a lens... 379 00:26:05,438 --> 00:26:07,235 ...Huygens advanced the idea... 380 00:26:07,440 --> 00:26:09,931 ...that light was a kind of wave. 381 00:26:10,143 --> 00:26:12,111 He ground and polished lenses... 382 00:26:12,311 --> 00:26:15,712 ...for the successively larger telescopes he constructed... 383 00:26:15,915 --> 00:26:19,248 ...although it did take him a time to figure out... 384 00:26:19,452 --> 00:26:21,443 ...how to use them properly. 385 00:26:30,863 --> 00:26:33,354 Huygens was the first person to see a surface feature... 386 00:26:33,566 --> 00:26:35,124 ...on the planet Mars. 387 00:26:35,601 --> 00:26:37,364 He was the first person to speculate... 388 00:26:38,071 --> 00:26:40,369 ...that Venus is completely covered with clouds. 389 00:26:41,174 --> 00:26:45,076 He was the first person to understand the nature of the rings of Saturn. 390 00:26:45,278 --> 00:26:47,371 "Saturn is surrounded," he wrote... 391 00:26:47,580 --> 00:26:49,207 ..."by a thin, flat ring... 392 00:26:49,415 --> 00:26:52,907 ...which nowhere touches the body of the planet." 393 00:27:04,197 --> 00:27:06,028 His discoveries with the telescope... 394 00:27:06,232 --> 00:27:08,996 ...who by themselves have ensured his place... 395 00:27:09,202 --> 00:27:11,796 ...in the history of human accomplishment. 396 00:27:20,513 --> 00:27:24,108 Huygens was the discoverer of Titan... 397 00:27:24,317 --> 00:27:26,581 ...the largest moon of Saturn. 398 00:27:33,526 --> 00:27:37,587 The immense size and changing clouds of Jupiter entranced him. 399 00:27:40,967 --> 00:27:43,231 Astronomers, as well as navigators... 400 00:27:43,436 --> 00:27:47,338 ...need accurate clocks to time the movement of the heavens. 401 00:27:47,540 --> 00:27:50,907 Huygens was the inventor of many precision timepieces... 402 00:27:51,110 --> 00:27:53,510 ...including the pendulum clock. 403 00:28:01,654 --> 00:28:05,750 To illustrate the sun-centered universe of Copernicus... 404 00:28:05,958 --> 00:28:09,587 ...he built computers that reproduced the clockwork of the heavens... 405 00:28:10,363 --> 00:28:12,524 ...from Mercury to Saturn. 406 00:28:17,870 --> 00:28:20,532 The machines he designed, he signed... 407 00:28:20,740 --> 00:28:23,732 ..."Christiaan Huygens, inventor." 408 00:28:26,345 --> 00:28:28,313 He was delighted that the Copernican system... 409 00:28:28,514 --> 00:28:31,005 ...was widely accepted in everyday life in Holland... 410 00:28:31,250 --> 00:28:35,118 ...and acknowledged by astronomers, except those, he wrote... 411 00:28:35,321 --> 00:28:38,119 ...who "were a bit slow-witted or under the superstitions... 412 00:28:38,324 --> 00:28:42,021 ...imposed by merely human authority. 413 00:28:44,597 --> 00:28:48,624 Across the sea of space... 414 00:28:49,068 --> 00:28:51,059 ...the stars... 415 00:28:51,671 --> 00:28:53,605 ...are other suns." 416 00:28:53,806 --> 00:28:57,367 A point which Huygens appreciated perfectly well. 417 00:28:58,344 --> 00:29:03,281 He reasoned that if our planetary system... 418 00:29:03,583 --> 00:29:06,780 ...involved the sun and planets going around it... 419 00:29:06,986 --> 00:29:10,444 ...that those other suns should likewise have a retinue... 420 00:29:10,656 --> 00:29:12,385 ...of planets going around them... 421 00:29:12,592 --> 00:29:16,528 ...and also that many of the other planets were inhabited. 422 00:29:16,796 --> 00:29:18,764 He set forth these conclusions... 423 00:29:18,965 --> 00:29:21,957 ...in a remarkable book... 424 00:29:22,168 --> 00:29:24,830 ...bearing the triumphant title... 425 00:29:25,037 --> 00:29:28,473 ...The Celestial Worlds Discovered. 426 00:29:28,674 --> 00:29:30,141 The subtitle is... 427 00:29:30,343 --> 00:29:32,402 ..."Conjectures Concerning... 428 00:29:32,612 --> 00:29:37,447 ...the Inhabitants, Plants and Productions... 429 00:29:37,650 --> 00:29:40,915 ...of the Worlds in the Planets." 430 00:29:41,921 --> 00:29:45,755 He wrote this book sometime shortly before his death... 431 00:29:45,958 --> 00:29:49,724 ...in the year 1690, in this study. 432 00:29:56,836 --> 00:29:57,996 By and large... 433 00:29:58,571 --> 00:30:01,631 ...he imagined that the environments of the other planets... 434 00:30:01,841 --> 00:30:04,639 ...and also the inhabitants of the other planets... 435 00:30:04,844 --> 00:30:09,304 ...were pretty much like those of 17th-century Europe. 436 00:30:09,715 --> 00:30:11,910 I wonder if he imagined... 437 00:30:12,118 --> 00:30:14,848 ...traveling to those other worlds which he had been... 438 00:30:15,054 --> 00:30:17,352 ...the first to examine close-up... 439 00:30:17,556 --> 00:30:19,490 ...through the telescope. 440 00:30:20,126 --> 00:30:23,892 Perhaps he dreamt that voyages of discovery to the planets... 441 00:30:24,096 --> 00:30:27,793 ...would one day be like the voyages of geographical discovery... 442 00:30:28,000 --> 00:30:30,434 ...in his time and place. 443 00:30:32,905 --> 00:30:36,033 He did imagine of extraterrestrial beings... 444 00:30:37,243 --> 00:30:40,144 ..."that their whole bodies, and every part of them... 445 00:30:40,346 --> 00:30:43,907 ...may be quite distinct and different from ours. 446 00:30:44,116 --> 00:30:47,108 'Its a very ridiculous opinion," he says... 447 00:30:47,320 --> 00:30:49,447 ..."that it is impossible a rational soul... 448 00:30:49,655 --> 00:30:53,113 ...should dwell in any other shape than ours." 449 00:30:53,859 --> 00:30:56,157 You could be smart, Huygens was saying... 450 00:30:56,362 --> 00:30:58,091 ...even if you looked funny. 451 00:30:58,397 --> 00:31:00,262 But he then went on to argue... 452 00:31:00,466 --> 00:31:02,832 ...that they didn't look all that funny... 453 00:31:03,035 --> 00:31:05,503 ...that extraterrestrial beings must have... 454 00:31:05,705 --> 00:31:08,105 ...hands and feet and stand upright... 455 00:31:08,307 --> 00:31:10,172 ...and have writing and geometry. 456 00:31:10,376 --> 00:31:12,844 Even that the four moons of Jupiter... 457 00:31:13,045 --> 00:31:17,175 ...the Galilean satellites, were there in order to provide... 458 00:31:17,383 --> 00:31:20,045 ...a navigational aid, a convenience... 459 00:31:20,252 --> 00:31:22,812 ...for the sailors in the Jovian oceans. 460 00:31:23,155 --> 00:31:25,749 Well, maybe. 461 00:31:32,832 --> 00:31:36,962 That bit of speculation is probably wrong, but... 462 00:31:37,169 --> 00:31:39,603 ...think of a citizen of the 17th century... 463 00:31:39,805 --> 00:31:42,273 ...with the courage and insight... 464 00:31:42,475 --> 00:31:46,138 ...to imagine other landscapes and other intelligences. 465 00:31:46,345 --> 00:31:49,075 Might there really be mariners... 466 00:31:49,281 --> 00:31:51,442 ...on a million other worlds? 467 00:31:54,487 --> 00:31:56,387 In his book, Huygens wrote: 468 00:31:56,589 --> 00:32:00,548 "What a wonderful and amazing scheme have we here... 469 00:32:00,760 --> 00:32:04,059 ...of the magnificent vastness of the universe. 470 00:32:04,263 --> 00:32:07,926 So many suns. So many earths. 471 00:32:08,134 --> 00:32:12,332 And every one of them stocked with so many animals. 472 00:32:12,605 --> 00:32:15,005 Adorned with so many seas. 473 00:32:15,207 --> 00:32:17,801 How must our wonder and admiration be increased... 474 00:32:18,310 --> 00:32:22,610 ...when we consider the prodigious distance and multitude... 475 00:32:22,815 --> 00:32:24,112 ...of the stars?" 476 00:32:30,956 --> 00:32:34,722 The Dutch called their ships "flying boats"... 477 00:32:34,927 --> 00:32:37,828 ...and the Voyager spacecraft are their descendants... 478 00:32:38,030 --> 00:32:40,328 ...true flying boats... 479 00:32:40,533 --> 00:32:43,263 ...bound for the stars, and on the way... 480 00:32:43,469 --> 00:32:46,768 ...exploring some of those worlds which Christiaan Huygens... 481 00:32:46,972 --> 00:32:48,405 ...a man from Earth... 482 00:32:48,607 --> 00:32:51,474 ...knew and loved so well. 483 00:32:53,345 --> 00:32:55,210 Travelers' tales: 484 00:32:55,414 --> 00:32:56,813 A main commodity... 485 00:32:57,016 --> 00:33:01,214 ...returned by those sailing ship voyages of centuries ago... 486 00:33:01,420 --> 00:33:03,820 ...were stories. 487 00:33:04,156 --> 00:33:08,490 Stories of alien lands and exotic creatures. 488 00:33:11,931 --> 00:33:15,594 They evoked a sense of wonder and stimulated further exploration. 489 00:33:15,801 --> 00:33:18,395 Those tales of strange worlds... 490 00:33:18,604 --> 00:33:21,835 ...enabled some Europeans to see themselves anew. 491 00:33:22,274 --> 00:33:25,710 There had been accounts of headless people, foot people... 492 00:33:25,911 --> 00:33:27,344 ...cyclops people. 493 00:33:28,380 --> 00:33:31,281 Now the Dutch brought back fantastic stories... 494 00:33:31,517 --> 00:33:33,280 ...of giant hunters... 495 00:33:34,220 --> 00:33:35,847 ...dodoes... 496 00:33:36,355 --> 00:33:38,414 ...rhinos... 497 00:33:38,924 --> 00:33:40,448 ...leopards... 498 00:33:40,659 --> 00:33:43,924 ...and other creatures. 499 00:33:46,732 --> 00:33:51,328 Modern voyagers also return travelers' tales: 500 00:33:51,670 --> 00:33:56,607 Tales of a world shattered like a crystal sphere. 501 00:33:57,376 --> 00:33:59,867 A place where the ground is covered... 502 00:34:00,079 --> 00:34:04,641 ...with what looks like a network of giant cobwebs. 503 00:34:08,020 --> 00:34:11,080 A world with an underground ocean. 504 00:34:12,424 --> 00:34:15,359 Tiny moons shaped like potatoes. 505 00:34:16,762 --> 00:34:19,458 A yellow and red pockmarked land... 506 00:34:19,665 --> 00:34:21,496 ...with lakes of molten sulfur... 507 00:34:21,700 --> 00:34:25,693 ...and volcanic eruptions 300 kilometers high. 508 00:34:29,475 --> 00:34:31,102 And a place called Jupiter... 509 00:34:31,310 --> 00:34:34,643 ...so large that a thousand Earths would fit inside. 510 00:34:34,847 --> 00:34:38,078 There are no mountains, valleys, volcanoes or rivers there. 511 00:34:38,284 --> 00:34:41,014 Just a vast ocean of gas and clouds. 512 00:34:41,220 --> 00:34:44,883 Everything we see on Jupiter is floating in the sky. 513 00:34:47,960 --> 00:34:51,293 But there's much that is fascinating about Jupiter. 514 00:34:51,630 --> 00:34:55,066 As the solar system condensed out of interstellar gas and dust... 515 00:34:55,267 --> 00:34:59,704 ...Jupiter acquired most of the matter not ejected into interstellar space... 516 00:34:59,905 --> 00:35:03,204 ...and which didn't fall inwards to form the sun. 517 00:35:03,409 --> 00:35:08,312 Jupiter is made mostly of hydrogen and helium, just like the sun... 518 00:35:08,514 --> 00:35:13,110 ...and had Jupiter been a few dozen times more massive... 519 00:35:13,319 --> 00:35:14,786 ...the matter in it... 520 00:35:14,987 --> 00:35:19,424 ...might have undergone thermonuclear reactions in the interior... 521 00:35:19,625 --> 00:35:23,857 ...and Jupiter would have begun to shine by its own light. 522 00:35:24,063 --> 00:35:28,056 Jupiter is a star that failed. 523 00:35:28,400 --> 00:35:29,799 Had it become a star... 524 00:35:30,002 --> 00:35:32,562 ...we would be living in a double-star system... 525 00:35:32,771 --> 00:35:34,864 ...with two suns in our sky... 526 00:35:35,074 --> 00:35:38,737 ...and the nights would come more rarely. 527 00:35:38,944 --> 00:35:43,040 Deep below the clouds of Jupiter, the weights of the layers of atmosphere... 528 00:35:43,248 --> 00:35:46,115 ...produce pressures which are much greater... 529 00:35:46,318 --> 00:35:49,116 ...than any that are found anywhere on the Earth. 530 00:35:49,355 --> 00:35:51,255 The clouds are this layer here. 531 00:35:51,457 --> 00:35:54,517 The deep interior is this high-pressure place. 532 00:35:54,727 --> 00:35:56,354 The pressure is so large... 533 00:35:56,562 --> 00:36:01,090 ...that electrons are squeezed off hydrogen atoms, producing... 534 00:36:02,101 --> 00:36:06,162 ...liquid metallic hydrogen. 535 00:36:06,472 --> 00:36:11,171 But at the very core of Jupiter, there may be a lump... 536 00:36:11,377 --> 00:36:12,435 ...of rock and iron... 537 00:36:12,645 --> 00:36:17,082 ...a giant Earth-like world under astonishing pressures... 538 00:36:17,282 --> 00:36:21,912 ...hidden forever at the center of the largest planet. 539 00:36:24,223 --> 00:36:25,690 Just before Voyager... 540 00:36:25,891 --> 00:36:30,658 ...encountered Jupiter, you could see that giant planet at night... 541 00:36:30,863 --> 00:36:35,800 ...shining in the sky as our ancestors have for the last million years. 542 00:36:36,101 --> 00:36:38,831 And on my way to study the Voyager data... 543 00:36:39,038 --> 00:36:41,506 ...arriving at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory... 544 00:36:41,707 --> 00:36:44,801 ...I thought that Jupiter would never be the same again. 545 00:36:45,010 --> 00:36:48,969 Never again just a point of light in the night sky... 546 00:36:49,181 --> 00:36:53,515 ...but forever after, a place to be explored and known. 547 00:36:56,655 --> 00:37:01,183 To see the first close-up images of a world never before known... 548 00:37:01,393 --> 00:37:05,591 ...is a great joy in the life of a planetary scientist. 549 00:37:07,833 --> 00:37:12,236 In the early morning hours of July 9th, 1979, on the real-time... 550 00:37:12,438 --> 00:37:15,407 ...television monitors at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory... 551 00:37:15,607 --> 00:37:18,735 ...we began to learn about a world called Europa. 552 00:37:18,977 --> 00:37:21,036 These are the modern explorers. 553 00:37:21,246 --> 00:37:22,975 Men and women trained... 554 00:37:23,182 --> 00:37:26,117 ...in astronomy, physics, geology or engineering. 555 00:37:26,318 --> 00:37:29,287 Many devoting five to eight years to this single mission. 556 00:37:29,488 --> 00:37:33,049 Cassen's model for Europa says if you start with a liquid... 557 00:37:33,258 --> 00:37:36,022 ...you can put in enough energy to keep it liquid. 558 00:37:37,429 --> 00:37:41,490 But Cassen said in order for there to be enough heating going on... 559 00:37:41,700 --> 00:37:45,932 ...you had to start the heating before Europa basically cooled off. 560 00:37:47,339 --> 00:37:49,671 But what about relief from the cracks? 561 00:37:52,845 --> 00:37:56,679 ...and Europa there's a twin, a pair there... 562 00:37:57,683 --> 00:38:01,016 You can't look at a world so different from ours... 563 00:38:01,220 --> 00:38:03,279 ...without wondering how both were made. 564 00:38:03,489 --> 00:38:05,514 Just rotate it out a little bit. 565 00:38:06,959 --> 00:38:10,827 Voyager presented us with six new worlds in the Jupiter system alone. 566 00:38:11,797 --> 00:38:15,858 The more you learn about other worlds, the better you understand our own. 567 00:38:16,068 --> 00:38:21,005 We speculate, criticize, argue, calculate, reflect and wonder. 568 00:38:21,340 --> 00:38:25,106 We return again to the astonishing data, and slowly... 569 00:38:25,310 --> 00:38:27,676 ...we begin to understand. 570 00:38:38,757 --> 00:38:42,124 The Dutch sailing ships brought back rare and valuable commodities... 571 00:38:42,327 --> 00:38:44,318 ...from the new worlds they visited. 572 00:38:44,530 --> 00:38:46,464 Our Voyager spaceships... 573 00:38:46,665 --> 00:38:49,327 ...return rare and valuable information... 574 00:38:49,535 --> 00:38:53,266 ...to computerized wharves on this shore of the sea of space. 575 00:38:54,039 --> 00:38:58,942 Here the data are stored, enhanced, processed and treasured. 576 00:38:59,645 --> 00:39:03,240 Maps of alien lands will be generated from this information. 577 00:39:03,448 --> 00:39:07,544 In this electric warehouse are tens of thousands of images... 578 00:39:07,753 --> 00:39:10,586 ...of previously unknown worlds. 579 00:39:12,758 --> 00:39:16,159 How does a picture from the outer solar system get to us? 580 00:39:16,361 --> 00:39:19,728 Sunlight shines on Europa, and is reflected back to space... 581 00:39:19,932 --> 00:39:21,763 ...where some strikes the phosphors... 582 00:39:21,967 --> 00:39:25,232 ...of the Voyager television cameras, generating an image. 583 00:39:25,437 --> 00:39:28,668 The image is radioed back across the immense distance... 584 00:39:28,874 --> 00:39:31,035 ...of half a billion kilometers... 585 00:39:31,243 --> 00:39:34,440 ...to a radio telescope on Earth. One in Australia, say. 586 00:39:34,646 --> 00:39:37,410 The telescope then passes the information... 587 00:39:37,616 --> 00:39:40,608 ...via communications satellite in Earth orbit... 588 00:39:40,819 --> 00:39:42,514 ...to Southern California. 589 00:39:42,721 --> 00:39:46,680 There, it's transmitted by a set of microwave relay towers... 590 00:39:46,892 --> 00:39:50,259 ...to a computer at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory... 591 00:39:51,096 --> 00:39:53,997 ...and there it is processed. 592 00:40:01,273 --> 00:40:03,867 The picture is like a newspaper wire photo... 593 00:40:04,076 --> 00:40:07,978 ...made of a million individual dots of differing shades of gray... 594 00:40:08,180 --> 00:40:10,910 ...so fine and close together that at a distance... 595 00:40:11,116 --> 00:40:13,949 ...the constituent dots are invisible. 596 00:40:14,152 --> 00:40:16,780 We see only their cumulative effect. 597 00:40:18,023 --> 00:40:21,083 The information specifies how bright or dark... 598 00:40:21,293 --> 00:40:22,920 ...each dot is to be. 599 00:40:23,128 --> 00:40:26,188 After processing, the dots are stored on a magnetic disk... 600 00:40:26,398 --> 00:40:28,832 ...something like a phonograph record. 601 00:40:29,067 --> 00:40:32,901 By this day, there were already 11,000 pictures from Voyager 2 in our... 602 00:40:33,105 --> 00:40:34,766 ...electronic library. 603 00:40:35,774 --> 00:40:39,505 Finally, the end product of this remarkable set... 604 00:40:39,711 --> 00:40:41,941 ...of links and relays... 605 00:40:43,048 --> 00:40:46,643 ...is a hard copy which comes out of this machine showing... 606 00:40:47,052 --> 00:40:49,987 ...in this case, the wonders of Europa... 607 00:40:50,188 --> 00:40:54,420 ...which were recorded for the first time in human history, today. 608 00:40:54,960 --> 00:40:57,986 It is absolutely astonishing. 609 00:40:58,964 --> 00:41:03,526 Voyager 1 got very good pictures of the other three big moons... 610 00:41:03,735 --> 00:41:07,102 ...Galilean satellites of Jupiter, but not of Europa. 611 00:41:07,306 --> 00:41:10,241 It was left to Voyager 2 today... 612 00:41:10,442 --> 00:41:13,536 ...to get the first close-up pictures of Europa... 613 00:41:13,745 --> 00:41:17,272 ...where we see things that are only a few kilometers across. 614 00:41:17,482 --> 00:41:20,645 At first glance, it looks like nothing so much as... 615 00:41:20,852 --> 00:41:25,789 ...the canal network of Mars that Lowell imagined existed on that planet. 616 00:41:26,258 --> 00:41:31,195 We see an amazing, intricate network of crisscrossing... 617 00:41:31,463 --> 00:41:33,761 ...straight and curved lines. 618 00:41:33,966 --> 00:41:36,025 Are these straight lines ridges? 619 00:41:36,234 --> 00:41:37,326 Are they troughs? 620 00:41:37,536 --> 00:41:40,562 Is it connected with plate tectonics on the Earth? 621 00:41:40,772 --> 00:41:45,072 How does it illuminate the other satellites of the Jovian system? 622 00:41:45,377 --> 00:41:48,676 At this moment, the vaunted technology... 623 00:41:48,880 --> 00:41:51,178 ...has produced something astonishing. 624 00:41:51,383 --> 00:41:53,681 But it remains for... 625 00:41:54,186 --> 00:41:58,555 ...the limitations and cleverness of another device... 626 00:41:58,757 --> 00:42:01,692 ...the human brain, to figure it out. 627 00:42:03,862 --> 00:42:07,923 Fortunately, we have plenty of pictures to help us. 628 00:42:08,900 --> 00:42:12,927 What about Gene's idea of geysers down the troughs? 629 00:42:13,138 --> 00:42:15,265 Geysers down the troughs? 630 00:42:16,475 --> 00:42:18,534 You need a mechanism to drive it. 631 00:42:18,744 --> 00:42:22,043 Larry Soderblom, Voyager imaging team. 632 00:42:22,247 --> 00:42:27,150 An idea was proposed a while ago that we might have a sort of... 633 00:42:27,352 --> 00:42:29,547 ...champagne-bottle model. And that's... 634 00:42:29,755 --> 00:42:33,088 You seal the crust and have liquid underneath that solid crust. 635 00:42:33,592 --> 00:42:37,028 Do you have then a condition which is an explosive effervescence? 636 00:42:37,362 --> 00:42:39,523 Lonnie Lane, deputy project scientist. 637 00:42:40,799 --> 00:42:44,530 You have enough resolution in some of these pictures that... 638 00:42:44,736 --> 00:42:47,170 ...you don't see anything spread laterally. 639 00:42:47,372 --> 00:42:50,000 Do we have the high-resolution piece? 640 00:42:50,275 --> 00:42:52,869 - It was right here. - There it is. 641 00:42:53,078 --> 00:42:56,013 We'll pick out the relief, and if we're going to see... 642 00:42:56,214 --> 00:42:57,511 ...the things we recognize... 643 00:42:57,716 --> 00:43:00,412 Weeks after the pictures from Europa were received... 644 00:43:00,619 --> 00:43:02,712 ...we were still debating what was in them. 645 00:43:02,921 --> 00:43:05,890 It's as if we almost got to the... 646 00:43:06,725 --> 00:43:08,158 Look at the mesas here. 647 00:43:08,760 --> 00:43:11,923 We almost got the resolution needed to see the craters. 648 00:43:12,130 --> 00:43:15,566 The craters which would last indefinitely on a crust this thin. 649 00:43:15,767 --> 00:43:17,291 Apart from the réseaus... 650 00:43:17,502 --> 00:43:22,337 ...there's a set of very fine small dots, markings... 651 00:43:22,541 --> 00:43:24,736 ...mostly in the mottled terrain. 652 00:43:24,943 --> 00:43:28,538 Like those guys. Do you think those are... 653 00:43:28,747 --> 00:43:32,205 ...sites of outgassing, calderas, fumaroles, solfataras? 654 00:43:32,417 --> 00:43:35,545 I don't know, but I'll tell you one thing I just found... 655 00:43:37,789 --> 00:43:39,188 Look right here. 656 00:43:40,759 --> 00:43:42,124 It disappeared. 657 00:43:43,228 --> 00:43:45,389 See the central peak? 658 00:43:45,597 --> 00:43:47,497 See the little hole? 659 00:43:50,168 --> 00:43:52,636 I think it's an impact crater. Look at the central peak. 660 00:43:52,838 --> 00:43:54,931 There are almost no impact craters. 661 00:43:55,140 --> 00:43:56,767 Wait, we just found one. 662 00:43:56,975 --> 00:43:58,203 Almost none. 663 00:43:59,311 --> 00:44:03,441 Therefore, finding one which is alleged to be the exception... 664 00:44:03,648 --> 00:44:06,640 ...maybe it's not the exception, but something else. 665 00:44:06,852 --> 00:44:11,016 Perhaps, but you asked about those little holes that we can't make out. 666 00:44:13,158 --> 00:44:16,525 The big craters go away by some rheological deformation... 667 00:44:16,728 --> 00:44:19,561 ...and the little ones stay but are out of our resolution. 668 00:44:19,764 --> 00:44:23,666 That's because they're one-tenth the depth of the rigid crust. 669 00:44:23,869 --> 00:44:25,063 Well, maybe. 670 00:44:26,304 --> 00:44:29,000 Computer processing of the pictures has revealed... 671 00:44:29,207 --> 00:44:32,438 ...a few features on Europa which seem to be impact craters. 672 00:44:32,644 --> 00:44:33,702 But something... 673 00:44:33,912 --> 00:44:36,210 ...has wiped out the big craters. 674 00:44:36,414 --> 00:44:38,746 Computer processing also played a major role... 675 00:44:38,950 --> 00:44:42,977 ...in an amazing Voyager discovery made on the moon next to Europa... 676 00:44:43,188 --> 00:44:45,952 ...a world called lo. 677 00:44:47,492 --> 00:44:50,791 Even from Earth we could tell that lo had a strange color. 678 00:44:50,996 --> 00:44:54,363 We knew that somehow sulfur had been removed from its surface... 679 00:44:54,566 --> 00:44:58,229 ...and ejected into a great doughnut of gas orbiting Jupiter. 680 00:44:58,436 --> 00:45:02,304 Then Voyager 1 sailed close to lo. 681 00:45:04,709 --> 00:45:08,941 There were a few places on lo which looked like the mouths of volcanoes... 682 00:45:09,147 --> 00:45:10,842 ...but it was hard to be sure. 683 00:45:11,716 --> 00:45:15,208 Then, Linda Morabito, a member of the Voyager navigation team... 684 00:45:15,420 --> 00:45:18,287 ...used a computer to enhance the edge of lo... 685 00:45:18,490 --> 00:45:21,015 ...in order to bring out the stars behind. 686 00:45:21,226 --> 00:45:25,128 Four days after the Voyager 1 encounter with Jupiter... 687 00:45:25,330 --> 00:45:29,130 ...I was looking at an optical navigation frame. 688 00:45:29,334 --> 00:45:33,464 In enhancing this particular quadrant, what became very evident to me... 689 00:45:33,672 --> 00:45:35,731 ...was an anomalous crescent... 690 00:45:35,941 --> 00:45:39,308 ...in the upper left-hand corner, just off the limb of lo. 691 00:45:39,511 --> 00:45:40,705 What was it? 692 00:45:40,912 --> 00:45:43,312 The plume was in exactly the position... 693 00:45:43,515 --> 00:45:45,540 ...of one of the suspected volcanoes. 694 00:45:45,951 --> 00:45:49,352 We realized then that what we were observing... 695 00:45:49,554 --> 00:45:53,615 ...was a volcanic plume and, in fact, a volcanic eruption. 696 00:45:55,694 --> 00:46:00,393 Voyager had discovered the first active volcano beyond the Earth. 697 00:46:02,767 --> 00:46:05,201 We then found that lo has many volcanoes. 698 00:46:05,403 --> 00:46:08,497 There are at least nine intermittently active plumes... 699 00:46:08,707 --> 00:46:11,335 ...and hundreds, maybe thousands, of extinct ones. 700 00:46:11,543 --> 00:46:15,536 The plumes can eject sulfur and other atoms off lo altogether... 701 00:46:15,880 --> 00:46:19,441 ...and account for the sulfur clouds surrounding Jupiter. 702 00:46:20,185 --> 00:46:24,952 Rivers of molten sulfur flow down the sides of the volcanic mountains... 703 00:46:25,156 --> 00:46:28,216 ...and are the probable source of lo's distinctive colors. 704 00:46:28,426 --> 00:46:33,159 The volcanoes may be tapping some vast underground ocean of liquid sulfur... 705 00:46:33,365 --> 00:46:37,734 ...beneath a surface that is only a few thousand years old. 706 00:46:41,640 --> 00:46:45,098 So far, in our voyages to the outer solar system... 707 00:46:45,343 --> 00:46:47,811 ...we humans have stayed home... 708 00:46:48,013 --> 00:46:51,244 ...and sent robots and computers to explore in our stead. 709 00:46:51,449 --> 00:46:54,509 Someday, perhaps, we'll go ourselves. 710 00:46:55,620 --> 00:46:56,814 But suppose... 711 00:46:57,422 --> 00:47:00,357 ...like those Dutch sea captains of the 17th century... 712 00:47:00,558 --> 00:47:03,994 ...the computers aboard Voyager could keep a ship's log. 713 00:47:04,195 --> 00:47:08,291 That log, a combination of the events of Voyagers 1 and 2... 714 00:47:08,500 --> 00:47:11,367 ...might read something like this: 715 00:47:13,805 --> 00:47:18,504 Day 1: After much concern about provisions and instruments... 716 00:47:18,710 --> 00:47:22,942 ...we successfully lift off from Cape Canaveral on our long journey... 717 00:47:23,148 --> 00:47:25,742 ...to the planets and the stars. 718 00:47:34,159 --> 00:47:38,357 Day 13: We have taken the first photograph of the Earth and moon... 719 00:47:38,563 --> 00:47:42,090 ...as worlds together in space. A pretty pair. 720 00:47:46,104 --> 00:47:49,631 Day 170: A problem in the deployment of the boom... 721 00:47:49,841 --> 00:47:52,139 ...that supports the science scan platform. 722 00:47:52,344 --> 00:47:54,141 If the problem is not solved... 723 00:47:54,346 --> 00:47:56,940 ...we will be unable to take most of our pictures. 724 00:48:01,186 --> 00:48:06,123 Day 207: Boom problem solved, but failure of main radio transmitter. 725 00:48:06,658 --> 00:48:08,751 If the backup transmitter also fails... 726 00:48:08,960 --> 00:48:12,225 ...no one on Earth will ever hear from us again. 727 00:48:13,264 --> 00:48:14,458 Day 215: 728 00:48:14,666 --> 00:48:16,964 We cross the orbit of Mars... 729 00:48:17,168 --> 00:48:19,295 ...and enter the main asteroid belt. 730 00:48:20,905 --> 00:48:25,171 Day 570: We can now make out finer detail on Jupiter... 731 00:48:25,377 --> 00:48:29,040 ...than the largest telescopes on Earth have ever obtained. 732 00:48:34,052 --> 00:48:35,679 Day 640: 733 00:48:35,887 --> 00:48:39,618 The cloud patterns are distinctive and gorgeous. 734 00:48:39,824 --> 00:48:41,451 No painter trapped on Earth... 735 00:48:41,659 --> 00:48:44,457 ...ever imagined a world so strange and lovely. 736 00:48:47,699 --> 00:48:51,226 The white clouds are ammonia crystals, high and cold. 737 00:48:51,436 --> 00:48:54,166 We do not know the nature of the red-brown clouds. 738 00:48:54,372 --> 00:48:56,966 Maybe phosphorous or sulfur as a stain. 739 00:48:57,175 --> 00:49:01,612 Perhaps organic molecules of the sort that led, four billion years ago... 740 00:49:01,813 --> 00:49:04,680 ...back on Earth, to the origin of life. 741 00:49:04,883 --> 00:49:07,579 And what is the great red spot? 742 00:49:10,355 --> 00:49:13,449 It is an immense swirling column of gas... 743 00:49:13,658 --> 00:49:15,853 ...reaching high above adjacent clouds. 744 00:49:16,060 --> 00:49:18,893 So large that it could hold half a dozen Earths. 745 00:49:19,097 --> 00:49:22,533 Its motion hypnotizes us. 746 00:49:26,304 --> 00:49:30,104 Some think that the red spot is a great spinning storm... 747 00:49:30,308 --> 00:49:32,674 ...a million years old. 748 00:49:35,914 --> 00:49:40,851 Day 650: Encounter. A day of wonders. 749 00:49:44,055 --> 00:49:46,148 The ship maneuvers so we can take pictures... 750 00:49:46,357 --> 00:49:48,985 ...of the multi-ringed basin on Callisto. 751 00:49:53,965 --> 00:49:58,493 Images of the astonishing lined surface of Ganymede. 752 00:50:03,074 --> 00:50:05,804 A close passage by Europa. 753 00:50:08,179 --> 00:50:10,647 And, a view of volcanic lo. 754 00:50:14,419 --> 00:50:17,855 We successfully negotiate the treacherous radiation belts... 755 00:50:18,056 --> 00:50:21,492 ...and accomplish the ring plane crossing. 756 00:50:22,627 --> 00:50:25,095 Looking back, we marvel at the rings... 757 00:50:25,296 --> 00:50:30,063 ...and see the sun emerge from behind the giant planet. 758 00:50:35,039 --> 00:50:39,976 We are outward bound on our mission to explore the outer solar system. 759 00:50:40,879 --> 00:50:42,870 Ten thousand years from now... 760 00:50:43,081 --> 00:50:46,608 ...Voyager will plunge onward to the stars. 761 00:50:47,752 --> 00:50:52,382 We have made the ships that sail the sea of space. 762 00:50:56,261 --> 00:50:57,888 We travel past Jupiter... 763 00:50:58,096 --> 00:51:01,395 ...three quarters of a billion kilometers from the sun... 764 00:51:01,933 --> 00:51:04,959 ...Saturn, one and a half billion, Uranus, three billion... 765 00:51:05,169 --> 00:51:09,799 ...and Neptune, four and a half billion kilometers away. 766 00:51:12,877 --> 00:51:14,276 In our ship of the mind... 767 00:51:14,479 --> 00:51:18,745 ...we retrace the itinerary of the two Voyager spacecraft... 768 00:51:18,950 --> 00:51:22,647 ...on their journeys to Saturn and beyond. 769 00:51:24,722 --> 00:51:27,987 Saturn was first glimpsed through the telescope by Galileo. 770 00:51:28,192 --> 00:51:31,127 Its rings first understood by Huygens. 771 00:51:31,329 --> 00:51:35,698 But only now do we begin to penetrate its deeper mysteries. 772 00:51:41,673 --> 00:51:45,575 Saturn is the second largest planet in the solar system. 773 00:51:46,444 --> 00:51:50,676 Like Jupiter, it is cloud-covered, and rotates once every 10 hours. 774 00:51:50,882 --> 00:51:54,215 It has a weaker magnetic field, a weaker radiation belt... 775 00:51:54,419 --> 00:51:56,683 ...and a grand, magnificent... 776 00:51:56,888 --> 00:52:00,085 ...exquisite system of rings. 777 00:52:01,793 --> 00:52:04,557 The rings are composed of billions of tiny moons... 778 00:52:04,762 --> 00:52:07,560 ...each circling Saturn in its own orbit. 779 00:52:08,266 --> 00:52:12,498 The biggest gap in the rings is called the Cassini Division... 780 00:52:12,704 --> 00:52:15,798 ...after the colleague of Huygens who first discovered it. 781 00:52:16,741 --> 00:52:18,299 There are many other gaps... 782 00:52:18,509 --> 00:52:21,535 ...each produced by the periodic gravitational tugs... 783 00:52:21,746 --> 00:52:23,737 ...of one of the larger outer moons. 784 00:52:40,865 --> 00:52:43,356 From just beneath the ring plane... 785 00:52:43,568 --> 00:52:47,231 ...we see a sky full of moons. 786 00:53:07,058 --> 00:53:11,654 Within the rings, the individual moons become visible. 787 00:53:13,531 --> 00:53:17,092 They are orbiting chunks of snow and ice... 788 00:53:18,436 --> 00:53:20,802 ...each perhaps a meter across. 789 00:53:26,344 --> 00:53:29,939 In young parts of the ring system, there hasn't been enough time... 790 00:53:30,148 --> 00:53:34,517 ...for collisions to round the edges of these fragments... 791 00:53:34,719 --> 00:53:37,210 ...the snowballs of Saturn. 792 00:54:23,234 --> 00:54:28,001 Far from the rings, bathed in its red light... 793 00:54:29,307 --> 00:54:33,073 ...we encounter Saturn's immense cloud-covered moon... 794 00:54:33,277 --> 00:54:34,505 ...Titan. 795 00:54:47,458 --> 00:54:49,892 It has an atmosphere denser than that of Mars... 796 00:54:50,695 --> 00:54:52,526 ...and a thick layer of red clouds... 797 00:54:52,730 --> 00:54:56,291 ...which are probably composed of complex organic molecules... 798 00:54:56,501 --> 00:55:00,164 ...produced by solar ultraviolet light and other energy sources... 799 00:55:00,371 --> 00:55:02,066 ...from the methane-rich air. 800 00:55:09,413 --> 00:55:12,678 No ship from Earth has ever penetrated those clouds... 801 00:55:12,884 --> 00:55:17,446 ...and viewed, close-up, the surface of this tantalizing world. 802 00:55:23,795 --> 00:55:27,162 It seems likely that the ground is covered, encrusted... 803 00:55:27,365 --> 00:55:31,426 ...with organic molecules raining from the sky. 804 00:55:37,408 --> 00:55:41,708 There may be volcanoes and valleys of ice... 805 00:55:41,913 --> 00:55:44,711 ...and, just perhaps... 806 00:55:44,916 --> 00:55:49,785 ...hiding in the warm places, some very different kind of life. 807 00:55:57,862 --> 00:55:59,921 Near an ice cliff of Titan... 808 00:56:00,131 --> 00:56:03,498 ...through a rare break in the clouds of organic molecules... 809 00:56:03,701 --> 00:56:08,536 ...we can see, looming and lovely, the ringed planet, Saturn. 810 00:56:10,007 --> 00:56:14,341 It is a view that will still be appreciated centuries from now... 811 00:56:14,579 --> 00:56:16,740 ...by our descendants, who will know it well. 812 00:56:16,948 --> 00:56:19,348 As well as we have come to know... 813 00:56:19,550 --> 00:56:22,883 ...Hudson's Bay and the Barents Sea... 814 00:56:23,087 --> 00:56:27,080 ...Indonesia, and Australia and New York. 815 00:56:27,925 --> 00:56:32,521 They will look back to when Titan was first seen by Voyager spaceships... 816 00:56:32,730 --> 00:56:35,893 ...on their epic journeys past the giant planets... 817 00:56:36,100 --> 00:56:37,795 ...out of the solar system... 818 00:56:38,002 --> 00:56:41,802 ...to the great dark between the stars. 819 00:56:59,257 --> 00:57:01,282 Since Cosmos was first shown... 820 00:57:01,492 --> 00:57:05,394 ...Voyager spacecraft have explored the systems of the planets... 821 00:57:05,596 --> 00:57:08,360 ...Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune... 822 00:57:08,566 --> 00:57:13,435 ...and have now passed the outermost planets on their way to the stars. 823 00:57:13,871 --> 00:57:17,568 We inserted the flavor of those encounters in our captain's log. 824 00:57:18,342 --> 00:57:20,367 But with image processing... 825 00:57:20,578 --> 00:57:24,810 ...we've been able to reconstruct astonishing movies... 826 00:57:25,082 --> 00:57:26,743 ...of some of these worlds. 827 00:57:26,951 --> 00:57:30,352 Here, for example, is Jupiter, with its great red spot. 828 00:57:31,923 --> 00:57:35,188 And volcanic lo, spinning before us. 829 00:57:36,193 --> 00:57:41,130 Icy Enceladus, a tiny moon of Saturn, on much of which, somehow... 830 00:57:41,599 --> 00:57:43,533 ...the craters have melted. 831 00:57:44,735 --> 00:57:47,101 And Miranda, of Uranus. 832 00:57:48,639 --> 00:57:51,369 Austere, blue Neptune. 833 00:57:53,711 --> 00:57:57,112 Or consider Titan, the giant moon of Saturn. 834 00:57:57,315 --> 00:58:00,682 We've taken the nitrogen and methane in its atmosphere... 835 00:58:00,885 --> 00:58:04,377 ...irradiated it in the lab with electrons of the sort that are... 836 00:58:04,588 --> 00:58:07,250 ...beamed at Titan from Saturn's magnetic field... 837 00:58:07,458 --> 00:58:10,154 ...and we made this stuff... 838 00:58:10,761 --> 00:58:15,198 ...which matches, almost perfectly, the observed properties of the Titan haze. 839 00:58:15,399 --> 00:58:16,491 What is it? 840 00:58:16,701 --> 00:58:19,135 It's a mixture of complex organic molecules. 841 00:58:19,337 --> 00:58:22,534 You drop some into water and, among other things, you make... 842 00:58:22,740 --> 00:58:25,334 ...amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. 843 00:58:25,543 --> 00:58:28,478 So the starting materials of life... 844 00:58:28,679 --> 00:58:32,877 ...are raining from the skies of Titan, like manna from heaven. 845 00:58:33,084 --> 00:58:35,746 I can't wait until the Cassini mission... 846 00:58:35,953 --> 00:58:40,219 ...sends an entry probe through the organic haze of Titan... 847 00:58:40,424 --> 00:58:42,551 ...to its enigmatic surface. 848 00:58:42,960 --> 00:58:47,897 The Voyager spacecraft rush on past the planets and to the stars... 849 00:58:48,132 --> 00:58:50,259 ...still returning data. 850 00:58:50,801 --> 00:58:53,463 As it left the planetary part of the solar system... 851 00:58:53,671 --> 00:58:55,935 ...Voyager 1 turned back... 852 00:58:56,140 --> 00:59:00,008 ...to take one last portrait of the planets of the solar system. 853 00:59:00,678 --> 00:59:03,613 ...and one of those pictures was of the Earth. 854 00:59:03,814 --> 00:59:08,251 A tiny blue dot, set in a sunbeam. 855 00:59:08,886 --> 00:59:10,217 Here it is. 856 00:59:10,421 --> 00:59:12,946 That's where we live. That's home. 857 00:59:13,157 --> 00:59:17,025 We humans are one species, and this is our world. 858 00:59:17,528 --> 00:59:19,860 It is our responsibility to cherish it. 859 00:59:20,064 --> 00:59:24,023 Of all the worlds in our solar system, the only one, so far as we know... 860 00:59:24,235 --> 00:59:26,135 ...graced by life.