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♪♪
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Narrator:
The first ice skates
Were invented
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In northern europe
About a thousand years ago
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When people began
Lacing animal bones to
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The soles of their boots
To cross frozen water.
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In 1592, a scotsman
Invented an iron skate blade,
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And before long, the sport
Of speed skating took off.
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These elite-level racing skates
Are produced by
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A small company cofounded
By a canadian speed skater,
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A three-time olympic medalist
In short track.
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Every single pair
Is custom-made.
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After measuring a skater's feet,
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A technician applies layers
Of wet plaster bandages,
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The same way one makes a cast
For a broken limb,
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Only here, each foot cast
Is comprised of two parts.
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♪♪
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Each cast serves as
The first-stage mold
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For a skate boot.
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The plaster bandages take 5
To 10 minutes to harden and dry,
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At which point the technician
Carefully removes the mold
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One part at a time,
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Then reassembles it
With elastic bands.
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00:02:08,068 --> 00:02:11,655
He surrounds the mold,
Called a negative, with sand.
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He then pours liquid plaster
Into the negative
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To produce a positive mold.
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The sand provides
Counterpressure
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So that the plaster
Can't push the walls outward
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And distort their shape.
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The plaster fully cures
In an hour or two,
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At which point the negative mold
Can come off.
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Then the technician mixes up
Some thicker plaster
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Pigmented to make it easily
Visible against the dried,
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White plaster.
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He applies it in select areas,
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Touching up imperfections and
Tweaking the shape of the mold.
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He files the toes and the rest
Of the contours smooth,
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Producing the final shape
Of the boot.
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He labels the finished mold
With the skater's name
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And puts it in the storeroom
Until it's time
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To begin constructing
The skate boots.
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Construction begins
With boot lining.
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They staple a piece of
Genuine leather to the mold,
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Pulling taut because
Any wrinkles in the lining
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Would irritate
The skater's foot.
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Next, they glue on
The various structural pieces,
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Such as this ankle padding.
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It's made of memory foam
So it gradually forms to
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The skater's ankle
And holds the shape.
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The next step
Is the most technically critical
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Because it determines
The angle of the skate blade.
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They apply a epoxy-resin putty
To the front and back
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Of the sole and adhere two
Aluminum blade holders...
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Then prop up the boot
As the putty dries
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Over the next four hours or so.
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Once the putty's hard,
They sand off the excess
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To lighten the skate
And round out the remainder.
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Then they begin constructing
The outside of the boot.
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First, they layer pieces
Of carbon fiber,
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A strong fabric commonly used
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In high-performance
Sports products.
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They tie the bottom piece
Around the blade holders
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With strong thread
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And bind the layers
With spray adhesive.
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♪♪
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♪♪
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Next, they slip a plastic bag
Over the boot...
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Tie off the ends...
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And vacuum out the air.
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This tightly compresses
The layers of carbon fiber.
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Now they inject resin,
A type of liquid plastic,
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And distribute it evenly
Throughout the bag.
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♪♪
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The resin impregnates
The carbon fiber.
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♪♪
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After a couple of hours,
The resin dries and hardens,
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Leaving the carbon-fiber boot
Stiff and durable.
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Next, they glue on the outside
Of the boot, made of vinyl.
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♪♪
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Once the glue dries,
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They remove the plaster mold
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And stitch the vinyl in place.
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They also take
A vinyl lace cover,
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Sew one side of it to the boot,
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And attach the other side
With a hook and loop fastener.
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That way it hinges open
And closed
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For lacing
And unlacing the skate.
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The final step is to attach
The inline wheels,
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Or steel blades,
To the blade holders.
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♪♪
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Narrator: synthetic rubber
Was invented in 1909,
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But the technology languished
For a couple of decades.
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A shortage of natural rubber
During world war ii
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Spurred its development.
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A kind of elastic plastic,
It was actually more resistant
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To temperature extremes
Than natural rubber.
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Synthetic rubber
Reinvented the wheel.
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We're talking about
The rubber tire.
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Tires for all kinds of vehicles
Are now made from it.
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This manmade material
Is also used to make
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Everything from garden hoses
To golf balls.
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Manufacturing synthetic rubber
Is now a computerized process,
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One that takes place
Under the watchful eye
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Of a control-room operator.
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He monitors numerous computer
Screens and live camera images.
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The plant itself
Is 437 yards long.
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There are a dozen or more
Enormous storage tanks
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For the raw materials, as
Well as several reactor units.
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The raw materials
Include a petroleum-based liquid
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Called butadiene
And solvent called hexane.
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They pipe these ingredients
Through columns
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To boil off any residual water,
Essentially purifying them.
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This is
A laboratory demonstration
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Of what happens next.
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They combine
The purified butadiene
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And hexane and add a catalyst.
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The catalyst triggers a reaction
That changes the chemistry.
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The mix becomes polybutadiene,
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A kind of synthetic rubber
Used to make tires.
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Adding another catalyst
Stops the reaction
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At just the right moment.
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The white,
Milky liquid that exits the tank
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Is synthetic rubber.
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They now pump in chemicals
To tailor the rubber
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For a specific use,
In this case tires.
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The additives will increase
Traction and improve wear.
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A mechanized whisk stirs
The additives
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Into the liquid rubber.
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They pipe
The synthetic concoction
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Into insulated storage tanks.
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Inside,
Pumps mix it constantly
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So the additives
Don't settle on the bottom.
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Here's a close-up look
At the liquid synthetic rubber
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In a laboratory beaker.
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It looks like
A big vanilla milkshake,
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And it's about to be
Coagulated into crumbs.
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Here's where it all happens.
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This coagulation unit
Is like a big kettle.
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They pipe in the liquid rubber,
A solvent mixture, and water.
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As they boil off the solvent,
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The rubber coagulates
Into crumbs the size of beans.
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The water remains because
It has a higher boiling point.
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The mix of water
And rubber crumbs
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Bounces about in what's known as
The crumb tank
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Until it's time
For more processing.
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They then pump the mix
Into a rotary sieve.
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As it spins,
It drains off the water.
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They add more water
To cool the rubber crumbs.
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The rubber and water mix
Gushes onto a conveyor
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Which is a vibrating sieve.
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As the crumbs bounce along,
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The water drains off through the
Perforations in the conveyor.
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The synthetic rubber
Is now a lot like wet snow.
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Next,
It's into the lab,
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Where they aim
A beam of infrared light
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Through a sample
To analyze the microstructure.
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If it's acceptable,
Production continues.
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A screw-like mechanism
Presses the wet rubber crumbs
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Against a metal plate
To squeeze out more moisture.
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Another trip
On the next vibrating conveyor
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Drains off droplets.
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Then it's into a quivering,
Spiral conveyor.
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As the synthetic rubber
Travels upwards on the spiral,
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Hot air is piped in
From the side to dry it.
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Now mostly devoid of moisture,
But still sticky,
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The synthetic rubber crumbs
Head down a chute
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And into a baler machine.
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This machine uses pressure
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To compress the crumbs
Into big bales.
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The bales of synthetic rubber
Head down a conveyor
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Towards a quality-control
Inspector.
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This inspector examines them
For imperfections.
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Once he gives them the okay,
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They head to
The packaging station.
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As they travel through
A curtain of plastic film,
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Machinery heat-seals it
Around them.
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These bales
Of synthetic rubber
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Have taken about six hours
To manufacture.
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♪♪
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And this purely
Chemical creation
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Isn't much different
From the real thing.
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Like natural rubber,
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It can be melted and shaped
Into many different things.
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Soon, this batch
Will be turned into tires,
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And that's when the synthetic
Rubber will really hit the road.
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♪♪
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Narrator:
Cocoa beans are the primary raw
Material for making chocolate.
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They come from the fruit
Of the cocoa tree,
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Native to central
And south america.
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The ancient mayans
Would grind them up
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To make a special beverage
For marriage ceremonies
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And other rituals.
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00:11:22,379 --> 00:11:25,413
Today, cocoa is cultivated
In the rainforest areas
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Of many countries
In the tropics.
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00:11:28,965 --> 00:11:31,275
These cocoa beans
From costa rica
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00:11:31,275 --> 00:11:34,758
Were cultivated without the use
Of chemical fertilizers,
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Pesticides,
Or fungicides.
203
00:11:36,620 --> 00:11:39,620
Farming cocoa organically
Requires meticulous care
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And maintenance of the crop,
Along with grafting techniques
205
00:11:43,103 --> 00:11:47,655
To help establish
Disease-tolerant tree varieties.
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00:11:47,655 --> 00:11:51,068
The farmer cuts a budwood,
A young branch about to bud,
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00:11:51,068 --> 00:11:53,206
From a healthy,
Productive tree
208
00:11:53,206 --> 00:11:55,551
And grafts it onto
A sucker growing
209
00:11:55,551 --> 00:11:58,620
From the base of a tree
Which is either diseased
210
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Or old and unproductive.
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00:12:00,137 --> 00:12:03,034
She cuts a slot
At the top of the sucker,
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00:12:03,034 --> 00:12:06,034
Then wraps a plastic strip
Around the budwood
213
00:12:06,034 --> 00:12:08,862
To hold in moisture
Until the graft takes.
214
00:12:08,862 --> 00:12:12,275
Next, she cuts a pointed end
On the budwood
215
00:12:12,275 --> 00:12:16,275
And inserts it into the slot
She made in the sucker.
216
00:12:16,275 --> 00:12:20,620
Then she binds the union and
Covers it with a plastic bag.
217
00:12:20,620 --> 00:12:24,793
Bagging protects the graft
Against two potential extremes,
218
00:12:24,793 --> 00:12:29,000
Dehydration and excessive rain,
Which causes rot or fungus.
219
00:12:29,000 --> 00:12:31,000
If the graft takes,
220
00:12:31,000 --> 00:12:35,758
The union seals itself
In a month or even sooner.
221
00:12:35,758 --> 00:12:38,724
Strategic pruning
Strengthens the tree
222
00:12:38,724 --> 00:12:41,758
And keeps it growing low
And in a shape
223
00:12:41,758 --> 00:12:44,620
That's easy to maintain
And harvest.
224
00:12:44,620 --> 00:12:49,000
Before long,
Flowers begin to bud and bloom.
225
00:12:49,000 --> 00:12:51,344
Tiny beetles
Pollinate the flowers,
226
00:12:51,344 --> 00:12:54,206
After which tiny pods --
The tree's fruit --
227
00:12:54,206 --> 00:12:55,344
Begin to emerge.
228
00:12:58,586 --> 00:13:00,310
The pods grow and grow...
229
00:13:03,758 --> 00:13:05,758
And gradually change color.
230
00:13:09,758 --> 00:13:12,620
When the color transformation
Is complete,
231
00:13:12,620 --> 00:13:14,310
They're ripe for harvest.
232
00:13:14,310 --> 00:13:17,137
There are many varieties
Of cocoa trees,
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00:13:17,137 --> 00:13:19,172
With pods of different colors.
234
00:13:19,172 --> 00:13:22,517
It generally takes
About five months
235
00:13:22,517 --> 00:13:25,689
From first blooms
To pod maturity.
236
00:13:25,689 --> 00:13:28,862
Come harvest time,
They collect only the pods
237
00:13:28,862 --> 00:13:30,793
Which are undoubtedly ready.
238
00:13:30,793 --> 00:13:32,551
If a pod isn't fully ripened,
239
00:13:32,551 --> 00:13:35,482
The cocoa beans inside
Will be acidic and bitter.
240
00:13:38,827 --> 00:13:41,724
They carefully cut the pod stem
Off the branch
241
00:13:41,724 --> 00:13:44,344
Without damaging the tree
In the process.
242
00:13:44,344 --> 00:13:50,896
♪♪
243
00:13:50,896 --> 00:13:53,793
The pod's rind
Is a little over an inch thick.
244
00:13:53,793 --> 00:13:57,586
It's rough and bumpy.
245
00:13:57,586 --> 00:14:01,862
They hack it open with a machete
To remove the fruit inside.
246
00:14:01,862 --> 00:14:05,241
The fruit is made of
A sweet, edible pulp
247
00:14:05,241 --> 00:14:08,379
Encasing 30 to 50 large,
White seeds.
248
00:14:08,379 --> 00:14:10,655
These are the cocoa beans.
249
00:14:10,655 --> 00:14:17,689
♪♪
250
00:14:17,689 --> 00:14:20,724
The beans and pulp
Go to the fermentation area,
251
00:14:20,724 --> 00:14:23,517
Where workers lay them in boxes,
Or heaps,
252
00:14:23,517 --> 00:14:25,965
And cover them
For four to six days.
253
00:14:29,793 --> 00:14:33,793
As heat under the cover builds
Up, fermentation kicks in.
254
00:14:33,793 --> 00:14:36,931
The natural sugars
Interact with oxygen,
255
00:14:36,931 --> 00:14:41,068
The pulp slowly breaks down,
Liquefies, and drains away.
256
00:14:41,068 --> 00:14:44,482
The color and chemical
Composition of the beans change,
257
00:14:44,482 --> 00:14:48,068
And they become less acidic
And develop a chocolaty taste.
258
00:14:49,724 --> 00:14:54,827
The next step is to
Dry the beans.
259
00:14:54,827 --> 00:14:56,965
Workers spread them out
On big trays
260
00:14:56,965 --> 00:14:59,448
And lay them out in the sun
For about a week.
261
00:14:59,448 --> 00:15:08,862
♪♪
262
00:15:08,862 --> 00:15:11,344
Here's what a cocoa bean
Is like wet...
263
00:15:15,896 --> 00:15:18,103
Versus dried.
264
00:15:22,896 --> 00:15:26,275
The dried beans now go
Through a selection process.
265
00:15:26,275 --> 00:15:29,482
Workers examine them,
Removing pod remnants
266
00:15:29,482 --> 00:15:32,931
And any beans with mold
Or other imperfections.
267
00:15:32,931 --> 00:15:36,068
Beans which fail inspection
Are sold locally
268
00:15:36,068 --> 00:15:39,137
At a lower price
Or go to the compost heap.
269
00:15:39,137 --> 00:15:42,448
Beans that pass are weighed,
Bagged for export,
270
00:15:42,448 --> 00:15:44,482
And sold to chocolate makers.
271
00:15:48,724 --> 00:15:51,103
Depending on
The size of the beans,
272
00:15:51,103 --> 00:15:54,172
Which varies according to
The cocoa-tree variety,
273
00:15:54,172 --> 00:15:56,655
It takes about 300
To 600 cocoa beans
274
00:15:56,655 --> 00:15:59,068
To produce one kilogram
Of chocolate.
275
00:16:10,689 --> 00:16:16,103
♪♪
276
00:16:16,103 --> 00:16:18,931
Narrator: chocolate owes its
Existence to the cocoa bean.
277
00:16:18,931 --> 00:16:21,965
The ancient civilizations
Of mexico and central
278
00:16:21,965 --> 00:16:25,448
And south america cultivated
This seed to make a drink.
279
00:16:25,448 --> 00:16:29,137
The spanish conquest brought
This chocolate drink to europe,
280
00:16:29,137 --> 00:16:32,103
But it wasn't until 1847
That a british company
281
00:16:32,103 --> 00:16:33,724
Invented solid chocolate.
282
00:16:38,275 --> 00:16:41,137
This factory makes chocolate
In various forms
283
00:16:41,137 --> 00:16:44,862
And sells it to companies which
Manufacture chocolate products
284
00:16:44,862 --> 00:16:46,000
For retail sale.
285
00:16:46,000 --> 00:16:48,620
It also supplies
Chocolate components,
286
00:16:48,620 --> 00:16:51,310
Such as cocoa powder
And cocoa butter.
287
00:16:51,310 --> 00:16:56,724
Most of the cocoa beans arriving
Here come from west africa,
288
00:16:56,724 --> 00:17:00,310
Which grows 70%
Of the world's crop.
289
00:17:00,310 --> 00:17:03,482
A conveyor belt moves them
Through a cleaning system,
290
00:17:03,482 --> 00:17:06,000
A series of sieves
That screen out twigs,
291
00:17:06,000 --> 00:17:07,724
Stones,
And other debris.
292
00:17:10,275 --> 00:17:12,068
Next stop is a micronizer,
293
00:17:12,068 --> 00:17:15,068
A revolving drum
That heats the cocoa beans
294
00:17:15,068 --> 00:17:16,655
To loosen their shells.
295
00:17:16,655 --> 00:17:23,344
♪♪
296
00:17:23,344 --> 00:17:26,275
Then they enter a shell-removing
Machine called a winnower.
297
00:17:26,275 --> 00:17:30,000
Inside, successive rakes drag
The beans across screens,
298
00:17:30,000 --> 00:17:32,517
Pulling off
Large pieces of shell.
299
00:17:32,517 --> 00:17:37,448
Then a vacuum sucks away the
Remaining smaller pieces.
300
00:17:37,448 --> 00:17:41,137
Removing the shell exposes
The inside of the cocoa bean,
301
00:17:41,137 --> 00:17:42,793
Which is called the nib.
302
00:17:42,793 --> 00:17:46,724
The factory will roast the nibs
To develop their flavor.
303
00:17:46,724 --> 00:17:50,862
50%-plus of the nib is fat,
Which is cocoa butter.
304
00:17:50,862 --> 00:17:53,862
To make chocolate,
They'll combine processed nibs,
305
00:17:53,862 --> 00:17:56,689
Cocoa butter, and sugar,
Along with milk powder
306
00:17:56,689 --> 00:17:58,827
If they're making
Milk chocolate.
307
00:17:58,827 --> 00:18:02,827
First, the factory processes
The nibs by grinding them.
308
00:18:02,827 --> 00:18:06,034
The heat and friction
Activate the cocoa butter,
309
00:18:06,034 --> 00:18:09,655
Producing pure liquid chocolate
Called chocolate liquor.
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00:18:09,655 --> 00:18:12,241
The factory extracts
Some of the cocoa butter
311
00:18:12,241 --> 00:18:15,137
To sell it separately
As chocolate-making ingredient
312
00:18:15,137 --> 00:18:17,620
And to use for
In-house chocolate production
313
00:18:17,620 --> 00:18:20,517
Along with other ingredients
In various proportions.
314
00:18:21,965 --> 00:18:24,482
The dark-chocolate recipe,
For example,
315
00:18:24,482 --> 00:18:27,862
Calls for more chocolate liquor,
Sugar, and cocoa butter,
316
00:18:27,862 --> 00:18:29,275
But no milk powder.
317
00:18:29,275 --> 00:18:33,275
The recipe for unsweetened
Chocolate contains no sugar.
318
00:18:33,275 --> 00:18:36,620
The mixer blends the ingredients
To the consistency
319
00:18:36,620 --> 00:18:38,448
Of a very thick cake batter.
320
00:18:38,448 --> 00:18:40,689
The flavor is fine
By this point,
321
00:18:40,689 --> 00:18:43,689
But the coarse texture
Needs to be smoothed out,
322
00:18:43,689 --> 00:18:46,551
So the chocolate moves to
A refining machine,
323
00:18:46,551 --> 00:18:48,965
Passing between
A set of five rollers
324
00:18:48,965 --> 00:18:50,862
That reduce the particle size,
325
00:18:50,862 --> 00:18:53,931
So much so that
Within just minutes,
326
00:18:53,931 --> 00:18:58,241
The chocolate leaves the refiner
As a fine, dry powder.
327
00:18:58,241 --> 00:19:01,068
But now it needs to be
Reliquefied,
328
00:19:01,068 --> 00:19:04,517
So the next stop
Is a machine called a conch.
329
00:19:04,517 --> 00:19:08,068
The friction and heat once again
Activate the cocoa butter,
330
00:19:08,068 --> 00:19:10,551
Returning the powder
To a liquid state.
331
00:19:10,551 --> 00:19:13,379
At this point,
They add more cocoa butter,
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00:19:13,379 --> 00:19:15,758
Enough to reduce
The viscosity to
333
00:19:15,758 --> 00:19:19,413
The exact thickness they need --
Just a bit, for example,
334
00:19:19,413 --> 00:19:21,758
If they're making
Chocolate chips
335
00:19:21,758 --> 00:19:25,379
Or much more if they're making
A thin chocolate coating.
336
00:19:25,379 --> 00:19:26,793
For chocolate chips,
337
00:19:26,793 --> 00:19:30,034
The conch feeds a machine
Called a drop depositor.
338
00:19:30,034 --> 00:19:32,206
As the name implies,
339
00:19:32,206 --> 00:19:37,413
It deposits drops of chocolate
Onto a conveyor belt.
340
00:19:37,413 --> 00:19:40,827
The nozzle trays
Are interchangeable,
341
00:19:40,827 --> 00:19:46,103
So the machine can be set up to
Produce various sizes of chips,
342
00:19:46,103 --> 00:19:48,482
Disks,
Or other shapes.
343
00:19:48,482 --> 00:19:50,758
The chocolate chips,
Still warm and soft,
344
00:19:50,758 --> 00:19:53,310
Enter a cooling tunnel...
345
00:19:53,310 --> 00:19:55,482
Traveling for
About five minutes
346
00:19:55,482 --> 00:19:57,793
Through several
Temperature zones,
347
00:19:57,793 --> 00:20:00,827
Which vary between
30 and 50 degrees fahrenheit.
348
00:20:00,827 --> 00:20:03,724
By the time the chips exit
The tunnel, they're hard.
349
00:20:03,724 --> 00:20:09,344
♪♪
350
00:20:09,344 --> 00:20:12,862
A conveyor belt then takes them
Through a metal detector,
351
00:20:12,862 --> 00:20:15,137
A standard
Food-safety precaution.
352
00:20:19,103 --> 00:20:22,793
The factory also produces
10-pound,
353
00:20:22,793 --> 00:20:25,482
Bulk-format chocolate bars.
354
00:20:25,482 --> 00:20:28,379
A depositor fills
Bar-shaped plastic molds.
355
00:20:32,344 --> 00:20:35,620
The conveyor transfers them
To an elevator system,
356
00:20:35,620 --> 00:20:39,000
Which moves through a cold room
For about two hours.
357
00:20:39,000 --> 00:20:42,965
This constant motion ensures
Optimal air circulation,
358
00:20:42,965 --> 00:20:45,103
Helping the cooling process.
359
00:20:45,103 --> 00:20:48,310
Chocolate shrinks slightly
As it cools,
360
00:20:48,310 --> 00:20:51,586
So the bars pop out
Of the molds easily.
361
00:20:51,586 --> 00:20:54,758
To make the chocolate
Look as good as it tastes,
362
00:20:54,758 --> 00:20:57,000
The factory cools,
Then reheats
363
00:20:57,000 --> 00:20:59,827
The liquid chocolate
Before depositing it.
364
00:20:59,827 --> 00:21:02,034
This process,
Called tempering,
365
00:21:02,034 --> 00:21:05,793
Promotes the growth of the most
Stable cocoa-butter crystals,
366
00:21:05,793 --> 00:21:09,137
Making the surface of the
Chocolate smooth and shiny.
367
00:21:09,137 --> 00:21:15,344
♪♪
368
00:21:15,344 --> 00:21:21,517
♪♪
369
00:21:21,517 --> 00:21:23,655
If you have any comments
About the show,
370
00:21:23,655 --> 00:21:26,275
Or if you'd like to suggest
Topics for future shows,
371
00:21:26,275 --> 00:21:28,827
Drop us a line at...
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