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1
00:00:04,133 --> 00:00:06,967
Freeman: THERE COULD BE
AN UNDISCOVERED SPECIES
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00:00:06,967 --> 00:00:10,667
LURKING ON THE SURFACE
OF THE EARTH.
3
00:00:11,633 --> 00:00:14,400
BUT THIS CREATURE IS UNLIKE
ANY LIFE FORM
4
00:00:14,400 --> 00:00:16,300
WE'VE EVER IMAGINED.
5
00:00:20,733 --> 00:00:24,533
ITS BODY COULD SPAN
THOUSANDS OF MILES.
6
00:00:25,800 --> 00:00:29,633
IT HAS A HEART THAT BEATS
ONCE EVERY 1,000 YEARS
7
00:00:29,633 --> 00:00:32,933
AND AN IMMUNE SYSTEM
THAT COULD WIPE OUT
8
00:00:32,933 --> 00:00:36,967
NEARLY ALL LIFE ON EARTH.
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00:00:36,967 --> 00:00:39,300
IT MAY EVEN HAVE A BRAIN.
10
00:00:39,300 --> 00:00:45,000
COULD THE VAST OCEAN ITSELF
BE A LIVING, THINKING CREATURE?
11
00:00:46,700 --> 00:00:50,700
IF SO, WHAT DOES IT THINK OF US?
12
00:00:56,400 --> 00:01:01,767
SPACE, TIME, LIFE ITSELF.
13
00:01:03,733 --> 00:01:08,133
THE SECRETS OF THE COSMOS
LIE THROUGH THE WORMHOLE.
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00:01:08,133 --> 00:01:11,133
-- Captions by VITAC --
www.vitac.com
15
00:01:11,133 --> 00:01:14,167
CAPTIONS PAID FOR BY
DISCOVERY COMMUNICATIONS
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00:01:20,400 --> 00:01:22,733
WE'VE ALWAYS LOOKED TO THE STARS
17
00:01:22,733 --> 00:01:25,567
FOR SIGNS
OF OTHER INTELLIGENT LIFE,
18
00:01:25,567 --> 00:01:28,967
BUT WE MAY BE STARING
IN THE WRONG DIRECTION.
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00:01:28,967 --> 00:01:31,200
A NONHUMAN INTELLIGENCE
20
00:01:31,200 --> 00:01:34,733
FAR MORE SOPHISTICATED
THAN OUR OWN
21
00:01:34,733 --> 00:01:37,467
COULD BE RIGHT HERE ON EARTH.
22
00:01:37,467 --> 00:01:42,300
OUR VAST OCEAN
IS THIS PLANET'S LAST FRONTIER.
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00:01:42,300 --> 00:01:47,633
SOME SCIENTISTS ARE ASKING
NOT WHAT, BUT WHO IT IS.
24
00:01:50,667 --> 00:01:53,100
HAVE YOU EVER FELT
SOMEONE'S PRESENCE,
25
00:01:53,100 --> 00:01:55,400
BUT YOU COULDN'T SEE THEM?
26
00:01:55,400 --> 00:01:58,733
WHEN I WALKED IN THE WOODS
AS A KID,
27
00:01:58,733 --> 00:02:03,067
IT OFTEN SEEMED LIKE THE TREES
WERE AWARE OF ME.
28
00:02:03,067 --> 00:02:07,300
SOMETIMES, I THOUGHT
I COULD HEAR THEM TALKING.
29
00:02:09,367 --> 00:02:14,500
I WONDERED, "COULD THE WHOLE
FOREST BE A CONSCIOUS BEING?"
30
00:02:23,400 --> 00:02:26,367
ANDERS NIELSEN
HAS ALWAYS BEEN OBSESSED
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00:02:26,367 --> 00:02:29,400
WITH THE CHEMICAL
THAT IS THE FOUNDATION
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00:02:29,400 --> 00:02:33,300
OF ALL LIFE ON EARTH --
33
00:02:33,300 --> 00:02:38,200
LIQUID H2O, WATER.
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00:02:38,200 --> 00:02:41,167
WHEN I WAS A KID, I WOULD SPEND,
LIKE, EVERY SUMMER
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00:02:41,167 --> 00:02:43,867
MAYBE FIVE HOURS A DAY
SWIMMING IN THE LAKES,
36
00:02:43,867 --> 00:02:45,933
JUST PLAYING AROUND
IN THE WATER.
37
00:02:45,933 --> 00:02:50,067
AND THESE DAYS, I LOVE JUST
TO HANG OUT IN THE WATER.
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00:02:50,067 --> 00:02:52,467
IT'S JUST A BEAUTIFUL EXPERIENCE
39
00:02:52,467 --> 00:02:56,367
TO FEEL LIKE YOUR BODY'S
DISSOLVING INTO THE WATER.
40
00:02:58,367 --> 00:03:01,067
Freeman:
WHEN ANDERS BECAME A CHEMIST,
41
00:03:01,067 --> 00:03:03,833
HIS OBSESSION WITH WATER
GREW EVEN DEEPER.
42
00:03:03,833 --> 00:03:06,667
Nielsen:
WATER HAS THIS ABILITY
43
00:03:06,667 --> 00:03:08,833
TO FORM WHAT'S CALLED
HYDROGEN BONDS,
44
00:03:08,833 --> 00:03:11,267
WHERE A HYDROGEN ATOM
IN ONE WATER MOLECULE
45
00:03:11,267 --> 00:03:14,300
COULD BOND TO AN OXYGEN ATOM
IN ANOTHER WATER MOLECULE.
46
00:03:15,933 --> 00:03:19,833
Freeman: HARNESSING THE POWER OF
THE STANFORD LINEAR ACCELERATOR,
47
00:03:19,833 --> 00:03:24,133
ANDERS TOOK X-RAY IMAGES
OF LIQUID H2O MOLECULES
48
00:03:24,133 --> 00:03:28,600
AND DISCOVERED THAT GROUPS
OF WATER MOLECULES
49
00:03:28,600 --> 00:03:33,500
PERFORM AN ELABORATE,
SYNCHRONIZED CHOREOGRAPHY.
50
00:04:00,067 --> 00:04:04,933
A SINGLE MOLECULE OF H2O
IS LIKE A SINGLE SWIMMER.
51
00:04:04,933 --> 00:04:07,167
EACH CAN MOVE ALONG FREELY
52
00:04:07,167 --> 00:04:10,333
OR IT CAN LINK ARMS
WITH A NEIGHBOR
53
00:04:10,333 --> 00:04:12,933
TO FORM A RIGID STRUCTURE.
54
00:04:12,933 --> 00:04:16,667
BELOW FREEZING,
THE MOLECULES JOIN AT ANGLES
55
00:04:16,667 --> 00:04:18,067
AND TAKE UP MORE SPACE.
56
00:04:18,067 --> 00:04:21,333
THIS IS WHY WATER EXPANDS
WHEN IT TURNS TO ICE.
57
00:04:21,333 --> 00:04:26,300
LIQUID WATER CONTAINS
BOTH FREEWHEELING MOLECULES
58
00:04:26,300 --> 00:04:29,233
AND RIGID CLUSTERS
SIMULTANEOUSLY.
59
00:04:29,233 --> 00:04:32,300
THESE STRUCTURES FORM
OR BREAK APART
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00:04:32,300 --> 00:04:36,233
DEPENDING ON TEMPERATURE.
61
00:04:36,233 --> 00:04:39,067
BUT ANDERS DISCOVERED
THAT WATER MOLECULES
62
00:04:39,067 --> 00:04:40,767
ALSO CHANGE THEIR ROUTINE
63
00:04:40,767 --> 00:04:43,433
DEPENDING ON WHAT'S MIXED IN
WITH THEM.
64
00:04:43,433 --> 00:04:45,900
SO, HERE I HAVE
A SODIUM CHLORIDE CRYSTAL.
65
00:04:45,900 --> 00:04:48,967
THIS IS JUST ORDINARY SALT
LIKE YOU HAVE IN YOUR FOOD,
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00:04:48,967 --> 00:04:51,067
WHAT WE HAVE IN THE OCEAN.
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00:04:51,067 --> 00:04:53,200
SO, IF YOU LOOK
AT THIS EXAMPLE.
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00:04:53,200 --> 00:04:55,267
[ BLOWS WHISTLE ]
69
00:04:55,267 --> 00:04:58,433
Freeman: WHEN ORDINARY
TABLE SALT COMES INTO CONTACT
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00:04:58,433 --> 00:05:01,133
WITH A RIGID FORMATION
OF WATER MOLECULES,
71
00:05:01,133 --> 00:05:06,400
THAT FORMATION BREAKS APART.
72
00:05:06,400 --> 00:05:09,867
THIS CREATES MORE
FREE-FLOATING MOLECULES
73
00:05:09,867 --> 00:05:11,833
THAT BREAK SALT CRYSTALS APART
74
00:05:11,833 --> 00:05:16,067
AND SPREAD THEM
THROUGHOUT THE BODY OF WATER.
75
00:05:16,067 --> 00:05:19,533
OTHER CHEMICALS
HAVE A DIFFERENT EFFECT.
76
00:05:19,533 --> 00:05:23,600
SO, HERE WE HAVE A VERY STRONGLY
OR HIGHLY CHARGED ION.
77
00:05:23,600 --> 00:05:26,900
THIS CAN BE LIKE MAGNESIUM
OR ALUMINUM ION.
78
00:05:26,900 --> 00:05:28,667
AND THEN WE'RE GOING TO
THROW IN THIS,
79
00:05:28,667 --> 00:05:32,100
AND WE'RE GOING TO FORM
AN ICE-LIKE STRUCTURE AROUND IT.
80
00:05:35,533 --> 00:05:41,667
WATER MOLECULES LOCK AROUND
THE ION AND HOLD IT IN PLACE.
81
00:05:46,467 --> 00:05:52,633
TO US, A GLASS OF WATER
SEEMS STILL AND LIFELESS.
82
00:05:52,633 --> 00:05:57,667
BUT ON THE MOLECULAR SCALE,
IT IS PULSING WITH ACTIVITY.
83
00:05:57,667 --> 00:06:01,333
WATER CHANGES
ITS MOLECULAR STRUCTURE
84
00:06:01,333 --> 00:06:04,733
AROUND 1 TRILLION TIMES
PER SECOND.
85
00:06:04,733 --> 00:06:08,333
WHENEVER THE MOLECULAR STRUCTURE
OF WATER CHANGES,
86
00:06:08,333 --> 00:06:12,100
THE OVERALL CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
OF WATER ALSO CHANGE.
87
00:06:12,100 --> 00:06:16,767
NO OTHER LIQUIDS ON EARTH
CAN DO THIS.
88
00:06:16,767 --> 00:06:19,867
WATER MOLECULES
RESPOND TO TEMPERATURE
89
00:06:19,867 --> 00:06:22,733
AND THE CHEMICALS
THEY COME IN CONTACT WITH
90
00:06:22,733 --> 00:06:28,267
ALMOST AS IF THE WATER IS AWARE
OF ITS SURROUNDINGS.
91
00:06:28,267 --> 00:06:33,433
FOR ANDERS, THIS PROPERTY
BLURS THE DISTINCTION
92
00:06:33,433 --> 00:06:37,800
BETWEEN A CHEMICAL
AND A LIVING THING.
93
00:06:37,800 --> 00:06:40,067
Nielsen:
SOME PEOPLE MIGHT THINK
94
00:06:40,067 --> 00:06:42,767
THAT A GLASS OF WATER
COULD BE ALIVE.
95
00:06:42,767 --> 00:06:44,533
MY PERSONAL VIEW OF LIFE
96
00:06:44,533 --> 00:06:47,100
IS THAT IT'S RELATED
TO SOMETHING
97
00:06:47,100 --> 00:06:50,367
THAT HAS CONSCIOUSNESS
ON SOME SORT OF LEVEL,
98
00:06:50,367 --> 00:06:54,067
AND THE QUESTION IS
IF THAT IS THE CASE WITH WATER,
99
00:06:54,067 --> 00:06:56,867
AND WE --
WE CAN'T SAY "YES" OR "NO."
100
00:06:58,300 --> 00:07:02,200
Freeman: WHETHER OR NOT
A GLASS OF WATER IS ALIVE,
101
00:07:02,200 --> 00:07:04,933
WATER ITSELF
IS STILL THE ESSENCE
102
00:07:04,933 --> 00:07:07,067
OF ALL LIFE THAT WE KNOW OF.
103
00:07:07,067 --> 00:07:10,333
ABOUT 60% OF YOUR BODY IS WATER.
104
00:07:10,333 --> 00:07:14,067
CELLS WITH YOUR DNA
CALL IT HOME,
105
00:07:14,067 --> 00:07:18,333
ALONG WITH ABOUT 1,000
UNIQUE SPECIES OF BACTERIA.
106
00:07:18,333 --> 00:07:22,233
THE OCEAN ECOSYSTEM
IS ALSO MOSTLY WATER,
107
00:07:22,233 --> 00:07:25,667
AND HOME
TO MILLIONS OF LIFE FORMS.
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00:07:25,667 --> 00:07:29,500
COULD OCEAN WATER
AND THE LIFE THAT CALLS IT HOME
109
00:07:29,500 --> 00:07:31,867
COLLECTIVELY BE A LIVING THING?
110
00:07:31,867 --> 00:07:36,433
IS A LIFE FORM THAT LARGE
EVEN POSSIBLE?
111
00:07:41,633 --> 00:07:46,133
EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGIST
GUSTAVO CAETANO-ANOLLES
112
00:07:46,133 --> 00:07:47,867
SUSPECTS IT WAS.
113
00:07:47,867 --> 00:07:51,333
HE'S TRACKING DOWN
EARTH'S FIRST LIFE FORM,
114
00:07:51,333 --> 00:07:54,933
THE CREATURE
AT THE ROOT OF THE TREE OF LIFE.
115
00:07:54,933 --> 00:07:57,767
A TREE OF LIFE
IS AN HIERARCHICAL STRUCTURE.
116
00:07:57,767 --> 00:08:00,600
THAT MEANS THAT IF YOU TRAVEL
BACK IN TIME,
117
00:08:00,600 --> 00:08:04,867
YOU ARE TRAVELING TO AN ORGANISM
THAT AT SOME POINT
118
00:08:04,867 --> 00:08:09,067
EMBEDDED ALL THE DIVERSITY
THAT WAS GENERATED LATER ON.
119
00:08:11,600 --> 00:08:15,400
AND THIS IS THE LAST UNIVERSAL
COMMON ANCESTOR, OR LUCA.
120
00:08:15,400 --> 00:08:19,467
Freeman:
LUCA IS THE SCIENTIFIC NICKNAME
121
00:08:19,467 --> 00:08:21,867
FOR THE FIRST SPECIES ON EARTH.
122
00:08:21,867 --> 00:08:25,200
IT LIVED
ABOUT 3.5 BILLION YEARS AGO,
123
00:08:25,200 --> 00:08:29,233
AND IS COMMON ANCESTOR
TO ALL LIFE TODAY.
124
00:08:29,233 --> 00:08:33,667
LUCA CELLS LIKELY FILLED
THE PRIMORDIAL OCEAN,
125
00:08:33,667 --> 00:08:37,067
UNHINDERED
BY ANY COMPETING ORGANISM.
126
00:08:37,067 --> 00:08:41,067
LUCA HAS BEEN EXTINCT
FOR BILLIONS OF YEARS.
127
00:08:41,067 --> 00:08:43,267
[ CAMERA SHUTTER CLICKING ]
128
00:08:43,267 --> 00:08:47,267
BUT GUSTAVO BELIEVES
HE CAN RECONSTRUCT
129
00:08:47,267 --> 00:08:49,133
WHAT ITS CELLS LOOKED LIKE
130
00:08:49,133 --> 00:08:52,667
BY STUDYING THE DETAILS
OF LIFE'S MACHINERY TODAY.
131
00:08:52,667 --> 00:08:55,800
FOR GUSTAVO,
FINDING THE ELEMENTS
132
00:08:55,800 --> 00:08:58,133
ESSENTIAL
TO THE EARLIEST LIFE FORM
133
00:08:58,133 --> 00:09:01,467
IS LIKE FIGURING OUT HOW
THE VERY FIRST BICYCLE WORKED.
134
00:09:01,467 --> 00:09:03,067
[ CAMERA SHUTTER CLICKING ]
135
00:09:03,067 --> 00:09:05,467
Caetano-Anolles:
BIKES ARE PERMANENTLY CHANGING.
136
00:09:05,467 --> 00:09:07,833
EVERY 10 YEARS,
WE HAVE NEW DEVELOPMENTS,
137
00:09:07,833 --> 00:09:11,900
NEW MECHANISMS,
NEW ELECTRONICS ADDED TO THEM.
138
00:09:11,900 --> 00:09:16,767
IN CONTRAST, THE STRUCTURE
OF A BIKE IS RATHER PERMANENT.
139
00:09:16,767 --> 00:09:20,933
Freeman: BIKES TODAY COME WITH
A VARIETY OF SOPHISTICATED GEARS
140
00:09:20,933 --> 00:09:22,633
AND HIGH TECH MATERIALS,
141
00:09:22,633 --> 00:09:25,933
BUT ALL SHARE COMMON,
ESSENTIAL STRUCTURES.
142
00:09:25,933 --> 00:09:28,900
WITHOUT THEM,
A BIKE CANNOT FUNCTION.
143
00:09:29,800 --> 00:09:34,100
IN THE FIRST BIKE,
I WOULD FIND A SEAT,
144
00:09:34,100 --> 00:09:36,067
PEDALS, WHEELS,
145
00:09:36,067 --> 00:09:39,367
BECAUSE THESE SEEM TO BE COMMON
TO ALL BIKES
146
00:09:39,367 --> 00:09:41,133
THAT I CAN STUDY TODAY.
147
00:09:41,133 --> 00:09:44,800
Freeman: WITH A LIST
OF THESE FUNDAMENTAL PARTS,
148
00:09:44,800 --> 00:09:48,933
GUSTAVO CAN RECONSTRUCT THE LAST
UNIVERSAL COMMON ANCESTOR
149
00:09:48,933 --> 00:09:51,867
OF BICYCLES --
150
00:09:51,867 --> 00:09:54,067
THE PENNY-FARTHING...
151
00:09:56,467 --> 00:10:01,567
...THE FIRST MACHINE
TO BE CALLED A BICYCLE.
152
00:10:01,567 --> 00:10:05,000
IT HAD A SEAT,
PEDALS, AND WHEELS,
153
00:10:05,000 --> 00:10:09,233
BUT DIDN'T NEED A CHAIN OR GEARS
TO MOVE.
154
00:10:09,233 --> 00:10:15,500
GUSTAVO APPLIED THIS SAME
PHILOSOPHY TO HIS HUNT FOR LUCA.
155
00:10:15,500 --> 00:10:17,567
BY COMPARING THE FOSSIL RECORDS
156
00:10:17,567 --> 00:10:20,867
TO THE GENETIC RECORD
OF THOUSANDS OF ORGANISMS,
157
00:10:20,867 --> 00:10:23,733
GUSTAVO WORKED OUT
WHICH PROTEINS EXISTED
158
00:10:23,733 --> 00:10:26,567
ABOUT 3.5 BILLION YEARS AGO.
159
00:10:26,567 --> 00:10:30,200
HE GENERATED A LIST
OF FUNDAMENTAL PARTS
160
00:10:30,200 --> 00:10:32,333
THAT LUCA MUST HAVE HAD.
161
00:10:32,333 --> 00:10:34,933
TO HIS SURPRISE, HE DISCOVERED
162
00:10:34,933 --> 00:10:38,433
THAT UNLIKE ALL LIFE
WE KNOW OF TODAY,
163
00:10:38,433 --> 00:10:42,867
LUCA PROBABLY DID NOT HAVE
A WELL-SEALED CELL WALL.
164
00:10:42,867 --> 00:10:45,100
Caetano-Anolles:
IT IS QUITE POSSIBLE
165
00:10:45,100 --> 00:10:47,500
THAT THE CELL WALLS OF LUCA
WERE POROUS,
166
00:10:47,500 --> 00:10:50,933
AND THAT THEY WOULD ALLOW
FOR FAST EXCHANGE
167
00:10:50,933 --> 00:10:56,433
BETWEEN THE DIFFERENT LUCA CELLS
OF GENETIC INFORMATION,
168
00:10:56,433 --> 00:10:59,333
AND ALSO OF ACTUAL MACHINERY.
169
00:10:59,333 --> 00:11:04,267
Freeman: THINK OF A LUCA CELL
AS A PENNY-FARTHING BICYCLE.
170
00:11:04,267 --> 00:11:07,800
BECAUSE ITS CELL WALL
WAS FULL OF HOLES,
171
00:11:07,800 --> 00:11:11,933
IMPORTANT PARTS COULD COME LOOSE
AND FLOAT AWAY.
172
00:11:11,933 --> 00:11:15,967
WATER MOLECULES COULD, HOWEVER,
REACT TO THIS ESCAPED PART
173
00:11:15,967 --> 00:11:18,633
AND FORM A SUPPORTIVE MOLD
AROUND IT
174
00:11:18,633 --> 00:11:21,467
UNTIL IT DRIFTS
INTO ANOTHER LUCA CELL
175
00:11:21,467 --> 00:11:24,533
WHERE THAT PART COULD BE REUSED.
176
00:11:24,533 --> 00:11:28,333
LUCA CELLS DEPENDED
ON ONE ANOTHER
177
00:11:28,333 --> 00:11:33,767
AND WATER CHEMISTRY
TO KEEP THE ENTIRE COLONY ALIVE.
178
00:11:39,467 --> 00:11:40,833
GUSTAVO BELIEVES
179
00:11:40,833 --> 00:11:44,533
THAT RATHER THAN BEING
MANY DISTINCT ORGANISMS,
180
00:11:44,533 --> 00:11:46,833
THESE CELLS BEHAVED LIKE PARTS
181
00:11:46,833 --> 00:11:49,933
OF A SINGLE, GIANT,
COOPERATIVE BEING,
182
00:11:49,933 --> 00:11:53,267
A SUPERORGANISM.
183
00:11:53,267 --> 00:11:55,600
Caetano-Anolles:
AS MULTI-CELLULAR ORGANISMS
184
00:11:55,600 --> 00:11:58,133
ARE MADE OF INDIVIDUAL CELLS,
185
00:11:58,133 --> 00:12:01,133
A SUPERORGANISM IS COMPOSED
OF MANY ORGANISMS
186
00:12:01,133 --> 00:12:04,100
THAT ARE INTERACTING HEAVILY
WITH EACH OTHER.
187
00:12:07,133 --> 00:12:09,733
Freeman:
A SUPERORGANISM IS A CREATURE
188
00:12:09,733 --> 00:12:14,133
MADE UP OF MANY INDIVIDUALS,
LIKE THE HIVE OF BEES.
189
00:12:14,133 --> 00:12:17,333
IF GUSTAVO IS CORRECT,
190
00:12:17,333 --> 00:12:19,900
THE VERY FIRST LIFE FORMS
ON EARTH
191
00:12:19,900 --> 00:12:22,600
WERE NOT ISOLATED
MICROSCOPIC CELLS,
192
00:12:22,600 --> 00:12:25,800
BUT RATHER
THE VAST OCEAN ITSELF,
193
00:12:25,800 --> 00:12:30,400
A SUPERORGANISM THAT COVERED
NEARLY THE ENTIRE PLANET.
194
00:12:30,400 --> 00:12:32,433
WE MIGHT ALL BE DESCENDANTS
195
00:12:32,433 --> 00:12:36,333
OF A SINGLE,
SUPERMASSIVE CREATURE.
196
00:12:38,200 --> 00:12:41,667
BILLIONS OF YEARS HAVE PASSED
SINCE THE TIME OF LUCA.
197
00:12:41,667 --> 00:12:44,767
IS THE OCEAN
STILL A SUPERORGANISM?
198
00:12:46,967 --> 00:12:49,333
ONE SCIENTIST
IS TRYING TO FIND OUT
199
00:12:49,333 --> 00:12:54,800
BY STUDYING WHETHER THE OCEAN,
AS A WHOLE, HAS AN APPETITE.
200
00:13:02,933 --> 00:13:07,233
HOW DO YOU KNOW
WHETHER SOMETHING IS ALIVE?
201
00:13:07,233 --> 00:13:13,067
IT IS A QUESTION GREAT MINDS
HAVE ARGUED OVER FOR CENTURIES.
202
00:13:13,067 --> 00:13:15,400
TO THE PHILOSOPHER
RENE DESCARTES,
203
00:13:15,400 --> 00:13:21,667
THE ANSWER WAS,
"I THINK, THEREFORE I AM."
204
00:13:21,667 --> 00:13:26,233
BUT BIOLOGISTS HAVE COME UP
WITH A DIFFERENT CRITERION,
205
00:13:26,233 --> 00:13:29,800
ONE THAT COULD REVEAL
A NEW FORM OF LIFE.
206
00:13:29,800 --> 00:13:37,100
THE ANSWER COULD BE,
"I EAT, THEREFORE I AM."
207
00:13:41,267 --> 00:13:46,267
NEW YORK UNIVERSITY'S TYLER VOLK
BELIEVES, LIKE EVERY BIOLOGIST,
208
00:13:46,267 --> 00:13:51,400
THAT ALL LIVING THINGS
HAVE A METABOLISM.
209
00:13:51,400 --> 00:13:57,400
A METABOLISM IS
A BIOLOGICALLY ACTIVE PROCESS
210
00:13:57,400 --> 00:14:00,900
THAT BREAKS DOWN
CERTAIN CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS
211
00:14:00,900 --> 00:14:03,067
INTO SMALLER CONSTITUENTS,
212
00:14:03,067 --> 00:14:08,133
AND THEN REARRANGES
THOSE CONSTITUENTS.
213
00:14:08,133 --> 00:14:12,300
Freeman: EVERY CREATURE
YOU CAN THINK OF ON THE PLANET
214
00:14:12,300 --> 00:14:14,133
HAS A METABOLISM.
215
00:14:14,133 --> 00:14:18,867
ORGANS INSIDE THESE CREATURES
EXTRACT ENERGY FROM NUTRIENTS,
216
00:14:18,867 --> 00:14:22,300
THEN DISCARD THE LEFTOVERS.
217
00:14:22,300 --> 00:14:27,133
THE OCEAN IS FILLED
WITH LIFE FORMS THAT DO THIS.
218
00:14:27,133 --> 00:14:28,900
BUT THE OCEAN ITSELF
219
00:14:28,900 --> 00:14:32,467
IS NOT USUALLY CONSIDERED
A LIVING BEING.
220
00:14:32,467 --> 00:14:37,900
INSTEAD, IT IS THOUGHT OF
AS AN ENORMOUS RECYCLER.
221
00:14:39,933 --> 00:14:42,500
SOME OF THE ELEMENTS
IN THE OCEAN
222
00:14:42,500 --> 00:14:46,800
ARE RECYCLED HUNDREDS OF TIMES
IN AND OUT OF THE USEFUL FORMS
223
00:14:46,800 --> 00:14:51,733
THAT CAN BE TAKEN BACK UP BY
LIFE AGAIN OVER AND OVER AGAIN.
224
00:14:51,733 --> 00:14:53,667
Freeman: BUT WHEN TYLER TOOK
A CLOSER LOOK
225
00:14:53,667 --> 00:14:58,800
AT THE OCEAN'S RECYCLING SYSTEM,
THE NUMBERS DIDN'T ADD UP.
226
00:14:58,800 --> 00:15:02,067
LIFE IN THE OCEAN RECYCLES
ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS
227
00:15:02,067 --> 00:15:05,267
LIKE CARBON, PHOSPHOROUS,
NITROGEN, AND SULFUR
228
00:15:05,267 --> 00:15:08,933
THROUGH A PROCESS
OF LIFE AND DEATH.
229
00:15:08,933 --> 00:15:12,667
LIFE FEEDS ON LIFE,
WHICH FEEDS LIFE,
230
00:15:12,667 --> 00:15:17,933
WHICH FEEDS OTHER LIFE,
AND LIFE IS RENEWED.
231
00:15:17,933 --> 00:15:20,500
IT'S A NEAR-PERFECT
RECYCLING SYSTEM.
232
00:15:22,267 --> 00:15:25,200
TYLER HAS TRACKED PRECISELY
HOW EFFICIENTLY
233
00:15:25,200 --> 00:15:27,600
EACH OF THESE NUTRIENTS
GETS REUSED.
234
00:15:27,600 --> 00:15:28,900
HIS ANALYSIS REVEALS
235
00:15:28,900 --> 00:15:32,067
THAT NOT EVERY LIFE-SUSTAINING
ELEMENT IN THE OCEAN
236
00:15:32,067 --> 00:15:34,800
IS 100% RECYCLED.
237
00:15:34,800 --> 00:15:37,067
Volk: THE CALCULATIONS SHOW
238
00:15:37,067 --> 00:15:40,567
THAT AS MARVELOUS
AS THESE BIOCHEMICAL CYCLES ARE
239
00:15:40,567 --> 00:15:43,433
INSIDE THE OCEAN,
THEY'RE NOT PERFECT.
240
00:15:43,433 --> 00:15:46,133
THERE IS A NEED
FOR FRESH ELEMENTS,
241
00:15:46,133 --> 00:15:49,133
THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS
ESSENTIAL TO LIFE.
242
00:15:49,133 --> 00:15:53,333
Freeman: TYLER ARGUES
THIS IMPERFECT RECYCLING
243
00:15:53,333 --> 00:15:57,467
MEANS THAT THE OCEAN,
A GIANT SYSTEM OF LIFE,
244
00:15:57,467 --> 00:15:59,167
HAS A METABOLISM.
245
00:15:59,167 --> 00:16:03,600
JUST LIKE US, THE OCEAN FEEDS.
246
00:16:03,600 --> 00:16:06,533
Volk: SO, WHAT WE CALL
THE MOUTH OF THE RIVER,
247
00:16:06,533 --> 00:16:08,667
YOU CAN THINK OF
AS THE MOUTH OF THE OCEAN.
248
00:16:08,667 --> 00:16:10,833
THESE ARE THE PORTALS
249
00:16:10,833 --> 00:16:14,700
BY WHICH VERY IMPORTANT
MATERIALS COME INTO THE OCEAN.
250
00:16:16,733 --> 00:16:21,300
Freeman:
AND, AFTER IT METABOLIZES
ITS FOOD FROM RIVERS,
251
00:16:21,300 --> 00:16:25,400
IT EXCRETES WASTE
INTO THE OCEAN FLOOR.
252
00:16:25,400 --> 00:16:28,400
Volk: IN THE OCEAN,
THERE WILL BE WASTE BYPRODUCTS.
253
00:16:28,400 --> 00:16:31,667
THERE WILL BE CERTAIN COMPOUNDS
THAT WILL GO INTO THE SEDIMENT,
254
00:16:31,667 --> 00:16:35,267
GET COVERED UP,
AND NOT GET RECYCLED
255
00:16:35,267 --> 00:16:38,200
BY THE MICROBES OR BY THE WORMS.
256
00:16:38,200 --> 00:16:42,633
Freeman: TYLER THINKS THAT EVEN
THOUGH THEY FEED ON ONE ANOTHER,
257
00:16:42,633 --> 00:16:46,600
LIFE FORMS IN THE OCEAN
ARE ULTIMATELY WORKING TOGETHER,
258
00:16:46,600 --> 00:16:49,667
LIKE ORGANS INSIDE A BODY.
259
00:16:49,667 --> 00:16:53,067
ONE GROUP, WHICH INCLUDES
FISH AND MAMMALS,
260
00:16:53,067 --> 00:16:56,200
WORKS LIKE
THE HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM.
261
00:16:56,200 --> 00:16:58,933
IT TAKES IN OXYGEN AND CARBON
262
00:16:58,933 --> 00:17:02,800
AND TRANSFORMS IT
INTO CARBON DIOXIDE.
263
00:17:02,800 --> 00:17:05,800
ANOTHER GROUP, OCEAN PLANT LIFE,
264
00:17:05,800 --> 00:17:11,400
TAKES CARBON DIOXIDE
AND TRANSFORMS IT INTO OXYGEN.
265
00:17:11,400 --> 00:17:14,800
STILL ANOTHER GROUP,
COMPRISED OF BACTERIA,
266
00:17:14,800 --> 00:17:18,267
PROCESSES NITROGEN INTO AMMONIA.
267
00:17:20,533 --> 00:17:24,433
FOR TYLER, TREATING GROUPS
OF LIFE FORMS IN THE OCEAN
268
00:17:24,433 --> 00:17:26,833
AS METABOLIC ORGANS
IN A GIANT BODY
269
00:17:26,833 --> 00:17:29,833
IS NOT JUST A METAPHOR.
270
00:17:29,833 --> 00:17:32,933
IT COULD REVEAL EXACTLY
HOW THE OCEAN AS A WHOLE
271
00:17:32,933 --> 00:17:36,533
WILL REACT TO CHEMICAL CHANGES
ON PLANET EARTH.
272
00:17:36,533 --> 00:17:40,667
Volk: TO KNOW HOW THE CARBON
DIOXIDE IN THE ATMOSPHERE
273
00:17:40,667 --> 00:17:43,400
WILL RESPOND TO CHANGES
THAT HUMANS MAY MAKE
274
00:17:43,400 --> 00:17:45,200
IN THEIR INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES,
275
00:17:45,200 --> 00:17:48,067
ONE HAS TO UNDERSTAND
THE ENTIRE CYCLE OF CARBON.
276
00:17:48,067 --> 00:17:50,500
AND THAT'S GOING ALONG
WITH OTHER NUTRIENTS,
277
00:17:50,500 --> 00:17:52,967
SUCH AS PHOSPHATES
CARRYING THE PHOSPHOROUS,
278
00:17:52,967 --> 00:17:54,667
NITRATES CARRYING THE NITROGEN.
279
00:17:54,667 --> 00:17:57,633
AND SO ALL THESE
ARE TIED TOGETHER
280
00:17:57,633 --> 00:18:00,867
INTO ONE VERY TIGHTLY
INTERCONNECTED,
281
00:18:00,867 --> 00:18:04,467
COUPLED METABOLIC SUPERSYSTEM.
282
00:18:04,467 --> 00:18:07,400
IT IS A FORM OF SUPERLIFE.
283
00:18:07,400 --> 00:18:09,133
Freeman: TYLER THINKS
284
00:18:09,133 --> 00:18:11,400
THAT IF THE OCEAN
IS A FORM OF SUPERLIFE,
285
00:18:11,400 --> 00:18:15,967
IT WILL, LIKE ALL LIVING THINGS,
REACT WHEN THREATENED.
286
00:18:15,967 --> 00:18:18,467
MANY SCIENTISTS BELIEVE
287
00:18:18,467 --> 00:18:22,233
THAT WE ARE POISONING
EARTH'S WATERS.
288
00:18:22,233 --> 00:18:25,300
DOES THE OCEAN
AND ALL THE LIFE WITHIN IT
289
00:18:25,300 --> 00:18:28,967
HAVE A COLLECTIVE WILL TO LIVE?
290
00:18:28,967 --> 00:18:31,733
AND WHAT WILL IT DO
TO STAY ALIVE?
291
00:18:31,733 --> 00:18:33,600
[ SIREN WAILS ]
292
00:18:35,933 --> 00:18:38,067
WHEN OUR BODIES GET SICK,
293
00:18:38,067 --> 00:18:42,933
AN ARMY OF CELLS, TISSUES,
AND ORGANS WORK TOGETHER
294
00:18:42,933 --> 00:18:46,567
TO PROTECT US
AND FIGHT OFF DISEASE.
295
00:18:46,567 --> 00:18:49,967
WHAT HAPPENS
WHEN THE OCEAN GETS SICK?
296
00:18:49,967 --> 00:18:53,567
DOES IT HAVE AN IMMUNE SYSTEM
OF ITS OWN?
297
00:18:53,567 --> 00:18:58,800
AND WHAT HAPPENS WHEN
THIS IMMUNE SYSTEM KICKS IN?
298
00:19:04,167 --> 00:19:08,500
MAINSTREAM SCIENCE DOES NOT
TYPICALLY CONSIDER THE OCEAN
299
00:19:08,500 --> 00:19:10,233
TO BE A LIVING BEING.
300
00:19:10,233 --> 00:19:13,300
BUT THAT HASN'T STOPPED
GEOLOGIST LEE KUMP
301
00:19:13,300 --> 00:19:15,900
FROM STUDYING ITS PHYSIOLOGY.
302
00:19:15,900 --> 00:19:19,233
Kump: PHYSIOLOGY IS THE STUDY
OF HOW ORGANISMS WORK.
303
00:19:19,233 --> 00:19:20,900
IT'S THE STUDY
OF THE WHOLE ORGANISM,
304
00:19:20,900 --> 00:19:22,467
HOW IT FUNCTIONS
AS A LIVING BEING.
305
00:19:22,467 --> 00:19:24,500
[ FLY BUZZING ]
306
00:19:26,633 --> 00:19:28,600
Freeman:
ALL LIVING ORGANISMS
307
00:19:28,600 --> 00:19:31,900
OBEY THE SAME BASIC RULES
OF PHYSIOLOGY
308
00:19:31,900 --> 00:19:37,567
NO MATTER HOW BIG THEY ARE
OR HOW SMALL.
309
00:19:37,567 --> 00:19:39,233
Kump:
WHEN YOU THINK ABOUT A FLY,
310
00:19:39,233 --> 00:19:41,700
IT HAS THE SAME
PHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS
311
00:19:41,700 --> 00:19:43,167
THAT WE HAVE IN OUR OWN BODY.
312
00:19:43,167 --> 00:19:45,833
AND KEY TO THIS IS THE
CIRCULATION SYSTEM OF THE FLY.
313
00:19:45,833 --> 00:19:47,367
REALLY, THE ONLY DIFFERENCE
314
00:19:47,367 --> 00:19:50,267
IS ITS HEART BEATS
FIVE TIMES PER SECOND,
315
00:19:50,267 --> 00:19:51,867
OURS ABOUT ONCE PER SECOND.
316
00:19:54,133 --> 00:19:57,500
SO, NOW WE SCALE UP TO SOMETHING
LIKE THE OCEAN,
317
00:19:57,500 --> 00:19:59,533
AND IT, TOO, HAS A HEARTBEAT.
318
00:19:59,533 --> 00:20:02,267
AND THAT HEART RATE
IS ABOUT ONCE EVERY 1,000 YEARS.
319
00:20:02,267 --> 00:20:06,167
Freeman: THE OCEAN'S
1,000-YEAR-LONG HEARTBEAT
320
00:20:06,167 --> 00:20:09,367
BEGINS IN THE NORTH
AND SOUTH POLES.
321
00:20:09,367 --> 00:20:14,000
WATER GATHERS OXYGEN FROM
THE ARCTIC AND ANTARCTIC AIR.
322
00:20:14,000 --> 00:20:17,800
AS THE WATER COOLS,
IT SINKS TO THE BOTTOM,
323
00:20:17,800 --> 00:20:20,833
BRINGING OXYGEN
TO DEEP SEA LIFE.
324
00:20:20,833 --> 00:20:26,333
IT FLOWS ALONG THE DARK ABYSS
UNTIL IT REACHES THE EQUATOR,
325
00:20:26,333 --> 00:20:30,300
WHERE IT WARMS
AND RISES TO THE SURFACE.
326
00:20:30,300 --> 00:20:33,933
IT MOVES TOWARDS THE POLES,
AND THE CYCLE REPEATS.
327
00:20:37,300 --> 00:20:39,633
SO THE OCEANS,
JUST LIKE THE HUMAN BODY,
328
00:20:39,633 --> 00:20:41,900
NEEDS TO CIRCULATE
FOR IT TO FUNCTION.
329
00:20:41,900 --> 00:20:46,767
Freeman: WHENEVER HARMFUL
MICROBES GET INSIDE US,
330
00:20:46,767 --> 00:20:50,133
IMMUNE SYSTEM CELLS
RUSH TO THE SITE OF INVASION
331
00:20:50,133 --> 00:20:51,733
AND NEUTRALIZE THE THREAT.
332
00:20:53,800 --> 00:20:57,967
LEE ARGUES THAT THE OCEAN'S
1,000-YEAR CURRENT
333
00:20:57,967 --> 00:21:01,767
IS A TRUE PHYSIOLOGICAL
CIRCULATION SYSTEM
334
00:21:01,767 --> 00:21:07,933
BECAUSE IT, TOO, DELIVERS
ANTIBODIES TO INFECTION SITES.
335
00:21:07,933 --> 00:21:10,533
EVERY CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
HAS AN ESSENTIAL PLAYER
336
00:21:10,533 --> 00:21:12,500
IN OUR BODIES
AND OUR BLOODSTREAM.
337
00:21:12,500 --> 00:21:13,633
THAT'S OUR CELLS.
338
00:21:13,633 --> 00:21:16,500
AND IN THE OCEAN, IT'S BACTERIA.
339
00:21:16,500 --> 00:21:19,067
Freeman: IN HUMANS,
OUTSIDE BACTERIA
340
00:21:19,067 --> 00:21:20,633
ARE USUALLY A THREAT
341
00:21:20,633 --> 00:21:23,700
TO BE FOUGHT OFF
BY OUR IMMUNE SYSTEMS.
342
00:21:23,700 --> 00:21:28,567
BUT IN THE OCEAN,
BACTERIA ARE THE IMMUNE SYSTEM.
343
00:21:28,567 --> 00:21:30,900
Kump: THEY'RE VERY TINY.
THEY DON'T SINK.
344
00:21:30,900 --> 00:21:32,800
AND SO THEY GET CARRIED AROUND
345
00:21:32,800 --> 00:21:35,100
WITH THE CIRCULATION
OF THE OCEAN.
346
00:21:35,100 --> 00:21:38,067
THEY CAN BREAK DOWN
HARMFUL SUBSTANCES.
347
00:21:38,067 --> 00:21:39,767
THEY CAN DETOXIFY THEM.
348
00:21:39,767 --> 00:21:42,167
Freeman:
THE OCEAN IS HOME TO BACTERIA
349
00:21:42,167 --> 00:21:45,467
THAT TRAVEL ON THE CURRENTS
AND BREAK APART HARMFUL METALS,
350
00:21:45,467 --> 00:21:48,367
TOXIC CHEMICALS, OIL SPILLS,
351
00:21:48,367 --> 00:21:50,133
AND JUST ABOUT
EVERY HARMFUL SUBSTANCE
352
00:21:50,133 --> 00:21:53,200
THAT CAN WORK ITS WAY
INTO THE OCEAN.
353
00:21:58,333 --> 00:22:01,500
JUST LIKE LIFE
ON A COLLEGE CAMPUS,
354
00:22:01,500 --> 00:22:04,967
KEEPING EVERYBODY SAFE
IS A TEAM EFFORT.
355
00:22:06,067 --> 00:22:08,200
[ SIREN WAILS ]
356
00:22:08,200 --> 00:22:09,233
HM.
357
00:22:09,233 --> 00:22:10,967
IMAGINE AN ARSONIST
358
00:22:10,967 --> 00:22:13,167
WHO SETS THE STUDENT CENTER
ABLAZE.
359
00:22:13,167 --> 00:22:14,400
UH-OH.
WHAT?
360
00:22:14,400 --> 00:22:18,067
THE FIRST RESPONDERS
ARE THE FIREFIGHTERS.
361
00:22:18,067 --> 00:22:21,233
IN THE OCEAN,
THESE ARE THE BACTERIA
362
00:22:21,233 --> 00:22:25,600
THAT FEED ON THE NEWLY ARRIVED
TOXIN, AND MULTIPLY.
363
00:22:25,600 --> 00:22:28,233
Kump: THIS IS THE BACTERIA
BEING TRANSPORTED
364
00:22:28,233 --> 00:22:29,667
WITH THE OCEAN CURRENTS.
365
00:22:29,667 --> 00:22:32,567
WHERE THERE IS A TOXIN
INTRODUCED TO THE SYSTEM,
366
00:22:32,567 --> 00:22:35,433
THE BACTERIA THRIVE
AND DETOXIFY.
367
00:22:35,433 --> 00:22:38,833
Freeman:
ONCE THE TOXIN IS ELIMINATED,
368
00:22:38,833 --> 00:22:40,700
THE BACTERIA DIE OFF,
369
00:22:40,700 --> 00:22:44,367
JUST LIKE THE FIRST RESPONDERS
WHO LEAVE AFTER THE FIRE IS OUT.
370
00:22:44,367 --> 00:22:48,633
BUT THEY LEAVE BEHIND
A BUNCH OF BYPRODUCTS.
371
00:22:48,633 --> 00:22:51,067
SO THE BACTERIA
ARE PRODUCING WASTE.
372
00:22:51,067 --> 00:22:53,400
THAT'S INFLUENCING
THE CHEMISTRY OF THE OCEANS.
373
00:22:53,400 --> 00:22:55,167
AS THE OCEAN'S CHEMISTRY
CHANGES,
374
00:22:55,167 --> 00:22:57,567
THAT IN TURN INFLUENCES
THE BACTERIA THEMSELVES.
375
00:22:57,567 --> 00:23:03,167
Freeman: THIS INSTIGATES ANOTHER
WAVE OF BACTERIAL HELPERS,
376
00:23:03,167 --> 00:23:05,167
AND ANOTHER,
377
00:23:05,167 --> 00:23:09,600
UNTIL CONDITIONS STABLE ENOUGH
FOR NORMAL LIFE RETURN
378
00:23:09,600 --> 00:23:13,733
AND THE HARMFUL TOXIN
IS COMPLETELY NEUTRALIZED.
379
00:23:19,767 --> 00:23:21,100
HEY, STOP!
380
00:23:21,100 --> 00:23:24,600
PUT YOUR HANDS
BEHIND YOUR BACK!
381
00:23:24,600 --> 00:23:28,067
BUT JUST BECAUSE THE OCEAN
HAS AN IMMUNE SYSTEM
382
00:23:28,067 --> 00:23:33,067
DOES NOT MEAN THAT IT'S
INVULNERABLE TO CATASTROPHE.
383
00:23:33,067 --> 00:23:36,367
WHEN OUR IMMUNE SYSTEMS
OVERREACT,
384
00:23:36,367 --> 00:23:40,900
WE DEVELOP SEVERE DISEASES
LIKE MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS.
385
00:23:40,900 --> 00:23:43,533
THESE IMMUNE SYSTEMS
CAN OVERREACT,
386
00:23:43,533 --> 00:23:46,433
AND THEY CAN PRODUCE
TOO MUCH ANTIBODY.
387
00:23:46,433 --> 00:23:50,067
THEY CAN DISRUPT
THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ORGANISM.
388
00:23:50,067 --> 00:23:53,567
IN THE OCEAN, WE CAN GET
THAT SAME SORT OF OVERREACTION,
389
00:23:53,567 --> 00:23:57,067
AND CARRY US INTO A WHOLE NEW
STATE OF THE OCEAN,
390
00:23:57,067 --> 00:23:58,433
AN UNHEALTHY STATE.
391
00:24:01,767 --> 00:24:06,067
YOUR IMMUNE SYSTEM
PROTECTS YOU FROM DISEASE,
392
00:24:06,067 --> 00:24:10,433
BUT IF IT OVERREACTS,
IT CAN KILL YOU INSTEAD.
393
00:24:10,433 --> 00:24:15,233
WHAT WOULD HAPPEN IF THE IMMUNE
SYSTEM OF THE OCEAN OVERREACTS?
394
00:24:15,233 --> 00:24:17,433
IT MAY HAVE ALREADY HAPPENED
395
00:24:17,433 --> 00:24:20,633
AT LEAST FIVE TIMES
IN EARTH'S HISTORY,
396
00:24:20,633 --> 00:24:23,500
RESULTING IN THE EXTERMINATION
397
00:24:23,500 --> 00:24:27,667
OF NEARLY EVERY LIVING THING
ON THE PLANET.
398
00:24:31,433 --> 00:24:34,433
WHEN A HONEY BEE PERCEIVES
A THREAT TO ITS HIVE,
399
00:24:34,433 --> 00:24:36,067
IT WILL STING ITS VICTIM
400
00:24:36,067 --> 00:24:40,133
AND RELEASE TOXIC VENOM
THAT CAN BE FATAL.
401
00:24:40,133 --> 00:24:43,300
AFTER THE BEE STINGS, IT DIES.
402
00:24:43,300 --> 00:24:49,467
THE HONEY BEE'S INSTINCT IS
TO DEFEND ITS HIVE AT ANY COST.
403
00:24:49,467 --> 00:24:54,400
WILL LIFE IN THE OCEAN
DO THE SAME?
404
00:25:01,833 --> 00:25:05,467
PETER WARD
IS AN OCEANIC PALEONTOLOGIST
405
00:25:05,467 --> 00:25:09,067
WHO LIKES TO GET
UP CLOSE AND PERSONAL
406
00:25:09,067 --> 00:25:11,467
WITH THE SUBJECT OF HIS STUDIES.
407
00:25:11,467 --> 00:25:14,200
Ward: I DIVE A LOT.
MY SCIENCE REQUIRES IT.
408
00:25:14,200 --> 00:25:16,467
AND YET, I COME BACK,
409
00:25:16,467 --> 00:25:18,267
I JUST CAN'T DESCRIBE IN WORDS
WHAT IT'S LIKE.
410
00:25:18,267 --> 00:25:19,900
I JUST CANNOT BRING OUT
THE VISION
411
00:25:19,900 --> 00:25:21,900
OF WHAT I'M SEEING AND THINKING
DOWN THERE.
412
00:25:21,900 --> 00:25:24,133
MOVIES ARE WAY BETTER.
413
00:25:24,133 --> 00:25:25,800
I BRING BACK SMALL VIDEOS,
414
00:25:25,800 --> 00:25:27,333
AND YOU REALLY GET A SENSE,
I THINK.
415
00:25:27,333 --> 00:25:29,267
A PICTURE MAY BE WORTH
1,000 WORDS,
416
00:25:29,267 --> 00:25:31,800
BUT A SHORT VIDEO IS WORTH
MILLIONS OF WORDS.
417
00:25:31,800 --> 00:25:36,067
Freeman: BUT DON'T LET PETER'S
TRANQUIL FOOTAGE FOOL YOU.
418
00:25:36,067 --> 00:25:39,200
BENEATH THE WAVES,
419
00:25:39,200 --> 00:25:41,833
PETER IS LOOKING
AT A CRIME SCENE
420
00:25:41,833 --> 00:25:45,867
WHERE MILLIONS OF SPECIES
ALL ACROSS THE GLOBE
421
00:25:45,867 --> 00:25:48,567
SUDDENLY WOUND UP DEAD.
422
00:25:48,567 --> 00:25:53,067
Ward: SO, 99.999999%
OF ALL INDIVIDUALS --
423
00:25:53,067 --> 00:25:55,333
A MASS EXTINCTION
NOT ONLY WIPES OUT A SPECIES,
424
00:25:55,333 --> 00:25:58,533
BUT IT REALLY EMPTIES THE EARTH
OF LIFE.
425
00:25:58,533 --> 00:26:01,233
THESE ARE REALLY HIDEOUS EVENTS.
426
00:26:01,233 --> 00:26:03,933
Freeman: FOR YEARS,
SCIENTISTS THOUGHT
427
00:26:03,933 --> 00:26:08,800
THAT ALL MASS EXTINCTIONS
WERE CAUSED BY CLIMATE CHANGE
428
00:26:08,800 --> 00:26:13,067
BROUGHT ON BY ASTEROID IMPACTS
AND MASSIVE VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS.
429
00:26:14,800 --> 00:26:17,367
BUT PETER THINKS
THERE'S ANOTHER MASS KILLER.
430
00:26:17,367 --> 00:26:20,867
[ CREATURE ROARS ]
431
00:26:27,600 --> 00:26:29,500
Ward: WE STARTED LOOKING
432
00:26:29,500 --> 00:26:32,700
AT THE OTHER MASS EXTINCTION
BOUNDARIES.
433
00:26:32,700 --> 00:26:34,333
NONE OF THE EVIDENCE
OF AN ASTEROID COLLISION
434
00:26:34,333 --> 00:26:35,400
WERE SHOWING UP.
435
00:26:35,400 --> 00:26:36,733
IN FACT,
SOMETHING QUITE DIFFERENT.
436
00:26:40,100 --> 00:26:43,067
Freeman:
PETER AND HIS COLLEAGUES HAVE
STUDIED THE FOSSIL EVIDENCE
437
00:26:43,067 --> 00:26:45,267
AND PINPOINTED
THE MURDER WEAPON,
438
00:26:45,267 --> 00:26:48,767
A LETHAL CHEMICAL THAT CAN BE
FOUND IN TRACE AMOUNTS
439
00:26:48,767 --> 00:26:51,933
ON NEARLY EVERY SHORELINE
ON EARTH.
440
00:26:51,933 --> 00:26:53,200
Ward: WOW, LOOK AT THIS.
441
00:26:53,200 --> 00:26:56,067
[ SNIFFS ] OH, HO, HO.
442
00:26:56,067 --> 00:26:59,267
SO, WHAT MAKES THIS SO STINKY,
AND IT REALLY IS STINKY,
443
00:26:59,267 --> 00:27:01,833
IS IT'S FULL
OF HYDROGEN SULFIDE.
444
00:27:01,833 --> 00:27:03,633
HYDROGEN SULFIDE IS A GAS
445
00:27:03,633 --> 00:27:06,667
THAT IS EXTREMELY POISONOUS
TO WE MAMMALS.
446
00:27:06,667 --> 00:27:09,067
THERE ARE MANY BACTERIA
WHO LOVE IT,
447
00:27:09,067 --> 00:27:11,433
WHO NEED IT TO LIVE,
BUT NOT OUR KIND.
448
00:27:11,433 --> 00:27:14,200
THOSE OF US WHO USE OXYGEN,
WHO LOVE OXYGEN,
449
00:27:14,200 --> 00:27:17,633
THIS IS A VERY, VERY BAD,
BAD POISON.
450
00:27:17,633 --> 00:27:20,367
AS FEW AS 500, 600
OF THESE MOLECULES
451
00:27:20,367 --> 00:27:23,533
IN A MILLION MOLECULES OF AIR
WILL KILL YOU.
452
00:27:23,533 --> 00:27:26,767
THIS IS THE STUFF THAT LITERALLY
SITS AT THE BOTTOM OF THE OCEAN.
453
00:27:28,333 --> 00:27:30,067
Freeman: PETER BELIEVES
454
00:27:30,067 --> 00:27:33,333
THE BACTERIA THAT PRODUCE
THIS DEADLY NERVE GAS
455
00:27:33,333 --> 00:27:36,867
HAVE WAGED CHEMICAL WARFARE
ON THE ENTIRE PLANET,
456
00:27:36,867 --> 00:27:39,867
IN THE SEA AND ON LAND,
457
00:27:39,867 --> 00:27:45,167
RESULTING IN THE DEATH
OF NEARLY EVERY LIVING CREATURE.
458
00:27:45,167 --> 00:27:49,067
AND IT HAS HAPPENED
AT LEAST FIVE TIMES.
459
00:27:54,167 --> 00:27:56,667
PETER WANTS TO PREDICT
460
00:27:56,667 --> 00:28:00,533
WHEN THIS LETHAL BACTERIAL
PLAGUE WILL OVERRUN THE OCEAN
461
00:28:00,533 --> 00:28:04,133
AND FLOOD OUR ATMOSPHERE
WITH HYDROGEN SULFIDE AGAIN.
462
00:28:04,133 --> 00:28:06,067
ALL RIGHT, LET'S SAY
463
00:28:06,067 --> 00:28:09,067
THAT THIS IS NICE, COLD,
OXYGENATED WATER,
464
00:28:09,067 --> 00:28:12,300
AND IT'S BEEN MOVING UP
FROM THE GULF STREAM,
465
00:28:12,300 --> 00:28:14,367
AND THEN NORTH TOWARDS EUROPE,
466
00:28:14,367 --> 00:28:17,133
GETTING COLDER AND COLDER
AND COLDER.
467
00:28:17,133 --> 00:28:20,467
AND FINALLY, IT'S COLD ENOUGH,
IT SINKS.
468
00:28:20,467 --> 00:28:24,067
AND WHEN IT SINKS, WHAT HAPPENS?
469
00:28:24,067 --> 00:28:27,067
WE GET THIS NICE,
OXYGENATED BOTTOM WATER
470
00:28:27,067 --> 00:28:29,833
THAT COVERS THE BOTTOM
OF THE OCEANS,
471
00:28:29,833 --> 00:28:31,667
KEEPS THE OCEANS HEALTHY.
472
00:28:31,667 --> 00:28:35,233
SO, WE HAVE THIS NICE
CIRCULATION SYSTEM.
473
00:28:35,233 --> 00:28:37,867
Freeman:
BUT THAT CAN CHANGE
474
00:28:37,867 --> 00:28:42,333
IF OXYGEN-RICH SEAWATER STOPS
SINKING TO THE OCEAN FLOOR
475
00:28:42,333 --> 00:28:43,900
WHERE IT'S NEEDED.
476
00:28:43,900 --> 00:28:47,333
THE DEEP SEA,
IF THERE IS NO OXYGEN IN IT,
477
00:28:47,333 --> 00:28:50,567
STARTS FAVORING
OTHER TYPES OF BACTERIA
478
00:28:50,567 --> 00:28:52,967
THAT PRODUCE HYDROGEN SULFIDE.
479
00:28:56,100 --> 00:28:59,333
Freeman: WHEN THE OCEAN SURFACE
WARMS BY JUST A FEW DEGREES
480
00:28:59,333 --> 00:29:02,133
OR IS FLOODED WITH FRESH WATER,
481
00:29:02,133 --> 00:29:05,367
IT BECOMES LESS DENSE
THAN THE WATER BENEATH IT.
482
00:29:07,667 --> 00:29:10,433
SO, LET'S MAKE A REALLY,
REALLY, REALLY WARM WORLD
483
00:29:10,433 --> 00:29:12,733
INSTEAD OF THAT NICE,
COLD OXYGEN WATER.
484
00:29:12,733 --> 00:29:17,367
LET'S POUR IN THIS NICE,
HOT LOW-OXYGEN WATER.
485
00:29:20,500 --> 00:29:24,067
YOU CAN SEE THE HOT WATER STAYS
RIGHT ON THE TOP.
486
00:29:24,067 --> 00:29:26,467
IT DOESN'T GO DOWN
AND TAKE THE NICE OXYGEN DOWN.
487
00:29:26,467 --> 00:29:27,800
WE, INSTEAD, HAVE A SYSTEM
488
00:29:27,800 --> 00:29:30,767
WITHOUT AN OXYGEN EXPORT
TO THE BOTTOM.
489
00:29:30,767 --> 00:29:34,400
AND THE NET RESULT IN THE END
IS MASS EXTINCTION.
490
00:29:34,400 --> 00:29:38,600
Freeman:
WITHOUT OXYGEN IN THE DEEP SEA,
491
00:29:38,600 --> 00:29:42,967
HYDROGEN SULFIDE-PRODUCING
BACTERIA THRIVE
492
00:29:42,967 --> 00:29:47,867
AND FILL THE OCEAN
WITH POISONOUS VIOLET SLUDGE.
493
00:29:47,867 --> 00:29:52,867
LARGE PLUMES OF TOXIC
YELLOW HYDROGEN SULFIDE EXPLODE
494
00:29:52,867 --> 00:29:55,467
AND BLANKET THE ATMOSPHERE.
495
00:29:55,467 --> 00:29:58,667
PLANTS ARE SUFFOCATED TO DEATH.
496
00:29:58,667 --> 00:30:01,533
ANIMALS DIE FROM POISONING.
497
00:30:01,533 --> 00:30:06,933
HUMAN LIFE WOULD BE
IMPOSSIBLE TO SUSTAIN.
498
00:30:06,933 --> 00:30:09,967
COULD IT HAPPEN AGAIN?
ABSOLUTELY.
499
00:30:11,433 --> 00:30:15,100
Freeman: PETER THINKS
THAT IF WE WARM UP THE PLANET
500
00:30:15,100 --> 00:30:16,733
BY JUST A FEW DEGREES,
501
00:30:16,733 --> 00:30:20,167
THE OCEAN COULD MAKE US PAY
THE ULTIMATE PRICE.
502
00:30:20,167 --> 00:30:22,400
BUT FOR PETER,
THAT DOES NOT MEAN
503
00:30:22,400 --> 00:30:25,300
THE OCEAN IS ITSELF
A LIVING THING.
504
00:30:25,300 --> 00:30:30,767
MICROBIOLOGIST YURI GORBY
IS TAKING A DIFFERENT APPROACH.
505
00:30:30,767 --> 00:30:34,167
HE'S FOUND EVIDENCE
THAT SUGGESTS
506
00:30:34,167 --> 00:30:39,033
THE OCEAN ECOSYSTEM
IS A LIVING SUPERORGANISM
507
00:30:39,033 --> 00:30:41,933
WITH THE CAPACITY TO THINK.
508
00:30:41,933 --> 00:30:45,600
DOES THE OCEAN HAVE A BRAIN?
509
00:30:50,367 --> 00:30:52,967
HOW DID WE GET OUR BRAIN POWER?
510
00:30:52,967 --> 00:30:56,600
WELL, DURING MILLIONS OF YEARS
OF EVOLUTION,
511
00:30:56,600 --> 00:31:00,533
GROUPS OF CELLS DEVELOPED
ELECTRICAL CONNECTIONS
512
00:31:00,533 --> 00:31:04,100
TO ONE ANOTHER
AND BECAME COMPLEX NETWORKS.
513
00:31:04,100 --> 00:31:09,967
THE ENTIRE OCEAN SEEMS TO HAVE
A SIMILAR NETWORK.
514
00:31:09,967 --> 00:31:15,067
HAS IT EVOLVED
TO BE INTELLIGENT LIKE US,
515
00:31:15,067 --> 00:31:17,900
OR HAS IT SURPASSED US?
516
00:31:17,900 --> 00:31:21,733
MICROBIOLOGIST YURI GORBY
IS PART OF A TEAM
517
00:31:21,733 --> 00:31:24,067
THAT HAS MADE A MAJOR DISCOVERY.
518
00:31:24,067 --> 00:31:26,700
IT'S ONE THAT COULD
FOREVER CHANGE
519
00:31:26,700 --> 00:31:29,300
HOW WE LOOK AT LIFE
IN THE OCEAN.
520
00:31:29,300 --> 00:31:33,067
BUT IT STARTED
WITH A HUMBLE QUESTION.
521
00:31:33,067 --> 00:31:37,533
HOW DO MICROORGANISMS BREATHE?
522
00:31:37,533 --> 00:31:39,867
NOW, WE THINK THAT BREATHING IN
IS RESPIRATION,
523
00:31:39,867 --> 00:31:41,300
BUT THAT'S REALLY INHALATION.
524
00:31:41,300 --> 00:31:45,433
TRUE RESPIRATION IN OUR BODY
OCCURS IN MITOCHONDRIA.
525
00:31:45,433 --> 00:31:48,300
RESPIRATION IS THE MOVEMENT
OF ELECTRONS
526
00:31:48,300 --> 00:31:49,867
FROM AN ELECTRON DONOR
527
00:31:49,867 --> 00:31:52,500
TO AN APPROPRIATE
ELECTRON ACCEPTOR.
528
00:31:52,500 --> 00:31:55,467
Freeman:
MOST SPECIES RESPIRE
529
00:31:55,467 --> 00:31:59,133
BY DUMPING ELECTRONS
ONTO OXYGEN ATOMS
530
00:31:59,133 --> 00:32:01,600
INSIDE THEIR MITOCHONDRIA.
531
00:32:01,600 --> 00:32:04,367
BUT A LOT OF AQUATIC BACTERIA
RESPIRE
532
00:32:04,367 --> 00:32:06,300
WITH A DIFFERENT TECHNIQUE.
533
00:32:06,300 --> 00:32:11,200
THEY DUMP ELECTRONS ONTO METALS
DISSOLVED IN SEAWATER.
534
00:32:11,200 --> 00:32:13,267
YURI WANTED TO SEE WHAT HAPPENED
535
00:32:13,267 --> 00:32:15,800
WHEN HE ROBBED
THESE AQUATIC BACTERIA
536
00:32:15,800 --> 00:32:17,867
OF THEIR LIFE-SUSTAINING METALS.
537
00:32:17,867 --> 00:32:20,600
Gorby:
WE EXPECTED THAT THESE ORGANISMS
538
00:32:20,600 --> 00:32:23,167
WOULD BASICALLY SUFFOCATE
AND PERISH.
539
00:32:23,167 --> 00:32:25,800
BUT THAT IS NOT
WHAT WE OBSERVED.
540
00:32:25,800 --> 00:32:28,700
WHAT WE SAW BLEW OUR MINDS.
541
00:32:28,700 --> 00:32:32,367
Freeman:
YURI'S BACTERIA SURVIVED
542
00:32:32,367 --> 00:32:38,533
AND GREW WHAT APPEARED TO BE A
VAST SCAFFOLDING OF TINY HAIRS.
543
00:32:38,533 --> 00:32:40,267
Gorby: I SENT SOME SAMPLES
TO A FRIEND OF MINE,
544
00:32:40,267 --> 00:32:43,167
AND SHE PUT THEM UNDER
ONE OF HER MICROSCOPES,
545
00:32:43,167 --> 00:32:46,433
A SCANNING TUNNELING MICROSCOPE.
SHE APPLIED CURRENT.
546
00:32:46,433 --> 00:32:50,633
SHE CALLED ME UP AND SAID,
"YOU'RE NOT GONNA BELIEVE THIS."
547
00:32:50,633 --> 00:32:52,567
I RUSHED OVER TO HER LAB,
548
00:32:52,567 --> 00:32:56,433
AND WHAT I OBSERVED
WAS THAT THESE LITTLE FILAMENTS
549
00:32:56,433 --> 00:32:59,300
ACTUALLY HAD ELECTRONIC
OR CONDUCTIVE PROPERTIES.
550
00:33:03,167 --> 00:33:07,800
I COULD NOT SLEEP FOR DAYS
AFTER SEEING THOSE RESULTS.
551
00:33:07,800 --> 00:33:09,867
IT WAS JUST REMARKABLE.
552
00:33:09,867 --> 00:33:13,767
Freeman: THE TINY FIBERS
WERE NOT HAIRS AT ALL.
553
00:33:13,767 --> 00:33:15,367
YURI DISCOVERED
554
00:33:15,367 --> 00:33:18,233
THEY WERE ELECTRICALLY
CONDUCTIVE FILAMENTS.
555
00:33:18,233 --> 00:33:23,500
HE NAMED THEM
BACTERIAL NANOWIRES.
556
00:33:23,500 --> 00:33:27,067
THESE NANOWIRES FORM
WHEN BACTERIA NEED TO RESPIRE,
557
00:33:27,067 --> 00:33:30,700
BUT THEY STICK AROUND WHEN
CONDITIONS RETURN TO NORMAL.
558
00:33:30,700 --> 00:33:34,567
IN OUR BRAINS,
WE HAVE ABOUT 100 BILLION
559
00:33:34,567 --> 00:33:39,600
ELECTRICALLY CONNECTED CELLS
THAT PROCESS OUR THOUGHTS.
560
00:33:39,600 --> 00:33:42,833
YURI BELIEVES THAT THE OCEAN
ALSO CONTAINS
561
00:33:42,833 --> 00:33:45,133
VAST ELECTRICAL NETWORKS
562
00:33:45,133 --> 00:33:49,200
THAT COMPRISE UP TO
100 TRILLION, TRILLION
563
00:33:49,200 --> 00:33:51,967
BACTERIAL CELLS.
564
00:33:51,967 --> 00:33:55,067
THIS NETWORK
IS HIGHLY INTERCONNECTED,
565
00:33:55,067 --> 00:33:57,433
JUST LIKE THE ONE IN OUR BRAIN.
566
00:33:57,433 --> 00:34:01,533
IT, TOO,
MAY BE CAPABLE OF THOUGHT.
567
00:34:02,967 --> 00:34:05,267
SO, WHAT DO WE HAVE HERE?
568
00:34:05,267 --> 00:34:09,600
WE HAVE A CELL,
REPRESENTED BY THIS LIGHT BULB,
569
00:34:09,600 --> 00:34:12,233
SENDING A SIGNAL DOWN A WIRE.
570
00:34:12,233 --> 00:34:15,567
THIS LITTLE JUNCTION,
IT HAS TO MAKE A DECISION.
571
00:34:15,567 --> 00:34:18,333
WHICH WAY DO WE PROPAGATE
THAT SIGNAL?
572
00:34:18,333 --> 00:34:20,267
TO THE LEFT OR TO THE RIGHT?
573
00:34:20,267 --> 00:34:22,767
Freeman:
WHEN A SIGNAL PROPAGATES
574
00:34:22,767 --> 00:34:24,500
THROUGH A DIGITAL COMPUTER,
575
00:34:24,500 --> 00:34:27,700
IT ENCOUNTERS TRANSISTORS
WHICH DECIDE
576
00:34:27,700 --> 00:34:31,100
WHETHER TO TURN IT INTO
A ONE OR A ZERO --
577
00:34:31,100 --> 00:34:33,333
LEFT OR RIGHT.
578
00:34:33,333 --> 00:34:35,633
IN AN ORGANIC COMPUTER,
579
00:34:35,633 --> 00:34:38,133
THE TRANSISTORS
ARE REPLACED BY CELLS,
580
00:34:38,133 --> 00:34:41,833
WHICH CAN PASS THE SIGNAL
ONTO ONE OR MORE,
581
00:34:41,833 --> 00:34:47,067
OR POTENTIALLY THOUSANDS
OF CONNECTED CELLS.
582
00:34:47,067 --> 00:34:52,900
WHEN MULTITUDES OF THESE CELLS
ARE INTERCONNECTED,
583
00:34:52,900 --> 00:34:55,967
A NETWORK EMERGES
584
00:34:55,967 --> 00:35:00,100
THAT CAN PROCESS
VAST AMOUNTS OF INFORMATION.
585
00:35:00,100 --> 00:35:02,100
Gorby: IF YOU REALLY PONDER
THE QUESTION
586
00:35:02,100 --> 00:35:05,833
"CAN THE OCEAN THINK?",
YOU HAVE TO EXPAND YOUR MIND.
587
00:35:05,833 --> 00:35:09,833
IT'S THE SAME WAY AS,
"CAN A SINGLE BACTERIUM THINK?"
588
00:35:09,833 --> 00:35:11,700
NO.
589
00:35:11,700 --> 00:35:14,233
CAN A COMMUNITY
OF MICROORGANISMS THINK?
590
00:35:14,233 --> 00:35:15,733
PERHAPS.
591
00:35:15,733 --> 00:35:18,633
EXPAND THAT FURTHER.
592
00:35:18,633 --> 00:35:23,233
CAN THE OCEAN
PROCESS INFORMATION AND THINK?
593
00:35:23,233 --> 00:35:25,167
I SAY ABSOLUTELY.
594
00:35:28,100 --> 00:35:30,567
Freeman:
THE OCEAN COULD HAVE A BRAIN
595
00:35:30,567 --> 00:35:32,300
MADE UP BACTERIAL NANOWIRES
596
00:35:32,300 --> 00:35:35,900
THAT EXIST ALL THROUGH THE UPPER
LAYERS OF OCEAN SEDIMENT.
597
00:35:35,900 --> 00:35:38,367
THIS BRAIN COULD BE CAPABLE
OF THOUGHTS
598
00:35:38,367 --> 00:35:41,633
VERY DIFFERENT FROM OUR OWN.
599
00:35:41,633 --> 00:35:47,100
THERE ARE 100 TRILLION, TRILLION
CELLS IN THE OCEAN SEDIMENT,
600
00:35:47,100 --> 00:35:50,200
FAR MORE THAN THE NUMBER
OF NEURONS WE HAVE,
601
00:35:50,200 --> 00:35:52,700
AND THE OCEAN'S
ELECTRICAL NETWORK
602
00:35:52,700 --> 00:35:58,100
FIRES OVER A 1,000 TIMES FASTER
THAN OUR NEURAL NETWORK.
603
00:35:58,100 --> 00:36:01,200
YURI SUSPECTS
THAT THIS BRAIN NETWORK
604
00:36:01,200 --> 00:36:05,567
IS SPREAD ACROSS 140 MILLION
SQUARE MILES OF OCEAN FLOOR.
605
00:36:05,567 --> 00:36:09,433
IF SO,
ITS THOUGHTS WOULD PLAY OUT
606
00:36:09,433 --> 00:36:13,833
OVER HUNDREDS
IF NOT THOUSANDS OF YEARS.
607
00:36:13,833 --> 00:36:15,633
SO, WHAT COULD THE OCEAN
BE THINKING?
608
00:36:15,633 --> 00:36:19,067
THE OCEAN'S BEEN AROUND
A LONG TIME,
609
00:36:19,067 --> 00:36:22,067
AND THOSE ORGANISMS THAT ARE
AT THE BOTTOM OF THE OCEAN,
610
00:36:22,067 --> 00:36:24,500
POSSIBLY INTEGRATED
INTO THESE NEURAL NETWORKS,
611
00:36:24,500 --> 00:36:27,933
THEY'VE BEEN AROUND
FOR BILLIONS OF YEARS.
612
00:36:27,933 --> 00:36:31,800
SO, IT'S PROBABLY
VERY CONTEMPLATIVE THOUGHT.
613
00:36:31,800 --> 00:36:35,067
Freeman: IF THE OCEAN ECOSYSTEM
COLLECTIVELY FORMS
614
00:36:35,067 --> 00:36:37,367
A LIVING, THINKING BEING,
615
00:36:37,367 --> 00:36:40,600
IT COULD SEE US
AS A THREAT TO ITS SURVIVAL.
616
00:36:40,600 --> 00:36:45,600
IT MAY DECIDE
TO IMMUNIZE ITSELF AGAINST US.
617
00:36:45,600 --> 00:36:49,200
WE COULD BE WIPED OUT.
618
00:36:49,200 --> 00:36:53,700
BUT WE ARE ALSO
INTELLIGENT CREATURES.
619
00:36:53,700 --> 00:36:57,933
COULDN'T WE LEARN HOW TO READ
THE OCEAN'S MOOD?
620
00:37:02,067 --> 00:37:05,200
WE COULD BE ON THE VERGE
OF KILLING THE OCEAN.
621
00:37:05,200 --> 00:37:09,667
OR IS THE OCEAN
READY TO WIPE US OUT?
622
00:37:09,667 --> 00:37:13,900
DETERMINING THE HEALTH
OF THIS MASSIVE BODY OF WATER
623
00:37:13,900 --> 00:37:17,400
IS A HUGE TASK,
BUT IT'S A NECESSARY ONE.
624
00:37:17,400 --> 00:37:23,833
THE ANSWER COULD TELL US
HOW MUCH TIME WE HAVE LEFT.
625
00:37:23,833 --> 00:37:28,933
DAVID MARCOGLIESE
IS A RESEARCH BIOLOGIST
626
00:37:28,933 --> 00:37:31,600
WHO LIKES TO LOOK
AT COMPLEX ECOSYSTEMS
627
00:37:31,600 --> 00:37:34,333
FROM A BIRD'S EYE VIEW.
628
00:37:34,333 --> 00:37:37,067
Marcogliese: A CITY IS BASICALLY
AN ECOSYSTEM OF ITS OWN,
629
00:37:37,067 --> 00:37:40,233
AND WE COULD CONSIDER THIS
AN ECOSYSTEM.
630
00:37:40,233 --> 00:37:43,767
AND IF WE LOOK AT EACH TRAIN
AS A FOOD CHAIN,
631
00:37:43,767 --> 00:37:46,433
THEN WE CAN MEASURE
NUTRIENT FLOW.
632
00:37:48,300 --> 00:37:51,133
Freeman: THE FOOD CHAIN
TRANSPORTS NUTRIENTS
633
00:37:51,133 --> 00:37:54,267
FROM ORGANISM TO ORGANISM
THROUGHOUT AN ECOSYSTEM,
634
00:37:54,267 --> 00:37:59,067
JUST AS TRAINS MOVE FOOD
TO WHOEVER NEEDS IT.
635
00:37:59,067 --> 00:38:03,667
IF THE TRAIN STOPS RUNNING,
FOOD BECOMES SCARCE,
636
00:38:03,667 --> 00:38:07,400
AND THE WHOLE TOWN
RISKS COLLAPSE.
637
00:38:07,400 --> 00:38:09,267
KNOWING IF THE TRAINS
ARE RUNNING
638
00:38:09,267 --> 00:38:12,233
IN A MODEL CITY IN YOUR BASEMENT
IS EASY.
639
00:38:12,233 --> 00:38:18,467
BUT WHEN IT COMES TO THE OCEAN,
RESEARCHERS ARE IN THE DARK.
640
00:38:18,467 --> 00:38:22,433
Marcogliese
WELL, THE OCEAN IS AN EXTREMELY,
EXTREMELY COMPLEX ECOSYSTEM.
641
00:38:22,433 --> 00:38:26,600
AS ECOLOGISTS, IT'S VERY
DIFFICULT TO LOOK AT AN OCEAN.
642
00:38:26,600 --> 00:38:27,933
IT'S JUST SO BIG.
643
00:38:27,933 --> 00:38:31,433
AND IT'S COMPOSED OF MANY,
MANY DIFFERENT ECOSYSTEMS.
644
00:38:31,433 --> 00:38:34,500
Freeman: BUT DAVID THINKS
HE KNOWS WHAT TO LOOK FOR
645
00:38:34,500 --> 00:38:37,067
TO DETERMINE
THE CONDITION OF THE OCEAN.
646
00:38:42,067 --> 00:38:43,967
PARASITES.
647
00:38:45,600 --> 00:38:49,867
THESE TINY MONSTERS SURVIVE
BY LAYING EGGS INTO THEIR HOSTS
648
00:38:49,867 --> 00:38:52,067
WHERE THEY GROW AND MULTIPLY.
649
00:38:52,067 --> 00:38:58,933
SOME SLOWLY KILL THEIR HOSTS
OVER YEARS OF PAINFUL INVASION.
650
00:38:58,933 --> 00:39:02,967
BUT DAVID SEES THEM
IN A DIFFERENT LIGHT.
651
00:39:05,067 --> 00:39:08,867
YEAH, THEY REALLY DO HAVE
AN AWFUL, AWFUL REPUTATION,
652
00:39:08,867 --> 00:39:11,600
AND IT'S -- IT'S NOT SURPRISING
TO THINK WHY.
653
00:39:11,600 --> 00:39:15,167
THERE'S A BIG YUCK FACTOR.
654
00:39:15,167 --> 00:39:16,533
BECAUSE IF YOU CATCH A FISH
655
00:39:16,533 --> 00:39:18,433
AND IT'S COVERED
IN PARASITIC CYSTS
656
00:39:18,433 --> 00:39:21,667
OR YOU OPEN UP A COD
AND IT HAS A COD WORM INSIDE,
657
00:39:21,667 --> 00:39:24,800
MOST PEOPLE DON'T WANT
TO EAT THE FISH.
658
00:39:24,800 --> 00:39:27,600
IT'S JUST EXTRA PROTEIN
IN MOST CASES, BUT ANYWAY...
659
00:39:27,600 --> 00:39:29,800
[ CHUCKLES ]
660
00:39:29,800 --> 00:39:32,200
Freeman:
IN INDIVIDUAL ANIMALS,
661
00:39:32,200 --> 00:39:35,833
PARASITES ARE OFTEN SIGNS
OF DISEASE.
662
00:39:35,833 --> 00:39:39,633
BUT FOR ECOSYSTEMS,
A RICH DIVERSITY OF PARASITES
663
00:39:39,633 --> 00:39:42,800
IS AN INDICATION OF GOOD HEALTH
664
00:39:42,800 --> 00:39:45,533
BECAUSE PARASITES,
LIKE THE SEAL WORM,
665
00:39:45,533 --> 00:39:50,467
RELY ON A FOOD CHAIN
LINKING MANY THRIVING SPECIES.
666
00:39:50,467 --> 00:39:52,267
THE ADULTS LIVE
IN SEAL STOMACHS,
667
00:39:52,267 --> 00:39:53,533
AND THERE THEY REPRODUCE,
668
00:39:53,533 --> 00:39:55,600
AND EGGS ARE PASSED OUT
INTO THE WATER.
669
00:39:57,533 --> 00:40:02,567
Freeman: THE EGGS SETTLE,
AND A TINY LARVA HATCHES.
670
00:40:02,567 --> 00:40:07,267
A CRUSTACEAN COMES ALONG
AND INGESTS THE LARVA.
671
00:40:07,267 --> 00:40:10,933
THAT CRUSTACEAN IS EATEN
BY A LARGER CRUSTACEAN,
672
00:40:10,933 --> 00:40:15,133
WHICH IS EATEN BY ONE OF MANY
DIFFERENT SPECIES OF FISH,
673
00:40:15,133 --> 00:40:19,333
WHICH MOST SEALS FIND TASTY.
674
00:40:19,333 --> 00:40:24,533
INSIDE THE SEAL'S STOMACH,
THE WORMS MATE AND LAY EGGS.
675
00:40:24,533 --> 00:40:28,000
THE EGGS DROP OUT
THROUGH THE FECES,
676
00:40:28,000 --> 00:40:30,067
AND THE CYCLE REPEATS.
677
00:40:30,067 --> 00:40:33,300
IN ONE LIFE CYCLE,
A PARASITE CAN TRAVEL
678
00:40:33,300 --> 00:40:35,233
THROUGH THE DINNER
OF MULTIPLE SPECIES
679
00:40:35,233 --> 00:40:39,267
AND POTENTIALLY THOUSANDS
OF MILES OF OCEAN WATER.
680
00:40:39,267 --> 00:40:42,433
IF SOMETHING IS GOING WRONG
WITH ANY HOST ALONG THE WAY,
681
00:40:42,433 --> 00:40:45,667
THE PARASITE DIES.
682
00:40:45,667 --> 00:40:48,133
Marcogliese: WHEN YOU HAVE
A HEALTHY ECOSYSTEM
683
00:40:48,133 --> 00:40:51,633
WITH A GOOD AMOUNT OF DIVERSITY
OR BIODIVERSITY IN IT,
684
00:40:51,633 --> 00:40:53,867
YOU WILL SEE
MORE INTERNAL PARASITES
685
00:40:53,867 --> 00:40:56,267
THAT HAVE COMPLEX LIFE CYCLES.
686
00:40:56,267 --> 00:40:58,267
Freeman:
TO TEST AN ECOSYSTEM,
687
00:40:58,267 --> 00:41:03,100
DAVID TAKES A CENSUS
OF ITS PARASITES.
688
00:41:06,067 --> 00:41:09,600
EVEN THOUGH DAVID CAN'T SEE
THE WHOLE ECOSYSTEM,
689
00:41:09,600 --> 00:41:11,367
THE PARASITES TELL HIM
690
00:41:11,367 --> 00:41:15,067
THAT NUTRIENTS
ARE PROPERLY CYCLING THROUGH IT.
691
00:41:15,067 --> 00:41:17,533
WE THINK OF EACH PARASITE
AS A LITTLE LIGHT.
692
00:41:17,533 --> 00:41:19,233
THE GREEN LIGHT IS ONE SPECIES,
693
00:41:19,233 --> 00:41:21,933
AND THE RED LIGHT
IS ANOTHER SPECIES.
694
00:41:21,933 --> 00:41:25,133
WE CAN THEN WATCH THEM
FOLLOW THIS LINEAR PATH
695
00:41:25,133 --> 00:41:27,133
UP THE FOOD CHAIN,
696
00:41:27,133 --> 00:41:30,267
STOPPING ALONG THE WAY
AT THE VARIOUS STOPS
697
00:41:30,267 --> 00:41:33,467
WHICH REFLECT THE DIFFERENT
HOSTS IN THEIR LIFE CYCLES.
698
00:41:33,467 --> 00:41:37,233
Freeman: IF POPULATIONS OF
PARASITES BEGIN TO DISAPPEAR,
699
00:41:37,233 --> 00:41:41,567
IT COULD MEAN THAT THERE ARE
BREAKS IN THE FOOD CHAIN,
700
00:41:41,567 --> 00:41:45,567
AND THE ENVIRONMENT
IS HEADED TOWARDS CATASTROPHE.
701
00:41:45,567 --> 00:41:49,133
DAVID MONITORS
THE ECOLOGICAL HEALTH
702
00:41:49,133 --> 00:41:51,700
OF THE RIVERS AND LAKES
ACROSS CANADA
703
00:41:51,700 --> 00:41:54,333
BY SURVEYING
THE PARASITE POPULATIONS.
704
00:41:54,333 --> 00:41:59,333
DOING THE SAME FOR THE OCEAN
WILL BE A HERCULEAN TASK,
705
00:41:59,333 --> 00:42:03,067
BUT DAVID HOPES ONE DAY
TO TAKE IT ON.
706
00:42:03,067 --> 00:42:07,067
Marcogliese: THE OCEAN
IS SUCH A VAST HABITAT.
707
00:42:07,067 --> 00:42:09,267
IT'S ANOTHER FRONTIER.
708
00:42:09,267 --> 00:42:11,733
YOU WOULD NEED
THE KIND OF RESOURCES YOU NEED
709
00:42:11,733 --> 00:42:12,800
TO GO TO THE MOON.
710
00:42:12,800 --> 00:42:14,933
Freeman:
SCIENTISTS DON'T KNOW
711
00:42:14,933 --> 00:42:17,767
WHAT'S REALLY OUT THERE
IN THE SEA,
712
00:42:17,767 --> 00:42:21,400
AND NO ONE KNOWS
HOW FAR THE OCEAN CAN BE PUSHED
713
00:42:21,400 --> 00:42:23,233
BEFORE CATASTROPHE STRIKES.
714
00:42:29,467 --> 00:42:33,067
THE OCEAN MAY HAVE
A WILL TO LIVE,
715
00:42:33,067 --> 00:42:37,467
OR IT MAY REACT UNTHINKINGLY
TO OUR INSULTS.
716
00:42:37,467 --> 00:42:40,900
EITHER WAY,
WE SHOULD NOT UNDERESTIMATE
717
00:42:40,900 --> 00:42:44,733
THE POWER IT HAS
OVER ALL LIFE ON THE PLANET.
718
00:42:44,733 --> 00:42:48,533
WITH ITS MILLIONS OF SPECIES,
THE OCEAN MIGHT BE
719
00:42:48,533 --> 00:42:52,133
THE MOST REMARKABLE CREATURE
WE'LL EVER MEET,
720
00:42:52,133 --> 00:42:57,100
THE LARGEST AND OLDEST
LIFE FORM ON EARTH.
57542
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