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♪
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♪
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DAVID POGUE:
What's it take to make
our modern world?
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Ah!
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(Pogue shouts)
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That's amazing!
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I'm David Pogue.
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{\an1}Join me on a high-speed chase
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{\an1}through the elements...
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and beyond.
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(explosions)
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Oh, my God!
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{\an1}As we smash our way into
the materials,
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molecules,
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and reactions...
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AMANDA CAVANAGH:It's a really cool enzyme
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{\an1}because it makes life on Earth
possible.
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POGUE:...that make the places we live,
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the bodies we live in,
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{\an1}and the stuff we can't seem
to live without.
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{\an1}The only thing between me and
certain death...
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{\an1}(explosions boom,
glass shatters)
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...is chemistry?
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{\an1}From killer snails...
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MANDEË HOLFORD:Just when you think you've heard
of everything,
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{\an1}nature will surprise you.
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POGUE:
...and exploding glass
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{\an1}to the price a pepper-eating
Pogue pays.
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{\an1}There's got to be some easier
way to learn about molecules.
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♪
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We'll dig into
the surprising way
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{\an1}different elements
combine together
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and blow apart.
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(loud explosion)
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In this hour,
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{\an1}we tackle one of the biggest
mysteries of all:
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{\an1}the origin of life.
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{\an1}How do a bunch of chemicals
get together
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{\an1}and start acting like a cell?
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POGUE:
Part of the answer
might be...
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soap?
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Cell division!
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{\an1}We explore how the chemistryof life transformed the planet.
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LISA AINSWORTH:
So everything that we eat,
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{\an1}and the air that we breathe,
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all have to do
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with the process
of photosynthesis.
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POGUE:
All right, so let's find
the lipids aisle.
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{\an1}I go shopping for the
macromolecules of my body.
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{\an1}You're telling me that that'sonly half the amount of fats
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{\an1}in my body?
Absolutely.
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(laughing)
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POGUE:And I meet an engineer who uses
nature's tools
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{\an1}to invent new molecules.
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FRANCES ARNOLD:Humans have been using microbes
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to make beer and wine.
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{\an1}Instead of making sake,
we make jet fuel.
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POGUE:
"Beyond the Elements: Life"--
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{\an1}right now on "NOVA".
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♪
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♪
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POGUE:
The world we live in is made
of atoms--
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{\an1}all listed here as elements
on the periodic table.
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{\an1}They're the building blocks
of everything around us
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{\an1}and putting atoms togetherto make molecules and compounds
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{\an1}is what we call chemistry.
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{\an1}And maybe the strangest event
in the history of chemistry
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{\an1}is the birth of biology.
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{\an1}How do a bunch of chemicals
somehow get together
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to form life?
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{\an1}And if you look back at the
conditions on early Earth,
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{\an1}how did life get off
the starting block?
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{\an1}(thunder rumbles)
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{\an1}There was a turning point,
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{\an1}the evolution of a
transformative series
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{\an1}of chemical reactions that,
over time,
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{\an1}remade the planet,
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{\an1}even allowing us to come along.
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{\an8}But first,
let's take a trip back,
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{\an8}to Life 1.0.
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(tape rewinding)
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{\an1}So, here's the ad:
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{\an1}Planet available.
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{\an7}Recently scoured by asteroids.
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{\an7}New construction.
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{\an7}Now with many water views.
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{\an8}♪
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The atmosphere?
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{\an1}Eh... a fixer-upper.
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{\an8}(loud eruption)
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{\an7}Devoid of oxygen.
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{\an7}Likely full of whatever
the volcanoes spewed forth--
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{\an7}gases like hydrogen sulfide
and methane.
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{\an8}(loud eruption)
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{\an7}Somehow in that very harsh
environment,
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{\an7}primitive life got its start.
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{\an7}But the going stayed tough.
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{\an7}Food-- molecules and minerals
that early organisms
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{\an7}could use for energy--
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{\an7}consisted of whatever was left
over from Earth's formation,
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{\an1}or was welling up
from the Earth's core
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{\an1}at places like deep sea vents.
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{\an1}But in a surprisingly short
amount of time--
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{\an1}perhaps 500 million years--
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{\an1}a new survival strategy
evolved--
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{\an1}possibly the most important
chemical process for life
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{\an1}on Earth today...
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Photosynthesis--
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the ability
to turn sunlight into fuel.
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Life now had access to the vast
power of the sun.
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{\an1}In the words of one biologist,
"When photosynthesis
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{\an1}"entered the picture,
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life connected
up to the cosmos."
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♪
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AINSWORTH:
So, everything that we eat,
what we wear,
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{\an1}the air that we breathe,
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{\an7}the ecosystem services
that we rely on--
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{\an7}so things like having
clean water--
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{\an7}all have to do with the process
of photosynthesis.
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{\an1}It's an incredibly important,
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{\an1}probably the most important,
process on the planet.
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♪
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POGUE:
Photosynthesis harnesses
the power of sunlight
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{\an1}to break down water molecules.
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{\an1}Discarding the oxygen,
it uses the electrons
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{\an1}from the hydrogen atoms
to power the assembly
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{\an1}of carbon dioxide molecules
into carbohydrates,
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{\an7}which become both
building blocks
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{\an7}and long-term energy storage.
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{\an7}It's not an overstatement to say
that all life on this planet
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{\an7}depends on photosynthesis.
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STEVE LONG:
It's exactly where
all of our food comes from--
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{\an1}directly or indirectly.
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{\an8}So understanding
how this process works
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{\an7}is so important to humanity.
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POGUE:
Steve Long and Don Ort,
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{\an1}two plant biologists
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{\an1}at the University of Illinois
Urbana-Champaign,
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{\an1}along with thousands of otherscientists from around the world
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{\an1}have spent decades teasing apartthe workings of photosynthesis.
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{\an1}Light intensity is 900
right now?
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{\an5}Right now, yeah.
Oh yeah.
For... that makes sense.
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Sorghum is animportant grain.
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POGUE:
Now, with that knowledge
in hand,
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{\an1}there is a new international
research effort based here
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{\an1}at the university
with an audacious goal.
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♪
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{\an1}The program's called RIPE:
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{\an1}Realizing Increased
Photosynthetic Efficiency.
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WOMAN:
This year was a huge hit
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for the canola farmers
because it was too wet.
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LONG:So I've been wondering
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{\an1}whether it would be worth
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{\an1}trying to find a substitute
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as our test bed.
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{\an1}That'd be perfect.
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POGUE:
These folks
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{\an1}want to hack photosynthesis.
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♪
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{\an1}But why would you want
to do that?
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{\an1}Because experts think the Earth
is about to get
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{\an1}a whole lot more people.
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{\an1}(crowd chattering)
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{\an7}Today, the world's population
is close to eight billion.
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{\an7}And that's forecast to hit
9.7 billion by 2050.
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♪
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{\an1}Raising the question:
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{\an1}will there be enough food?
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{\an1}(harvester rumbling)
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LONG:If you look at the current rate
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{\an1}at which we're improving
crop productivity
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{\an1}per acre of land,
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{\an1}we're not going to get there.
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♪
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ORT:
Part of the answer
is going to be
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{\an1}redesigning photosynthesis.
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♪
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{\an1}(birds twittering)
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POGUE:
To learn more about
RIPE's plans,
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{\an1}I've joined Lisa Ainsworth,
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{\an1}a U.S.D.A. scientist,
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{\an1}and professor at the
University of Illinois...
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{\an1}You can see just how differentthe height is
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{\an1}just in walking from one.
Wow.
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POGUE:
...on an early morning tour
of a field
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{\an1}that contains 600 different
varieties of soybeans.
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Usually you hear about
efficiency,
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{\an1}like of a gas engine, measured
in terms of a percentage,
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{\an1}how much of the fuel
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{\an1}is ultimately converted
to energy.
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{\an1}What's the percentage efficiency
for a plant?
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{\an1}Well, in terms of
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{\an1}how much of the light energyit turns into sugar,
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{\an1}it's pretty low--
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{\an1}maybe around three percent.
Three percent?!
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That's terrible!
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{\an1}But you guys are going
to help it.
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That's the plan.
(chuckles)
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♪
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POGUE:
To improve photosynthesis,
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{\an1}two other researchers
with RIPE--
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{\an1}Amanda Cavanagh and Paul South--
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{\an1}have focused on one of
its key molecules.
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♪
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{\an1}It has a very catchy name.
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{\an1}So the molecule is what we
biologists call an enzyme.
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{\an1}And so it does the work.
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{\an8}Enzymes are like
biological workers.
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{\an8}And the enzyme's called rubisco.
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♪
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{\an8}SOUTH:
It's R.U.B.P.--
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{\an8}or ribulose bisphosphate
carboxylase oxygenase.
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♪
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CAVANAGH:
And it's,
for most plant biologists,
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{\an1}one of our favorite enzymes
on the planet.
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{\an1}Yeah, rubisco is our shortened
term for it.
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POGUE:
Mainly because
it's fun to say.
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Well, it's super fun to say.
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{\an5}(rolling R):
Rubisco.Of course.
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{\an5}♪ Rubisco.
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{\an5}But, it's also
a really cool enzyme
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{\an1}because it makes life on Earth
possible.
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♪
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POGUE:Rubisco may not look so special
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{\an1}but it is arguably the most
important enzyme on the planet
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{\an1}because of its critical role
in photosynthesis.
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{\an1}Rubisco's job is to grab
a molecule of carbon dioxide
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{\an8}and feed it into
a molecular machine
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{\an7}that's building carbon chains.
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{\an1}That means any carbon atom
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{\an1}that's part of any plant
anywhere
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{\an1}got there thanks to rubisco,
or one of its close variants.
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00:10:08,766 --> 00:10:14,000
{\an1}And because we eat plants,
or animals that ate plants,
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{\an1}that also includes just aboutevery carbon atom in your body.
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{\an1}All approximately 800 million
billion billion of them.
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{\an1}That's 26 zeroes.
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{\an1}Not bad, rubisco, not bad.
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SOUTH:
Yeah, so, if it's ever
come from a plant,
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{\an1}it had to have gone through
that enzyme of rubisco.
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{\an1}That's wild!
Yeah.
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How come there's not like a...
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{\an1}a memorial to rubisco
in Washington?
243
00:10:43,266 --> 00:10:46,600
{\an1}("The Star-Spangled Banner"
playing)
244
00:10:46,633 --> 00:10:48,533
It seems, like,
sort of important.
245
00:10:48,566 --> 00:10:50,133
♪
246
00:10:50,166 --> 00:10:52,966
{\an7}Rubisco is important
and that's why it's the
247
00:10:53,000 --> 00:10:55,633
{\an7}most plentiful protein on Earth.
248
00:10:55,666 --> 00:10:58,366
{\an8}But just because
you're important
249
00:10:58,400 --> 00:11:02,200
{\an8}doesn't mean you're entirely...
competent.
250
00:11:02,233 --> 00:11:06,566
{\an1}It's... in this case, not the
best enzyme in the world.
251
00:11:06,600 --> 00:11:09,200
{\an1}It's got a hard job,
so it's doing its best,
252
00:11:09,233 --> 00:11:11,866
{\an1}but at the same time it exists
in an atmosphere that's not
253
00:11:11,900 --> 00:11:14,466
{\an1}predominantly carbon dioxide,
it's mostly oxygen.
254
00:11:14,500 --> 00:11:17,800
{\an1}And about one in every four or
five reactions it grabs oxygen
255
00:11:17,833 --> 00:11:19,266
{\an1}instead of carbon dioxide.
256
00:11:19,300 --> 00:11:20,866
♪
257
00:11:20,900 --> 00:11:22,133
POGUE:
That's right.
258
00:11:22,166 --> 00:11:26,033
{\an7}Rubisco screws up
about a fifth of the time.
259
00:11:26,066 --> 00:11:28,166
{\an7}Instead of attaching
a carbon dioxide
260
00:11:28,200 --> 00:11:31,166
{\an7}it attaches an oxygen molecule.
261
00:11:31,200 --> 00:11:32,300
{\an7}And that's trouble.
262
00:11:32,333 --> 00:11:33,466
{\an7}You're saying nature
263
00:11:33,500 --> 00:11:37,100
{\an1}has created a screwed-up
little worker enzyme?
264
00:11:37,133 --> 00:11:39,666
SOUTH:
Yeah, so,
400 million years ago,
265
00:11:39,700 --> 00:11:40,833
{\an1}when this enzyme evolved,
266
00:11:40,866 --> 00:11:42,166
{\an1}there wasn't very much oxygen
in the air.
267
00:11:42,200 --> 00:11:43,566
♪
268
00:11:43,600 --> 00:11:44,700
{\an1}All right, so I'm the little
269
00:11:44,733 --> 00:11:46,166
{\an4}rubisco enzyme...CAVANAGH:Yup.
270
00:11:46,200 --> 00:11:48,233
{\an7}and I'm like on the
conveyor belt here.Yeah.
271
00:11:48,266 --> 00:11:50,633
{\an7}And like, okay, carbon dioxide,carbon dioxide, carbon dioxide,
272
00:11:50,666 --> 00:11:52,866
{\an7}carbon dioxide, oxygen
and I, I don't notice
273
00:11:52,900 --> 00:11:54,566
{\an7}I accidentally grabbed an oxygen
out of the box.
274
00:11:54,600 --> 00:11:56,133
(laughing)
275
00:11:56,166 --> 00:11:57,866
SOUTH:
And it produces
276
00:11:57,900 --> 00:12:00,300
{\an1}compounds that are inhibitory
to photosynthesis,
277
00:12:00,333 --> 00:12:01,766
{\an1}so it kind of starts to
shut things down.
278
00:12:01,800 --> 00:12:03,833
POGUE:
I mean it's been going on
for billions of years
279
00:12:03,866 --> 00:12:05,333
{\an1}and nobody has cared.Yeah, well...
280
00:12:05,366 --> 00:12:07,100
{\an1}I mean, it all...
all basically works.
281
00:12:07,133 --> 00:12:08,166
{\an1}Photosynthesis, right now,
282
00:12:08,200 --> 00:12:10,333
{\an1}is sort of a victim
of its own success--
283
00:12:10,366 --> 00:12:11,600
{\an1}rubisco certainly is.
284
00:12:11,633 --> 00:12:14,900
{\an1}So by oxygenating the atmosphere
via photosynthesis,
285
00:12:14,933 --> 00:12:18,666
{\an1}you now have a huge amount
of oxygen in the atmosphere
286
00:12:18,700 --> 00:12:22,133
{\an1}but you need a carbon dioxide
to make the reaction work.
287
00:12:22,166 --> 00:12:24,533
(alarm blaring)
288
00:12:24,566 --> 00:12:27,100
POGUE:
So what happens when rubisco
screws up?
289
00:12:27,133 --> 00:12:28,166
(bell ringing)
290
00:12:28,200 --> 00:12:31,733
{\an1}The result gets shipped out
291
00:12:31,766 --> 00:12:34,566
{\an1}through a couple other parts
of the cell
292
00:12:34,600 --> 00:12:37,900
{\an1}to where the mess is taken apart
and recycled,
293
00:12:37,933 --> 00:12:39,466
{\an1}all of which consumes
294
00:12:39,500 --> 00:12:42,200
a lot of energy.
295
00:12:42,233 --> 00:12:44,933
If you could fix
this inefficiency problem,
296
00:12:44,966 --> 00:12:48,533
{\an1}the plant might make more...soybeans, corn, whatever it is?
297
00:12:48,566 --> 00:12:49,900
CAVANAGH:
That's exactly it.
298
00:12:49,933 --> 00:12:51,833
Then they will have that energy
to put towards something
299
00:12:51,866 --> 00:12:53,366
{\an1}that we would consider useful
300
00:12:53,400 --> 00:12:55,433
{\an1}like making more food for us
to eat.
301
00:12:55,466 --> 00:12:58,133
{\an1}Is this just a crazy theory
or is there some indication
302
00:12:58,166 --> 00:12:59,500
{\an1}that this could actually work?
303
00:12:59,533 --> 00:13:01,266
{\an1}There's quite a bit of evidence
that this is working.
304
00:13:01,300 --> 00:13:02,866
So right now,
we have this tested
305
00:13:02,900 --> 00:13:03,933
{\an1}in a couple of model species.
306
00:13:03,966 --> 00:13:07,066
♪
307
00:13:07,100 --> 00:13:08,533
POGUE:
It is tropical in here.
308
00:13:08,566 --> 00:13:13,566
{\an1}Amanda and Paul take me to the
greenhouse to see one example.
309
00:13:13,600 --> 00:13:15,300
Using two genes,
310
00:13:15,333 --> 00:13:19,100
one from algae
and the other from a pumpkin,
311
00:13:19,133 --> 00:13:21,366
they've modified tobacco plants
312
00:13:21,400 --> 00:13:23,766
{\an1}to address rubisco's
sloppy work.
313
00:13:23,800 --> 00:13:26,200
{\an1}And why are we usingtobacco plants?
314
00:13:26,233 --> 00:13:28,733
{\an1}Yeah, tobacco's a really useful
model crop for us.
315
00:13:28,766 --> 00:13:30,566
POGUE:
Why tobacco?
316
00:13:30,600 --> 00:13:33,100
{\an1}Turns out it's one of
the easiest plants
317
00:13:33,133 --> 00:13:34,400
{\an1}to genetically manipulate,
318
00:13:34,433 --> 00:13:37,000
{\an1}which makes it a common
test subject.
319
00:13:37,033 --> 00:13:40,233
SOUTH:
They have definitely shown
improvements in plant growth
320
00:13:40,266 --> 00:13:41,533
{\an1}and total biomass,
321
00:13:41,566 --> 00:13:44,000
{\an1}and we've been studying
the rates of photosynthesis.
322
00:13:44,033 --> 00:13:46,900
{\an1}And we are pretty confident now
that our model crop
323
00:13:46,933 --> 00:13:50,066
{\an1}is successful in this pathway,and now we're really interested
324
00:13:50,100 --> 00:13:52,100
{\an1}in moving these into something
we like to eat.
325
00:13:52,133 --> 00:13:54,000
♪
326
00:13:54,033 --> 00:13:55,533
POGUE:
Reducing the energy penalty
327
00:13:55,566 --> 00:14:00,166
crops pay for rubisco's mistakes
could be huge.
328
00:14:00,200 --> 00:14:04,833
{\an1}In soybeans, a 25% reduction
329
00:14:04,866 --> 00:14:06,933
{\an1}could result in plants
that produce
330
00:14:06,966 --> 00:14:10,433
{\an1}more than 60 million
more bushels a year.
331
00:14:10,466 --> 00:14:13,533
CAVANAGH:
This to a lot of people
is an idea
332
00:14:13,566 --> 00:14:16,200
{\an1}that might be out there,
but if we can get it,
333
00:14:16,233 --> 00:14:18,433
{\an1}if we can get this moonshot
approach to work,
334
00:14:18,466 --> 00:14:20,533
{\an1}then we're going to have
more food.
335
00:14:20,566 --> 00:14:22,000
{\an1}And so that's really what drives
what I do.
336
00:14:22,033 --> 00:14:23,800
♪
337
00:14:23,833 --> 00:14:26,300
POGUE:
The RIPE program
is international.
338
00:14:26,333 --> 00:14:29,533
{\an1}And, likely, so will be thereach of any of its discoveries.
339
00:14:29,566 --> 00:14:31,366
{\an1}♪
340
00:14:31,400 --> 00:14:35,066
{\an1}But work like theirs is not
without controversy.
341
00:14:35,100 --> 00:14:39,033
{\an1}Some of RIPE's solutionsdepend on cross-breeding plants
342
00:14:39,066 --> 00:14:41,300
{\an1}chosen for their genes.
343
00:14:41,333 --> 00:14:44,133
{\an1}But other solutions,
like the rubisco work,
344
00:14:44,166 --> 00:14:46,633
{\an1}depend on genetic engineering--
345
00:14:46,666 --> 00:14:51,200
{\an1}also called genetic
modification, or GM--
346
00:14:51,233 --> 00:14:55,033
adding new genes
from other types of plants,
347
00:14:55,066 --> 00:14:58,033
{\an1}or even organisms, entirely.
348
00:14:58,066 --> 00:15:01,766
{\an1}The laws governing genetically
modified crops vary
349
00:15:01,800 --> 00:15:04,866
{\an1}from country to country,
especially when it comes to
350
00:15:04,900 --> 00:15:07,833
{\an1}labeling their use in food.
351
00:15:07,866 --> 00:15:09,533
{\an1}(indistinct chatter)
352
00:15:09,566 --> 00:15:11,566
{\an1}And there have been objections
to some companies
353
00:15:11,600 --> 00:15:13,600
{\an1}that patent their new crops
354
00:15:13,633 --> 00:15:15,666
{\an1}and control who can plant them.
355
00:15:15,700 --> 00:15:18,300
{\an1}But the general scientific
consensus
356
00:15:18,333 --> 00:15:19,933
is that they are
no more dangerous
357
00:15:19,966 --> 00:15:21,300
{\an1}than conventional crops,
358
00:15:21,333 --> 00:15:24,400
{\an1}though they need to be carefully
studied for potential health
359
00:15:24,433 --> 00:15:26,300
{\an1}and environmental effects.
360
00:15:26,333 --> 00:15:32,800
{\an1}The U.S., unlike Europe,
has largely adopted GM plants.
361
00:15:32,833 --> 00:15:36,466
{\an1}An overwhelming percentage
of corn, soybeans, and cotton
362
00:15:36,500 --> 00:15:40,700
{\an1}grown in the United States
is genetically modified.
363
00:15:40,733 --> 00:15:42,466
♪
364
00:15:42,500 --> 00:15:45,866
LONG:I understand there are concerns.
365
00:15:45,900 --> 00:15:47,433
{\an8}As a scientist,
366
00:15:47,466 --> 00:15:52,133
{\an7}I feel those concerns
have very little validity,
367
00:15:52,166 --> 00:15:55,933
{\an1}although clearly people have
become very concerned--
368
00:15:55,966 --> 00:15:56,933
{\an1}particularly in Europe.
369
00:15:56,966 --> 00:15:59,133
Of course,
in this part of the world,
370
00:15:59,166 --> 00:16:03,833
genetically modified crops have
been grown for over 20 years.
371
00:16:03,866 --> 00:16:07,133
{\an1}This technology has spread
throughout the Americas.
372
00:16:07,166 --> 00:16:10,133
♪
373
00:16:10,166 --> 00:16:12,500
POGUE:
In fact, as the global
population grows,
374
00:16:12,533 --> 00:16:15,500
{\an1}it's in poorer countries
that RIPE's work may end up
375
00:16:15,533 --> 00:16:17,533
{\an1}having the greatest impact.
376
00:16:17,566 --> 00:16:22,233
{\an1}Especially if geneticallymodified foods gain acceptance.
377
00:16:22,266 --> 00:16:25,533
LONG:
The place where I see
the technology needed most
378
00:16:25,566 --> 00:16:28,433
{\an1}is actually in sub-Saharan
Africa.
379
00:16:28,466 --> 00:16:31,133
{\an1}And this opposition to GM
380
00:16:31,166 --> 00:16:35,000
{\an1}is having quite an influence
in Africa.
381
00:16:35,033 --> 00:16:38,200
{\an1}It's keeping the science,
which is needed, out
382
00:16:38,233 --> 00:16:39,466
and I fear that
383
00:16:39,500 --> 00:16:43,533
this could risk people starving
when we could actually
384
00:16:43,566 --> 00:16:46,466
{\an1}be giving them seed
which would allow them
385
00:16:46,500 --> 00:16:49,900
{\an1}to feed themselves
into the future.
386
00:16:49,933 --> 00:16:52,000
♪
387
00:16:52,033 --> 00:16:55,466
POGUE:
Even if scientists succeed
in improving photosynthesis,
388
00:16:55,500 --> 00:16:58,300
{\an1}it won't have anywhere near
the dramatic impact
389
00:16:58,333 --> 00:16:59,400
{\an1}of the original version
390
00:16:59,433 --> 00:17:04,733
{\an1}introduced about three billion
years ago.
391
00:17:04,766 --> 00:17:06,400
{\an1}Back then, scientists believe,
392
00:17:06,433 --> 00:17:10,300
{\an1}photosynthetic cyanobacteria
began cranking out oxygen
393
00:17:10,333 --> 00:17:14,133
{\an1}as a waste product.
394
00:17:14,166 --> 00:17:17,666
{\an1}Eventually, bacteria produced
enough oxygen
395
00:17:17,700 --> 00:17:20,833
{\an1}that it started to accumulate
in the atmosphere.
396
00:17:20,866 --> 00:17:23,833
{\an1}Which, in turn, gave rise
to one of life's
397
00:17:23,866 --> 00:17:29,700
{\an1}underappreciated molecular
allies-- the ozone layer.
398
00:17:29,733 --> 00:17:32,666
{\an1}It's in the lowest level
of the stratosphere,
399
00:17:32,700 --> 00:17:36,233
between roughly
eight and 22 miles up.
400
00:17:36,266 --> 00:17:37,800
♪
401
00:17:37,833 --> 00:17:40,300
{\an1}Atmospheric research planes
venture up here...
402
00:17:40,333 --> 00:17:41,566
(radio chatter)
403
00:17:41,600 --> 00:17:42,600
{\an1}...but not much else.
404
00:17:42,633 --> 00:17:45,100
♪
405
00:17:45,133 --> 00:17:46,833
{\an1}The ozone comes from a process
406
00:17:46,866 --> 00:17:50,200
even higher up
in the stratosphere.
407
00:17:50,233 --> 00:17:53,933
{\an1}There, solar radiation
busts up O2 molecules
408
00:17:53,966 --> 00:17:57,066
{\an1}into individual oxygen atoms.
409
00:17:57,100 --> 00:17:59,500
They drift down
to the ozone layer
410
00:17:59,533 --> 00:18:06,266
where they convert O2 into O3--
ozone.
411
00:18:06,300 --> 00:18:09,033
{\an1}Despite the name,
there's not that much ozone
412
00:18:09,066 --> 00:18:10,733
{\an1}in the ozone layer--
413
00:18:10,766 --> 00:18:13,700
{\an1}less than ten parts
per million--
414
00:18:13,733 --> 00:18:16,866
{\an1}yet it's had a profound effect
on the evolution
415
00:18:16,900 --> 00:18:18,733
{\an1}of life on Earth.
416
00:18:18,766 --> 00:18:21,400
♪
417
00:18:21,433 --> 00:18:22,866
{\an1}To find out more...
418
00:18:22,900 --> 00:18:24,466
{\an1}POGUE:So ozone is O3, right?
419
00:18:24,500 --> 00:18:26,000
{\an1}KERRY HANSON:Ozone is O3.
420
00:18:26,033 --> 00:18:28,433
{\an8}POGUE:
...I travel to the University
of California, Riverside,
421
00:18:28,466 --> 00:18:30,433
{\an1}to meet Kerry Hanson...
422
00:18:30,466 --> 00:18:31,366
{\an1}We came alive because...
423
00:18:31,400 --> 00:18:32,466
POGUE:
...a research chemist
424
00:18:32,500 --> 00:18:35,600
{\an1}who studies how molecules
like ozone
425
00:18:35,633 --> 00:18:39,033
{\an1}and those in sunscreens
interact with light.
426
00:18:39,066 --> 00:18:40,833
{\an1}So any moleculecan absorb light.
427
00:18:40,866 --> 00:18:42,200
POGUE:
It turns out
428
00:18:42,233 --> 00:18:47,066
{\an1}the ozone layer and sunscreens
have a lot in common.
429
00:18:47,100 --> 00:18:52,233
{\an1}This O3 gas is out there in the
atmosphere in such quantity
430
00:18:52,266 --> 00:18:54,000
{\an1}that there's an envelope
around the whole planet?
431
00:18:54,033 --> 00:18:55,200
{\an1}Yeah. It's a layer.
432
00:18:55,233 --> 00:18:56,500
{\an7}Think of like a sunscreen.
433
00:18:56,533 --> 00:18:58,500
{\an7}You know, how we use sunscreen
on our skin?
Yeah.
434
00:18:58,533 --> 00:18:59,500
{\an7}So it's the exact same thing.
435
00:18:59,533 --> 00:19:03,500
{\an7}The ozone layeris earth's sunscreen.
436
00:19:03,533 --> 00:19:05,566
♪
437
00:19:05,600 --> 00:19:07,566
POGUE:
Both the ozone layer
and sunscreens
438
00:19:07,600 --> 00:19:09,266
protect us
from the harmful effects
439
00:19:09,300 --> 00:19:11,500
{\an1}of ultraviolet radiation--
440
00:19:11,533 --> 00:19:14,833
or U.V.--
a kind of sunlight that,
441
00:19:14,866 --> 00:19:19,133
{\an1}unlike the colors of
the rainbow, we can't see.
442
00:19:19,166 --> 00:19:22,000
♪
443
00:19:22,033 --> 00:19:24,066
On the electromagnetic spectrum,
444
00:19:24,100 --> 00:19:27,533
{\an1}visible light sits here,
445
00:19:27,566 --> 00:19:32,500
{\an7}but U.V. sits up here
at a higher energy.
446
00:19:32,533 --> 00:19:35,766
{\an7}Scientists divide it roughly
into three kinds--
447
00:19:35,800 --> 00:19:39,500
{\an8}A, B, and C.
448
00:19:39,533 --> 00:19:42,000
{\an1}And while A and B,
aren't good for you--
449
00:19:42,033 --> 00:19:46,400
{\an1}and they're the reason
to wear sunscreen--
450
00:19:46,433 --> 00:19:50,066
{\an1}it's C that's the big problem
for living things
451
00:19:50,100 --> 00:19:53,366
{\an1}because it's particularly
destructive to DNA.
452
00:19:56,600 --> 00:19:59,200
♪
453
00:19:59,233 --> 00:20:01,933
{\an1}(players shouting)
454
00:20:01,966 --> 00:20:05,000
{\an1}Kerry tells me how all this
relates to ozone.
455
00:20:05,033 --> 00:20:07,766
Just another Sunday
watching volleyball.
456
00:20:07,800 --> 00:20:10,333
{\an8}(voiceover):
And it's kind of like
volleyball.
457
00:20:10,366 --> 00:20:12,466
♪
458
00:20:12,500 --> 00:20:14,066
Oh! He's good.
459
00:20:14,100 --> 00:20:18,933
POGUE:
Well... if the balls were
different kinds of U.V.
460
00:20:18,966 --> 00:20:22,066
{\an1}In the early days
of life on Earth,
461
00:20:22,100 --> 00:20:25,600
{\an1}before photosynthetic bacteria
oxygenated our atmosphere...
462
00:20:25,633 --> 00:20:27,100
{\an1}Get it, get it, get it...
yeah, yeah, yeah!
463
00:20:27,133 --> 00:20:29,966
♪
464
00:20:30,000 --> 00:20:31,233
{\an1}There was no ozone layer
465
00:20:31,266 --> 00:20:35,900
{\an1}and no global defense against
ultra violet radiation.
466
00:20:35,933 --> 00:20:38,000
Aw... ooh...
467
00:20:38,033 --> 00:20:41,800
The most dangerous kind, U.V.C.,
bathed the planet,
468
00:20:41,833 --> 00:20:47,900
{\an1}which may have effectively
limited where life could grow.
469
00:20:47,933 --> 00:20:49,933
{\an1}But oxygen accumulating
in the atmosphere
470
00:20:49,966 --> 00:20:51,400
{\an1}and the rise of the ozone layer
471
00:20:51,433 --> 00:20:52,633
{\an1}changed all that.
472
00:20:52,666 --> 00:20:54,800
The layer blocks
473
00:20:54,833 --> 00:20:57,566
all the U.V.C.
and most of the U.V.B.
474
00:20:57,600 --> 00:21:01,133
from reaching
the Earth's surface.
475
00:21:01,166 --> 00:21:02,666
HANSON:Oh... good block!
476
00:21:02,700 --> 00:21:04,933
POGUE:
Here's how it works:
477
00:21:04,966 --> 00:21:09,200
{\an1}when U.V. radiation
hits a molecule of ozone,
478
00:21:09,233 --> 00:21:14,933
{\an1}it splits it into an oxygen atom
and a molecule of O2.
479
00:21:14,966 --> 00:21:18,733
{\an1}The U.V. light has been absorbed
and neutralized.
480
00:21:18,766 --> 00:21:22,933
{\an1}The lone atom quickly rejoins
another molecule of O2
481
00:21:22,966 --> 00:21:25,733
to reform ozone.
482
00:21:25,766 --> 00:21:29,600
{\an1}The net result is a conversion
of that harmful radiation
483
00:21:29,633 --> 00:21:32,333
into heat.
484
00:21:32,366 --> 00:21:35,800
{\an1}Despite the ozone layer,
485
00:21:35,833 --> 00:21:40,266
{\an1}we can still get hit
by unhealthy amounts of U.V.
486
00:21:40,300 --> 00:21:43,233
{\an1}And that's why it's a good idea
to use sunscreen.
487
00:21:43,266 --> 00:21:45,866
HANSON:
If you read the label,
and if it says broad spectrum,
488
00:21:45,900 --> 00:21:48,433
that means it's blocking U.V.B.
and U.V.A.
489
00:21:48,466 --> 00:21:50,266
{\an3}Wow.
Not U.V.C.,
490
00:21:50,300 --> 00:21:52,800
like ozone,but U.V.A. and B.
491
00:21:52,833 --> 00:21:54,500
♪
492
00:21:54,533 --> 00:21:55,700
Just like we use
493
00:21:55,733 --> 00:21:59,400
{\an1}sunscreen to block harmful
U.V.A. and B radiation
494
00:21:59,433 --> 00:22:01,900
from our skin...
495
00:22:01,933 --> 00:22:04,233
{\an1}the ozone layer protects
planet Earth from harmful
496
00:22:04,266 --> 00:22:07,466
{\an1}U.V.C. radiation...
497
00:22:07,500 --> 00:22:14,600
{\an1}that would destroy the
building blocks of life-- DNA.
498
00:22:14,633 --> 00:22:17,166
{\an1}Without the blocking of U.V.C.
by the ozone layer,
499
00:22:17,200 --> 00:22:20,266
{\an1}life would not have been able
to come out of those oceans,
500
00:22:20,300 --> 00:22:21,666
{\an1}come up on to land,
501
00:22:21,700 --> 00:22:24,366
{\an1}and you and I wouldn't betalking here today.
502
00:22:24,400 --> 00:22:28,100
POGUE (echoing):
Thanks, ozone!
503
00:22:28,133 --> 00:22:30,133
♪
504
00:22:30,166 --> 00:22:31,766
Without that global protection,
505
00:22:31,800 --> 00:22:33,066
{\an1}the grand story of evolution
506
00:22:33,100 --> 00:22:36,800
that began fromsingle-cell ocean-dwelling life
507
00:22:36,833 --> 00:22:38,466
and led to the wondrous
508
00:22:38,500 --> 00:22:42,200
{\an1}complexity of multicellular
animals occupying
509
00:22:42,233 --> 00:22:47,666
{\an1}land, sea, and sky would
probably never have been told.
510
00:22:47,700 --> 00:22:49,133
{\an1}(film reel clicking,
score stops)
511
00:22:49,166 --> 00:22:50,733
(grunts)
512
00:22:50,766 --> 00:22:53,066
{\an1}And yada yada yada...
513
00:22:53,100 --> 00:22:54,466
{\an7}Yeah, yeah, I know,
514
00:22:54,500 --> 00:22:55,866
{\an7}the evolution of life
is important,
515
00:22:55,900 --> 00:23:01,300
{\an7}but let's talk about something
really important-- me!
516
00:23:01,333 --> 00:23:04,033
Or at least
me and my molecules.
517
00:23:04,066 --> 00:23:05,866
{\an1}I know what elements
I'm made of:
518
00:23:05,900 --> 00:23:11,066
{\an1}CHNOPS-- carbon, hydrogen,
nitrogen, oxygen,
519
00:23:11,100 --> 00:23:13,366
{\an1}phosphorus, sulfur--
CHNOPS!
520
00:23:13,400 --> 00:23:17,066
{\an1}There are other elements
in the human body,
521
00:23:17,100 --> 00:23:20,033
{\an1}but these are the main six.
522
00:23:20,066 --> 00:23:24,833
{\an1}And, of course, a good chunk
of me by mass is good old H2O.
523
00:23:24,866 --> 00:23:28,766
{\an1}But if you take that water
away...
524
00:23:28,800 --> 00:23:32,766
{\an1}most of what's left
is macromolecules--
525
00:23:32,800 --> 00:23:36,733
{\an1}mostly big, long polymers--
526
00:23:36,766 --> 00:23:39,700
{\an1}chains of smaller molecules.
527
00:23:39,733 --> 00:23:42,666
{\an1}Yeah, so I once went "CHNOPing."
528
00:23:42,700 --> 00:23:44,066
That's C-H-N-O...
529
00:23:44,100 --> 00:23:45,400
(voiceover):
To learn more about them,
530
00:23:45,433 --> 00:23:47,700
{\an1}biologist Monica Hall-Porter--
531
00:23:47,733 --> 00:23:48,966
{\an1}formerly at Lasell University,
532
00:23:49,000 --> 00:23:51,600
{\an1}now at the University of Texas--
533
00:23:51,633 --> 00:23:54,066
{\an1}offers to show me around
a local...
534
00:23:54,100 --> 00:23:56,466
supermarket?
535
00:23:56,500 --> 00:24:03,166
♪
536
00:24:03,200 --> 00:24:04,533
It's kind of weird,
537
00:24:04,566 --> 00:24:06,433
I ask you aboutthe molecules of my body,
538
00:24:06,466 --> 00:24:08,766
and you bring usto a grocery store.
539
00:24:08,800 --> 00:24:10,466
Yeah, so today's
shopping trip
540
00:24:10,500 --> 00:24:13,466
is about the macromolecules thatactually make up the human body.
541
00:24:13,500 --> 00:24:14,933
♪
542
00:24:14,966 --> 00:24:18,766
{\an1}Specifically protein,
lipids or fats, carbohydrates,
543
00:24:18,800 --> 00:24:20,166
{\an1}and nucleic acid.
544
00:24:20,200 --> 00:24:22,300
{\an1}And if you take a look around
the grocery store,
545
00:24:22,333 --> 00:24:24,900
{\an1}there are many examples
of those macromolecules here.
546
00:24:24,933 --> 00:24:26,333
{\an1}All right,show me the ropes.
547
00:24:26,366 --> 00:24:28,266
Let's go shopping.
548
00:24:28,300 --> 00:24:30,800
♪
549
00:24:30,833 --> 00:24:32,300
{\an1}(laughing)
550
00:24:32,333 --> 00:24:34,166
POGUE:
Our first objective?
551
00:24:34,200 --> 00:24:36,533
{\an1}Protein molecules.
552
00:24:36,566 --> 00:24:38,566
{\an1}Monica tells me, by weight,
553
00:24:38,600 --> 00:24:41,566
{\an1}that's about 20% of my body.
554
00:24:41,600 --> 00:24:44,400
Does that mean pure
masculine muscle?
555
00:24:44,433 --> 00:24:46,133
{\an1}Is that what you're saying?Well, not necessarily muscle.
556
00:24:46,166 --> 00:24:50,666
♪
557
00:24:50,700 --> 00:24:53,333
{\an1}Proteins are the molecules
that actually do work in cells.
558
00:24:53,366 --> 00:24:55,600
{\an1}So not just composing muscle
559
00:24:55,633 --> 00:24:57,566
{\an1}but also the proteins that
560
00:24:57,600 --> 00:24:59,366
{\an1}serve as the structural proteins
561
00:24:59,400 --> 00:25:02,233
{\an1}in our hair,fingernails.
562
00:25:02,266 --> 00:25:06,366
{\an8}POGUE:
The most abundant protein
in your body is collagen,
563
00:25:06,400 --> 00:25:11,400
{\an7}making up fibrous tissues like
skin, tendons, and ligaments.
564
00:25:11,433 --> 00:25:17,000
{\an1}There's also collagen
in teeth and bone.
565
00:25:17,033 --> 00:25:18,633
{\an1}But even though there are
tens of thousands
566
00:25:18,666 --> 00:25:21,266
{\an1}of different proteins
in the human body--
567
00:25:21,300 --> 00:25:24,233
{\an1}maybe millions, no one is sure--
568
00:25:24,266 --> 00:25:28,600
{\an1}amazingly, they're all made from
stringing together
569
00:25:28,633 --> 00:25:31,933
{\an7}about 20 different kinds
of small molecules
570
00:25:31,966 --> 00:25:34,200
{\an7}called amino acids,
571
00:25:34,233 --> 00:25:37,733
{\an1}which we get by breaking down
the proteins we eat
572
00:25:37,766 --> 00:25:40,166
{\an1}in a variety of foods.
573
00:25:40,200 --> 00:25:43,366
{\an1}HALL-PORTER:And so when we consume protein,like in turkey for example...
574
00:25:43,400 --> 00:25:44,766
{\an1}(chortling):Whoa!
575
00:25:44,800 --> 00:25:47,233
Our body breaks
the amino acids down
576
00:25:47,266 --> 00:25:51,200
{\an7}and then the amino acids
are incorporated into proteins
577
00:25:51,233 --> 00:25:52,533
{\an7}that our bodies synthesizes
or makes.
578
00:25:52,566 --> 00:25:54,233
Yep, there you go!
579
00:25:54,266 --> 00:25:55,600
Handsome little gobbler.
580
00:25:55,633 --> 00:26:00,466
POGUE:
Next on the macromolecule
shopping list: lipids.
581
00:26:00,500 --> 00:26:02,166
All right let's find
the lipids aisle.
582
00:26:02,200 --> 00:26:03,833
Well, there's no lipidsaisle,
(laughs)
583
00:26:03,866 --> 00:26:06,266
but we can getoils and fats.
584
00:26:06,300 --> 00:26:07,800
So let's headdown this way
585
00:26:07,833 --> 00:26:10,300
{\an1}and let's get some oil.
586
00:26:10,333 --> 00:26:12,566
{\an1}This is massive,how much fats are we getting?
587
00:26:12,600 --> 00:26:13,766
A lot.
588
00:26:13,800 --> 00:26:14,933
POGUE:Oh, man.
589
00:26:16,400 --> 00:26:18,500
POGUE:
This seems like we've got
590
00:26:18,533 --> 00:26:20,466
{\an1}15 pounds of fats here.
591
00:26:20,500 --> 00:26:21,966
{\an3}Yes.And you're telling me
592
00:26:22,000 --> 00:26:24,133
{\an3}that's only half the amountin my body?
593
00:26:24,166 --> 00:26:26,600
{\an3}Absolutely, you're about
30 pounds of fat.
594
00:26:26,633 --> 00:26:30,400
{\an3}Now, I have to say I findthat a little insulting.
595
00:26:30,433 --> 00:26:31,600
Well, you shouldn't.
596
00:26:31,633 --> 00:26:33,566
{\an8}♪
597
00:26:33,600 --> 00:26:35,100
{\an8}POGUE:
Compared to proteins,
598
00:26:35,133 --> 00:26:38,800
{\an8}lipids or fats do get a bad rap.
599
00:26:38,833 --> 00:26:42,000
{\an7}But in addition to their role
in cell membranes,
600
00:26:42,033 --> 00:26:45,100
{\an7}and long-term energy storage--
601
00:26:45,133 --> 00:26:47,300
{\an7}you know, body fat--
602
00:26:47,333 --> 00:26:52,066
{\an7}they also provide protection
for internal organs.
603
00:26:52,100 --> 00:26:55,133
{\an1}Oh, and don't forget
the lipids in earwax!
604
00:26:55,166 --> 00:26:56,866
HALL-PORTER:
And so literally
605
00:26:56,900 --> 00:26:59,800
there's fat
in every part of you.
606
00:26:59,833 --> 00:27:04,033
So even a slim, lean,handsome, physically fit person
607
00:27:04,066 --> 00:27:06,466
could have thirty poundsof fat in him?
608
00:27:06,500 --> 00:27:07,466
Absolutely.
609
00:27:07,500 --> 00:27:09,400
♪
610
00:27:09,433 --> 00:27:13,366
POGUE:
Next up, the third most
common macromolecule type...
611
00:27:13,400 --> 00:27:14,833
{\an1}Oh, this is my kind of
food group.
612
00:27:14,866 --> 00:27:15,800
Carbohydrates.
613
00:27:15,833 --> 00:27:17,633
Sugar!
Sugar!
614
00:27:17,666 --> 00:27:20,266
Does this count as carbs?
Absolutely.
615
00:27:20,300 --> 00:27:23,500
POGUE:
While I would have thought
I was sweeter,
616
00:27:23,533 --> 00:27:25,666
{\an7}turns out on average
there's only about
617
00:27:25,700 --> 00:27:28,066
{\an7}two pounds of carbs in me.
618
00:27:28,100 --> 00:27:31,833
{\an7}Glucose is the most abundant
carb in the human body.
619
00:27:31,866 --> 00:27:36,133
{\an7}It circulates to provide
energy for cells.
620
00:27:36,166 --> 00:27:38,400
{\an1}Now we're talking carbs--
carb city,
621
00:27:38,433 --> 00:27:39,966
{\an1}carb heaven, carb central...
622
00:27:40,000 --> 00:27:41,666
{\an1}We are in the bread aisle,my friend.
623
00:27:41,700 --> 00:27:42,666
I like it!
624
00:27:42,700 --> 00:27:43,700
All right,we can toast this up
625
00:27:43,733 --> 00:27:45,566
and put some butteron it...
(laughs)
626
00:27:45,600 --> 00:27:48,266
{\an8}POGUE:
Many glucose molecules
joined together
627
00:27:48,300 --> 00:27:49,933
{\an7}can make a plant starch,
628
00:27:49,966 --> 00:27:53,466
{\an7}the kind you find in cereals
and root vegetables.
629
00:27:53,500 --> 00:27:56,666
{\an7}It's the most common carb in the
human diet.
630
00:27:56,700 --> 00:27:58,166
{\an8}So did I under...
(indistinct voice over
loudspeaker)
631
00:27:58,200 --> 00:28:00,533
{\an1}Hey, we're workin' here!
632
00:28:00,566 --> 00:28:02,033
So we've got lipids.
633
00:28:02,066 --> 00:28:03,533
Yeah.
Proteins.
634
00:28:03,566 --> 00:28:04,800
Yeah.
And carbohydrates.
635
00:28:04,833 --> 00:28:07,166
Yeah, the three macromoleculesof the human body.
636
00:28:07,200 --> 00:28:08,633
Right,
but we're missing one.
637
00:28:08,666 --> 00:28:10,366
There's another one?
Yeah, we don't
have anything
638
00:28:10,400 --> 00:28:12,966
that's representative
of nucleic acids.
639
00:28:13,000 --> 00:28:18,233
{\an8}POGUE:
Nucleic acids are better known
as DNA and RNA.
640
00:28:19,700 --> 00:28:22,266
{\an8}DNA is the famous double helix.
641
00:28:22,300 --> 00:28:25,366
{\an1}It's usually two long chains
of molecules
642
00:28:25,400 --> 00:28:28,133
{\an7}that wrap around each other.
643
00:28:28,166 --> 00:28:33,366
{\an7}It contains genetic instructions
for making proteins.
644
00:28:33,400 --> 00:28:37,466
{\an7}RNA is often a long molecular
chain as well.
645
00:28:37,500 --> 00:28:42,033
{\an7}If DNA is the cookbook,
RNA is the chef,
646
00:28:42,066 --> 00:28:45,133
{\an7}reading DNA's instructions
for proteins,
647
00:28:45,166 --> 00:28:48,000
{\an7}gathering the ingredient
amino acids,
648
00:28:48,033 --> 00:28:50,033
{\an7}and assembling them in the
right order
649
00:28:50,066 --> 00:28:53,333
{\an7}in a macromolecular
protein printing machine
650
00:28:53,366 --> 00:28:56,600
{\an7}called a ribosome.
651
00:28:56,633 --> 00:28:58,400
{\an1}Life on Earth exists
652
00:28:58,433 --> 00:29:00,633
in a spectacular
variety of forms,
653
00:29:00,666 --> 00:29:02,266
{\an8}but in the end,
654
00:29:02,300 --> 00:29:04,033
{\an7}it all depends on the
arrangement
655
00:29:04,066 --> 00:29:08,033
{\an7}of a handful of different small
molecules--
656
00:29:08,066 --> 00:29:10,100
{\an7}the nucleotides--
657
00:29:10,133 --> 00:29:14,766
{\an7}in the nucleic acids DNA
and RNA.
658
00:29:14,800 --> 00:29:17,866
{\an1}And we are now arriving
at the DNA aisle.
659
00:29:17,900 --> 00:29:18,900
All righty.
660
00:29:18,933 --> 00:29:20,200
And why strawberries?
661
00:29:20,233 --> 00:29:22,666
{\an1}Well, strawberries actually
have eight copies
662
00:29:22,700 --> 00:29:24,766
{\an1}of each chromosome per cell.
663
00:29:24,800 --> 00:29:26,300
So relative
to other fruits,
664
00:29:26,333 --> 00:29:28,200
{\an1}strawberries are actually
very rich in DNA.
665
00:29:28,233 --> 00:29:29,200
{\an1}Wow, all right.
666
00:29:29,233 --> 00:29:31,966
{\an1}Here's our DNA-ey berries.
667
00:29:32,000 --> 00:29:34,233
♪
668
00:29:34,266 --> 00:29:39,400
Actually seeing DNA-- you know,
the code of life--
669
00:29:39,433 --> 00:29:43,466
{\an7}has always seemed beyond
the reach of ordinary folks.
670
00:29:43,500 --> 00:29:47,733
{\an7}You can't just find some,
can you?
671
00:29:49,333 --> 00:29:51,666
{\an1}When you said we were going
to extract DNA
672
00:29:51,700 --> 00:29:54,666
{\an1}from strawberries, I figured
we would go to some humming,
673
00:29:54,700 --> 00:29:56,966
{\an1}high-tech lab with millions
of dollars of equipment...
674
00:29:57,000 --> 00:29:58,733
{\an1}(maniacal laughter)
675
00:29:58,766 --> 00:30:01,466
{\an1}No, actually DNA extraction
from strawberries
676
00:30:01,500 --> 00:30:04,266
{\an1}is something that can be
achieved at home.
677
00:30:05,733 --> 00:30:08,600
POGUE:
As it turns out,
678
00:30:08,633 --> 00:30:11,066
{\an1}using some easily available
household items
679
00:30:11,100 --> 00:30:12,666
{\an1}like plastic bags,
680
00:30:12,700 --> 00:30:14,900
{\an1}detergent, rubbing alcohol,
681
00:30:14,933 --> 00:30:17,533
{\an1}cheesecloth and strawberries,
682
00:30:17,566 --> 00:30:19,800
{\an1}(liquid dripping)
683
00:30:22,266 --> 00:30:24,300
{\an1}along with a little bit
of waiting time,
684
00:30:24,333 --> 00:30:26,633
{\an1}you too can catch a glimpse
685
00:30:26,666 --> 00:30:30,200
{\an1}of the code of life-- DNA.
686
00:30:31,633 --> 00:30:33,300
♪
687
00:30:33,333 --> 00:30:34,600
There it is.
688
00:30:35,966 --> 00:30:38,800
You'll see an accumulation
689
00:30:38,833 --> 00:30:41,633
of white, stringy substance.
690
00:30:41,666 --> 00:30:44,533
{\an1}That's actually a very crude
prep of DNA.
691
00:30:44,566 --> 00:30:48,433
♪
692
00:30:48,466 --> 00:30:49,800
Basically, what's goingto happen is,
693
00:30:49,833 --> 00:30:51,966
it's going to clump on the endof your glass rod.
694
00:30:53,500 --> 00:30:56,700
Strawberry DNA slime,
right there.(laughs)
695
00:30:56,733 --> 00:30:58,200
♪
696
00:30:58,233 --> 00:30:59,833
POGUE:
Pretty amazing.
697
00:30:59,866 --> 00:31:01,866
{\an1}And so are the other three
macromolecules
698
00:31:01,900 --> 00:31:04,800
{\an1}that make up my body.
699
00:31:06,433 --> 00:31:07,966
{\an1}But all their wondrous
complexity
700
00:31:08,000 --> 00:31:11,200
raises a deeply
mysterious question:
701
00:31:11,233 --> 00:31:15,300
{\an1}how did chemistry give rise
to biology?
702
00:31:15,333 --> 00:31:17,700
{\an1}How did life get its start?
703
00:31:19,533 --> 00:31:22,033
♪
704
00:31:22,066 --> 00:31:24,200
{\an1}A famous experiment in 1952
705
00:31:24,233 --> 00:31:28,233
{\an1}suggested the answer might
not be that hard to find.
706
00:31:29,800 --> 00:31:34,066
{\an1}At the University of Chicago,graduate student Stanley Miller,
707
00:31:34,100 --> 00:31:37,433
{\an1}with help from his doctoral
advisor Harold Urey...
708
00:31:37,466 --> 00:31:39,300
(gas hissing)
709
00:31:39,333 --> 00:31:41,366
{\an7}Mixed what were then
thought to be
710
00:31:41,400 --> 00:31:45,566
{\an7}the dominant ingredients of
Earth's early atmosphere--
711
00:31:45,600 --> 00:31:50,666
{\an7}methane, ammonia, and hydrogen--
inside some sealed glassware.
712
00:31:50,700 --> 00:31:54,600
{\an7}Boiling water added water vapor
to the mix.
713
00:31:58,466 --> 00:32:02,133
{\an7}Then Miller created sparks
between electrodes
714
00:32:02,166 --> 00:32:04,366
{\an7}simulating lightning,
715
00:32:04,400 --> 00:32:07,700
{\an7}and let the mixture cool
and condense.
716
00:32:07,733 --> 00:32:10,533
{\an7}After running the experiment
for a week,
717
00:32:10,566 --> 00:32:14,100
{\an7}Miller found five amino acids...
718
00:32:16,000 --> 00:32:19,133
{\an7}some of them critical building
blocks of proteins.
719
00:32:19,166 --> 00:32:22,533
JACK SZOSTAK:
You know, it was a dramatic
breakthrough at the time
720
00:32:22,566 --> 00:32:25,100
{\an1}for people to realize that
amino acids could be made
721
00:32:25,133 --> 00:32:26,533
in such a simple way.
722
00:32:26,566 --> 00:32:27,766
♪
723
00:32:27,800 --> 00:32:30,033
POGUE:
At Massachusetts General
Hospital,
724
00:32:30,066 --> 00:32:33,133
{\an1}Jack Szostak runs one of the
several research labs
725
00:32:33,166 --> 00:32:35,333
{\an1}around the world that are trying
to figure out
726
00:32:35,366 --> 00:32:39,666
{\an1}how chemistry gave rise
to biology.
727
00:32:39,700 --> 00:32:40,966
{\an1}So this is like increasingthe amount of sodium hydroxide,
728
00:32:41,000 --> 00:32:42,066
{\an1}and so increasing...
Oh, okay.
729
00:32:42,100 --> 00:32:45,600
POGUE:
Today, it's clear
730
00:32:45,633 --> 00:32:47,833
even the Miller Urey experiment,
731
00:32:47,866 --> 00:32:49,333
{\an1}while groundbreaking,
732
00:32:49,366 --> 00:32:51,433
{\an1}just scratched the surface
of the problem.
733
00:32:51,466 --> 00:32:53,200
SZOSTAK:
In retrospect,
734
00:32:53,233 --> 00:32:55,833
it kind of fooled people
into thinking that
735
00:32:55,866 --> 00:32:57,366
the answers might
be easier than
736
00:32:57,400 --> 00:32:59,700
they turned out
to be, right?
737
00:32:59,733 --> 00:33:02,666
{\an7}Once you've got the right
chemicals, then what?
738
00:33:02,700 --> 00:33:03,766
{\an7}POGUE:Right, right.
739
00:33:03,800 --> 00:33:05,000
{\an7}How do a bunch of chemicals
get together
740
00:33:05,033 --> 00:33:06,866
{\an7}and start acting like a cell?
741
00:33:06,900 --> 00:33:09,366
{\an8}♪
742
00:33:09,400 --> 00:33:13,400
POGUE:
A key requirement seems
to be a container.
743
00:33:13,433 --> 00:33:14,933
{\an7}All life on Earth,
744
00:33:14,966 --> 00:33:17,366
{\an7}from the simplest
to the most complex,
745
00:33:17,400 --> 00:33:21,700
{\an1}is made of cells,
with "outer membranes."
746
00:33:21,733 --> 00:33:24,733
{\an1}So on the road to life,
747
00:33:24,766 --> 00:33:26,866
{\an1}how did that happen?
748
00:33:26,900 --> 00:33:27,966
♪
749
00:33:28,000 --> 00:33:30,300
{\an1}Scientists like Anna Wang,
750
00:33:30,333 --> 00:33:33,266
{\an1}a former post-doc in
Jack Szostak's lab,
751
00:33:33,300 --> 00:33:37,000
{\an1}now a professor at UNSW Sydney,
752
00:33:37,033 --> 00:33:39,000
{\an1}have been working with
a simple molecule
753
00:33:39,033 --> 00:33:42,766
that is one
of the prime suspects.
754
00:33:42,800 --> 00:33:44,133
{\an1}It's also present here.
755
00:33:44,166 --> 00:33:45,200
{\an3}Wow.
756
00:33:45,233 --> 00:33:47,833
♪
757
00:33:47,866 --> 00:33:52,366
{\an8}POGUE:
Shaped into bars in a wide
variety of colors and scents.
758
00:33:52,400 --> 00:33:54,300
{\an8}Smells good in here.
Smells amazing.
759
00:33:54,333 --> 00:33:57,366
POGUE:
At Molly's Apothecary
outside of Boston.
760
00:33:57,400 --> 00:33:58,566
Oh, that's wonderful.
761
00:33:58,600 --> 00:34:02,233
{\an8}POGUE:
That's right... soap!
762
00:34:02,266 --> 00:34:05,600
{\an1}Soap's interesting because
a soap molecule
763
00:34:05,633 --> 00:34:08,233
{\an1}is a combination of two
different types of molecules,
764
00:34:08,266 --> 00:34:11,200
{\an1}called polar and non-polar.
765
00:34:11,233 --> 00:34:13,733
♪
766
00:34:13,766 --> 00:34:17,200
For example,
water molecules are polar.
767
00:34:17,233 --> 00:34:20,600
{\an1}Each one has a concentration
of electrons in one part,
768
00:34:20,633 --> 00:34:25,266
{\an1}making it negative, which leaves
another part more positive.
769
00:34:25,300 --> 00:34:27,866
That's polarity.
770
00:34:27,900 --> 00:34:30,466
{\an1}And it makes water molecules
want to stick together,
771
00:34:30,500 --> 00:34:32,833
{\an1}each negative part attracted
772
00:34:32,866 --> 00:34:35,633
{\an1}to another molecule's
positive part.
773
00:34:39,100 --> 00:34:42,133
An oil molecule,made up of carbon and hydrogen,
774
00:34:42,166 --> 00:34:45,500
{\an1}is an example of a non-polar
molecule.
775
00:34:45,533 --> 00:34:48,366
{\an1}It has an even distribution
of electrons--
776
00:34:48,400 --> 00:34:50,200
no polarity.
777
00:34:50,233 --> 00:34:53,466
{\an7}And less stickiness
between molecules.
778
00:34:53,500 --> 00:34:59,566
{\an1}In fact, polarity is why oil
and water don't mix.
779
00:34:59,600 --> 00:35:01,866
{\an1}The polar water molecules
stick together,
780
00:35:01,900 --> 00:35:05,266
{\an1}keeping the oil molecules
at bay.
781
00:35:05,300 --> 00:35:08,466
{\an1}The less dense oil floats
on top.
782
00:35:10,133 --> 00:35:11,933
{\an1}That's also why trying to clean
783
00:35:11,966 --> 00:35:14,833
{\an1}oily grease off your hands
with water alone,
784
00:35:14,866 --> 00:35:16,800
{\an1}doesn't work very well.
785
00:35:16,833 --> 00:35:19,466
{\an1}It actually won't come off,
it's super oily.
786
00:35:19,500 --> 00:35:21,400
{\an1}The two just don't interact.
787
00:35:21,433 --> 00:35:23,600
{\an8}♪
788
00:35:23,633 --> 00:35:26,600
{\an8}And that's where soap molecules
come in.
789
00:35:26,633 --> 00:35:30,433
{\an1}They're hybrids; at one end
are some negatively charged,
790
00:35:30,466 --> 00:35:33,533
{\an1}electron-rich oxygens,
ready to interact
791
00:35:33,566 --> 00:35:36,200
{\an1}with polar molecules like water,
792
00:35:36,233 --> 00:35:40,566
{\an1}but the rest is a long,
non-polar hydrocarbon tail,
793
00:35:40,600 --> 00:35:43,466
with no positive
or negative charge.
794
00:35:43,500 --> 00:35:47,333
{\an1}It's more comfortable mixingwith other non-polar molecules,
795
00:35:47,366 --> 00:35:49,066
{\an1}like grease.
796
00:35:49,100 --> 00:35:52,100
{\an1}Put some soap on your
greasy hands...
797
00:35:52,133 --> 00:35:53,366
Soapy!
798
00:35:55,433 --> 00:35:59,700
{\an1}And the soap's non-polar tails
stick into the grease
799
00:35:59,733 --> 00:36:02,800
{\an1}while its polar heads
act like handles,
800
00:36:02,833 --> 00:36:04,733
{\an1}ready to interact with the water
801
00:36:04,766 --> 00:36:08,200
{\an1}taking the grease
along for the ride.
802
00:36:08,233 --> 00:36:10,933
{\an1}Here's another interesting
soap fact.
803
00:36:10,966 --> 00:36:13,266
{\an1}Drop some soap into water,
804
00:36:13,300 --> 00:36:16,766
{\an1}and the molecules form little
balls called micelles,
805
00:36:16,800 --> 00:36:20,766
{\an7}with their water-loving
polar heads sticking out,
806
00:36:20,800 --> 00:36:26,166
{\an7}and their water-hating non-polar
tails sticking in.
807
00:36:26,200 --> 00:36:28,933
{\an1}That naturally occurring
little container
808
00:36:28,966 --> 00:36:31,733
{\an1}has piqued the interest
of scientists like Anna.
809
00:36:31,766 --> 00:36:33,733
{\an8}♪
810
00:36:33,766 --> 00:36:37,533
{\an7}Back at the lab, she adds some
soap molecules to water
811
00:36:37,566 --> 00:36:40,633
{\an7}containing short fragments
of RNA.
812
00:36:40,666 --> 00:36:45,266
{\an7}They've been tagged with a
molecule that makes them glow.
813
00:36:45,300 --> 00:36:47,933
{\an8}Why RNA?
814
00:36:47,966 --> 00:36:49,733
{\an8}The current scientific consensus
815
00:36:49,766 --> 00:36:54,133
{\an8}is that a primitive form of RNAmay have been the first molecule
816
00:36:54,166 --> 00:36:57,266
{\an8}with the ability
to replicate itself,
817
00:36:57,300 --> 00:37:00,200
{\an7}jump-starting evolution.
818
00:37:00,233 --> 00:37:01,600
Next stop...
819
00:37:01,633 --> 00:37:03,433
{\an1}Now we're going to go look
at it under the microscope.
820
00:37:03,466 --> 00:37:05,666
POGUE:
The microscope room...
821
00:37:06,933 --> 00:37:10,066
{\an1}where Anna loads up a sample
she prepared yesterday.
822
00:37:10,100 --> 00:37:12,933
WANG:
So this is what
our soap molecules
823
00:37:12,966 --> 00:37:14,466
{\an1}have self-assembled
into overnight.
824
00:37:14,500 --> 00:37:15,766
{\an1}POGUE:What are they, bubbles?
825
00:37:15,800 --> 00:37:18,133
WANG:
Yeah, they're almost
like bubbles
826
00:37:18,166 --> 00:37:19,400
{\an8}and so what
we're looking here
827
00:37:19,433 --> 00:37:21,466
{\an7}is not the soap molecules
themselves
828
00:37:21,500 --> 00:37:22,800
{\an8}but what they've
been able to trap
829
00:37:22,833 --> 00:37:25,566
{\an8}inside these
cell-sized structures.
830
00:37:25,600 --> 00:37:29,266
POGUE:
Overnight, the soap micelles
have self-assembled
831
00:37:29,300 --> 00:37:34,833
{\an1}into larger spheres, trapping
the fluorescing RNA inside.
832
00:37:34,866 --> 00:37:38,566
{\an1}And if we could zoom
into one of them...
833
00:37:38,600 --> 00:37:40,500
{\an7}we'd see that it actually
consists
834
00:37:40,533 --> 00:37:43,166
{\an7}of two layers of soap molecules,
835
00:37:43,200 --> 00:37:45,400
{\an7}arranged with the water-loving
heads
836
00:37:45,433 --> 00:37:48,133
{\an7}toward the inside and outside,
837
00:37:48,166 --> 00:37:51,966
{\an7}and the water-hating tails
brought together.
838
00:37:52,000 --> 00:37:54,333
{\an7}When you have molecules
that have a polar head group
839
00:37:54,366 --> 00:37:56,233
{\an1}and a non-polar tail
840
00:37:56,266 --> 00:37:58,833
{\an1}but you don't give themany oil to interact with,
841
00:37:58,866 --> 00:38:01,766
{\an1}the oily tails actually want to
interact with each other.
842
00:38:01,800 --> 00:38:02,766
{\an1}And so you end up forming
843
00:38:02,800 --> 00:38:04,600
{\an1}these bilayer structures.
844
00:38:04,633 --> 00:38:06,300
Wait, so these are soap
molecules
845
00:38:06,333 --> 00:38:08,266
and these are also
soap molecules?
846
00:38:08,300 --> 00:38:09,766
Yeah.
And they like to...
847
00:38:09,800 --> 00:38:10,866
assemble
into this position?
848
00:38:10,900 --> 00:38:12,666
Yeah, that's right,so they like to form
849
00:38:12,700 --> 00:38:14,233
these really thin envelopes,
850
00:38:14,266 --> 00:38:16,133
and you can imagine thisstructure extending onwards
851
00:38:16,166 --> 00:38:19,200
and onwards and curvingaround and forming a sphere.
852
00:38:19,233 --> 00:38:20,366
{\an1}And that's what we're
seeing here.
853
00:38:20,400 --> 00:38:22,333
{\an1}We're seeing this bilayer
structure
854
00:38:22,366 --> 00:38:25,366
encapsulating some
green-dyed RNA molecules.
855
00:38:25,400 --> 00:38:29,666
{\an8}POGUE:
This lipid, bilayer
structure isn't alive,
856
00:38:29,700 --> 00:38:32,466
{\an8}but it's familiar to biologists.
857
00:38:32,500 --> 00:38:35,633
{\an7}It's similar to the bilayer
structure of the membranes
858
00:38:35,666 --> 00:38:39,933
{\an7}that surrounds something
that is alive-- cells.
859
00:38:39,966 --> 00:38:41,933
{\an7}Of course those are much more
complicated
860
00:38:41,966 --> 00:38:44,000
{\an7}and more stable containers,
861
00:38:44,033 --> 00:38:46,366
{\an7}better at keeping things
in or out,
862
00:38:46,400 --> 00:38:49,800
{\an7}though that feature comes
at a price.
863
00:38:49,833 --> 00:38:51,900
{\an1}If you take the membranes
that we have now
864
00:38:51,933 --> 00:38:55,266
{\an1}but get rid of all the highly
evolved protein machinery,
865
00:38:55,300 --> 00:38:57,433
{\an1}what you're left with
is just an inert sack.
866
00:38:57,466 --> 00:38:59,066
{\an1}It can't grow, it can't divide.
867
00:38:59,100 --> 00:39:00,700
{\an1}It can't even get nutrients
in and out.
868
00:39:00,733 --> 00:39:04,466
{\an8}POGUE:
That's why in the days
of proto-life,
869
00:39:04,500 --> 00:39:08,466
{\an8}less-stable membranes built out
of simpler molecules like soap
870
00:39:08,500 --> 00:39:11,333
{\an7}may have been an advantage.
871
00:39:11,366 --> 00:39:13,766
{\an1}Anna shows me an example.
872
00:39:13,800 --> 00:39:16,200
So what I'm about
to do is I have
873
00:39:16,233 --> 00:39:18,333
some soapy water in here
and I'm just going to add it.
874
00:39:18,366 --> 00:39:21,566
♪
875
00:39:21,600 --> 00:39:25,366
WANG:
What happens is those soap
molecules start incorporating
876
00:39:25,400 --> 00:39:27,033
{\an4}onto the existing membrane...
Look at this,
look at this!
877
00:39:27,066 --> 00:39:29,000
{\an5}Yeah!
(chuckles)
It just split!
878
00:39:29,033 --> 00:39:30,700
So they look pretty
spherical now,
879
00:39:30,733 --> 00:39:32,566
but they're starting
to wiggle a bit.
880
00:39:32,600 --> 00:39:34,533
And all of a sudden...
881
00:39:34,566 --> 00:39:38,066
{\an5}it looks like
they might melt.Cell division!
882
00:39:38,100 --> 00:39:39,766
{\an5}POGUE:
Wow.
883
00:39:39,800 --> 00:39:41,266
{\an1}Our cells grow and divide
884
00:39:41,300 --> 00:39:43,300
{\an1}because we have something
giving instructions.
885
00:39:43,333 --> 00:39:44,566
{\an1}Yes.
886
00:39:44,600 --> 00:39:47,333
{\an7}But you're saying that
billions of years ago,
887
00:39:47,366 --> 00:39:48,866
{\an7}none of that existed.
888
00:39:48,900 --> 00:39:50,766
{\an1}There's none of that in here,so what we're kind of simulating
889
00:39:50,800 --> 00:39:53,966
{\an1}is a condition where maybe
these protocells have
890
00:39:54,000 --> 00:39:55,733
{\an7}floated somewhere
down the stream,
891
00:39:55,766 --> 00:40:00,100
{\an7}and they've come across a pool
of excess soap molecules,
892
00:40:00,133 --> 00:40:03,800
{\an7}and these soap molecules can
join the membrane and grow it.
893
00:40:03,833 --> 00:40:05,233
{\an7}So I think what it means is that
894
00:40:05,266 --> 00:40:07,033
{\an1}we can still get simple cells
895
00:40:07,066 --> 00:40:09,466
{\an1}to divide by purely physical
mechanisms,
896
00:40:09,500 --> 00:40:12,233
{\an1}and that's what we're trying
to understand in the field,
897
00:40:12,266 --> 00:40:15,666
{\an1}like how do you get to do things
that kind of seem like life
898
00:40:15,700 --> 00:40:18,200
and mimic life
but without any biology?
899
00:40:18,233 --> 00:40:19,866
♪
900
00:40:19,900 --> 00:40:21,166
POGUE:
In the early days of Earth,
901
00:40:21,200 --> 00:40:23,200
{\an1}soap or similar molecules
902
00:40:23,233 --> 00:40:27,600
{\an1}may have self-assembled
into cell-like containers...
903
00:40:27,633 --> 00:40:28,966
{\an1}POGUE:Did they have the bilayerthing already?
904
00:40:29,000 --> 00:40:30,600
{\an1}They have a bilayer membrane.Yeah.
905
00:40:30,633 --> 00:40:33,866
POGUE:
But Jack Szostak realizes
that's just a start.
906
00:40:33,900 --> 00:40:38,466
There are many more steps on theroad from chemistry to biology.
907
00:40:38,500 --> 00:40:40,766
Once you got the right kinds of
molecules,
908
00:40:40,800 --> 00:40:42,166
{\an1}which are pretty simple,
909
00:40:42,200 --> 00:40:44,633
they can assemble
into membranes.
910
00:40:44,666 --> 00:40:48,800
{\an7}But they can't actually start
to do anything interesting
911
00:40:48,833 --> 00:40:50,500
{\an7}in terms of, like,
getting more complicated
912
00:40:50,533 --> 00:40:53,000
{\an1}and being more, like,
more and more advanced life
913
00:40:53,033 --> 00:40:54,600
{\an1}until you have genetics.Yeah.
914
00:40:54,633 --> 00:40:58,933
{\an8}SZOSTAK:You need a hereditary material,
something like RNA or DNA.
915
00:40:58,966 --> 00:41:02,500
{\an7}And once you've done that,you have cycles of replication,
916
00:41:02,533 --> 00:41:04,966
{\an7}because that's got to go on
inside these protocells.
917
00:41:05,000 --> 00:41:08,066
{\an1}And it's got to happen just by
chemistry and physics
918
00:41:08,100 --> 00:41:09,633
{\an1}because there were no enzymes.
919
00:41:09,666 --> 00:41:11,500
{\an1}There was no evolved machinery,
right?
920
00:41:11,533 --> 00:41:13,466
So, in a sense,
921
00:41:13,500 --> 00:41:15,466
{\an4}the answer has to be simple.Yeah.
922
00:41:15,500 --> 00:41:18,300
{\an1}And we just have to figure
out how it works.
923
00:41:18,333 --> 00:41:19,866
(chuckling)
924
00:41:19,900 --> 00:41:22,033
♪
925
00:41:22,066 --> 00:41:23,733
POGUE:
Scientists like Jack and Anna
926
00:41:23,766 --> 00:41:25,833
are searching
for the mysterious road
927
00:41:25,866 --> 00:41:27,733
{\an1}that led not only to life
928
00:41:27,766 --> 00:41:30,033
{\an1}but to the mechanism that's
allowed it
929
00:41:30,066 --> 00:41:32,966
{\an1}to overcome adversity--
evolution.
930
00:41:33,000 --> 00:41:37,900
♪
931
00:41:37,933 --> 00:41:40,533
{\an1}Today, some scientists wonder
932
00:41:40,566 --> 00:41:43,933
{\an1}what if we could harness
evolution's creative power
933
00:41:43,966 --> 00:41:47,966
{\an1}to solve some of our own
challenges?
934
00:41:48,000 --> 00:41:49,100
{\an3}Wow.
935
00:41:49,133 --> 00:41:51,400
FRANCES ARNOLD:
Nature is constantly changing.
936
00:41:51,433 --> 00:41:52,700
Hi, boys.
937
00:41:52,733 --> 00:41:56,066
Because there is this tremendous
effort to survive.
938
00:41:56,100 --> 00:41:59,933
{\an1}If you can harness that power,
that innovation
939
00:41:59,966 --> 00:42:01,866
{\an7}that nature is doing
940
00:42:01,900 --> 00:42:05,666
{\an7}and direct it in a
beneficial way,
941
00:42:05,700 --> 00:42:07,500
{\an8}then we can use
that power of innovation
942
00:42:07,533 --> 00:42:11,400
{\an1}to solve some of our really
tough problems.
943
00:42:11,433 --> 00:42:14,933
POGUE:
Harnessing the innovative
power of evolution
944
00:42:14,966 --> 00:42:16,400
{\an1}is at the heart of the work
945
00:42:16,433 --> 00:42:19,666
{\an1}of chemical engineer
Frances Arnold of Caltech
946
00:42:19,700 --> 00:42:21,700
{\an1}in Pasadena, California.
947
00:42:21,733 --> 00:42:23,633
{\an1}That could be a huge deal
in the world.
948
00:42:23,666 --> 00:42:25,166
{\an1}I hope so.
949
00:42:25,200 --> 00:42:28,466
POGUE:
And she's used it
to engineer new molecules
950
00:42:28,500 --> 00:42:31,533
{\an1}to solve a wide range
of problems.
951
00:42:31,566 --> 00:42:34,366
{\an7}From the search for new
antibiotics,
952
00:42:34,400 --> 00:42:37,666
{\an7}or methods to convert waste
into biofuels,
953
00:42:37,700 --> 00:42:40,166
{\an7}to teaching cells
to bond elements
954
00:42:40,200 --> 00:42:42,833
{\an7}in ways never before seen
in nature.
955
00:42:43,766 --> 00:42:45,333
ARNOLD:So do come if you're interested
956
00:42:45,366 --> 00:42:47,833
in the process
of protein engineering,
957
00:42:47,866 --> 00:42:50,033
{\an1}because that's the future,
so all of you
958
00:42:50,066 --> 00:42:51,666
{\an1}who are going to do...
959
00:42:51,700 --> 00:42:53,133
POGUE:
She's achieved her successes
960
00:42:53,166 --> 00:42:56,200
{\an1}by discovering new catalysts,
961
00:42:56,233 --> 00:42:58,300
{\an1}the materials that speed up
chemical reactions
962
00:42:58,333 --> 00:43:00,733
{\an1}without getting consumed
by them.
963
00:43:00,766 --> 00:43:02,700
{\an1}In C edge functionalization...
964
00:43:02,733 --> 00:43:07,966
POGUE:
In living things,
catalysts are called enzymes--
965
00:43:08,000 --> 00:43:10,833
for example,
the protein rubisco.
966
00:43:10,866 --> 00:43:13,333
{\an1}Enzymes help facilitate
the reactions
967
00:43:13,366 --> 00:43:15,300
{\an1}that make life possible.
968
00:43:15,333 --> 00:43:18,200
ARNOLD:
The reason that you
and I can sit here and talk
969
00:43:18,233 --> 00:43:22,633
{\an1}is that we have thousands
of catalysts in us, proteins,
970
00:43:22,666 --> 00:43:24,866
that can convert
the food we eat
971
00:43:24,900 --> 00:43:27,600
{\an1}into the thoughts
that you think...
972
00:43:27,633 --> 00:43:29,500
{\an1}and the motor mouth, right?
(chuckles)
973
00:43:29,533 --> 00:43:32,200
{\an1}These are catalysts that
do all this chemistry.
974
00:43:32,233 --> 00:43:34,200
These are chemical
transformations
975
00:43:34,233 --> 00:43:36,200
that make life possible.
976
00:43:36,233 --> 00:43:37,733
{\an8}♪
977
00:43:37,766 --> 00:43:39,700
POGUE:
In fact they work so well,
978
00:43:39,733 --> 00:43:42,333
{\an1}engineers and scientists have
wanted to find a way
979
00:43:42,366 --> 00:43:44,300
{\an1}to co-opt the idea,
980
00:43:44,333 --> 00:43:47,866
{\an1}to create new enzymes
that would do our bidding,
981
00:43:47,900 --> 00:43:50,866
{\an1}assisting reactions that
aren't found in nature at all.
982
00:43:50,900 --> 00:43:53,766
{\an1}The question is how?
983
00:43:53,800 --> 00:43:59,266
ARNOLD:
Many scientists
and engineers feel that
984
00:43:59,300 --> 00:44:01,600
{\an1}in order to design
a new product,
985
00:44:01,633 --> 00:44:03,766
{\an1}you sit down and you calculate,
986
00:44:03,800 --> 00:44:07,933
{\an1}you know, the right anglesand the right weights and loads.
987
00:44:07,966 --> 00:44:09,233
{\an1}I come from a different
988
00:44:09,266 --> 00:44:12,533
{\an1}point of view, that these
very complicated things
989
00:44:12,566 --> 00:44:14,300
are the products
of evolution.
990
00:44:14,333 --> 00:44:17,933
{\an1}So I say, "Let's just
go straight to the answer,
991
00:44:17,966 --> 00:44:21,366
{\an1}using this gift given to us."
992
00:44:21,400 --> 00:44:25,100
♪
993
00:44:25,133 --> 00:44:26,500
POGUE:
Frances uses an approach
994
00:44:26,533 --> 00:44:28,000
{\an1}called directed evolution.
995
00:44:28,033 --> 00:44:31,833
ARNOLD:
One way to think about
directing evolution,
996
00:44:31,866 --> 00:44:34,500
{\an1}is it's like breeding.
997
00:44:34,533 --> 00:44:37,133
{\an1}It's like breeding cats or dogs.
998
00:44:37,166 --> 00:44:38,766
{\an8}♪
999
00:44:38,800 --> 00:44:42,700
POGUE:
With a specific end goal
in mind,
1000
00:44:42,733 --> 00:44:44,533
{\an1}She starts with DNA
1001
00:44:44,566 --> 00:44:46,833
{\an1}that encodes for some
protein catalysts
1002
00:44:46,866 --> 00:44:49,266
{\an1}that have some promising traits,
1003
00:44:49,300 --> 00:44:51,066
{\an1}depending on what
she's looking for.
1004
00:44:51,100 --> 00:44:57,300
{\an1}The DNA gets copied in a waythat produces random mutations.
1005
00:44:57,333 --> 00:45:00,466
{\an1}She puts that into
microorganisms that multiply
1006
00:45:00,500 --> 00:45:04,100
{\an1}and produce a variety of
slightly different proteins.
1007
00:45:04,133 --> 00:45:05,900
ARNOLD:
So you have a gene,
1008
00:45:05,933 --> 00:45:08,933
{\an1}the organism reads the gene,
makes the proteins,
1009
00:45:08,966 --> 00:45:10,333
and they're all
slightly different,
1010
00:45:10,366 --> 00:45:12,266
{\an1}just like your children...
(laughs)
1011
00:45:12,300 --> 00:45:16,333
but now I can decide who goes on
to parent the next generation
1012
00:45:16,366 --> 00:45:20,166
{\an1}because I measure what
those proteins do.
1013
00:45:20,200 --> 00:45:22,366
POGUE:
Frances tests the results
1014
00:45:22,400 --> 00:45:25,033
{\an1}to see if any represent a step
in the right direction.
1015
00:45:25,066 --> 00:45:26,733
{\an1}If so, that becomes
1016
00:45:26,766 --> 00:45:31,566
{\an1}the new starting point,
and she repeats the process.
1017
00:45:33,733 --> 00:45:36,733
ARNOLD:To see how quickly you can train
1018
00:45:36,766 --> 00:45:39,033
{\an1}enzymes, that's what we're
doing, we're training them,
1019
00:45:39,066 --> 00:45:40,300
{\an1}we're breeding them...
1020
00:45:40,333 --> 00:45:45,000
{\an1}to do something that perhaps
nature never did before.
1021
00:45:45,033 --> 00:45:48,200
{\an1}When you discover that they've
learned how to do that
1022
00:45:48,233 --> 00:45:52,766
{\an1}and they do it better than anyhuman can do, it is so exciting.
1023
00:45:52,800 --> 00:45:55,033
{\an1}♪
1024
00:45:55,066 --> 00:45:59,600
POGUE:
To see how directed evolution
can work outside the lab...
1025
00:45:59,633 --> 00:46:01,466
{\an1}Farming has always been about
increasing productivity.
1026
00:46:01,500 --> 00:46:03,266
POGUE:
...Frances suggested
that I contact
1027
00:46:03,300 --> 00:46:06,900
{\an1}one of her former students,
Pedro Coelho.
1028
00:46:06,933 --> 00:46:08,833
{\an1}Along with a partner,
1029
00:46:08,866 --> 00:46:12,133
{\an1}she and Pedro founded a company
Provivi,
1030
00:46:12,166 --> 00:46:13,900
{\an1}based in Santa Monica.
1031
00:46:13,933 --> 00:46:17,400
{\an1}Pedro is the CEO.
1032
00:46:17,433 --> 00:46:21,533
{\an1}Provivi makes a chemical to
fight this agricultural pest,
1033
00:46:21,566 --> 00:46:24,466
{\an1}the fall army worm.
1034
00:46:24,500 --> 00:46:26,600
COELHO:
It's a pest that is native
to the Americas,
1035
00:46:26,633 --> 00:46:30,500
{\an1}but in the last three years,
it's invaded all of Africa
1036
00:46:30,533 --> 00:46:31,833
and now, all of Asia,
1037
00:46:31,866 --> 00:46:33,933
{\an7}going from India to China,
1038
00:46:33,966 --> 00:46:36,433
{\an7}and it's a very difficult pest
to control
1039
00:46:36,466 --> 00:46:38,866
because once it
infests the corn,
1040
00:46:38,900 --> 00:46:41,433
{\an1}it hides inside the corn plant
1041
00:46:41,466 --> 00:46:44,533
{\an1}where the insecticides
can't touch it.
1042
00:46:44,566 --> 00:46:45,933
♪
1043
00:46:45,966 --> 00:46:49,166
POGUE:
But Provivi's chemical
isn't a pesticide,
1044
00:46:49,200 --> 00:46:50,866
{\an1}it doesn't kill anything.
1045
00:46:52,400 --> 00:46:56,833
{\an1}Instead it disrupts the way
fall army worms mate.
1046
00:46:56,866 --> 00:46:58,866
{\an1}Here's how it works:
1047
00:46:58,900 --> 00:47:03,000
{\an7}Fall army worms eventually
become adult moths,
1048
00:47:03,033 --> 00:47:05,333
{\an7}and that's when they mate.
1049
00:47:05,366 --> 00:47:09,566
{\an7}To attract males, female moths
release a pheromone,
1050
00:47:09,600 --> 00:47:14,300
{\an7}a molecule that acts
as a chemical signal.
1051
00:47:14,333 --> 00:47:17,000
{\an7}So the female moth will release
a little bit of pheromone,
1052
00:47:17,033 --> 00:47:20,166
{\an1}and then the male will pick up
that signal with his antenna
1053
00:47:20,200 --> 00:47:24,333
{\an1}and will fly towards her to mate
and reproduce.
1054
00:47:24,366 --> 00:47:30,166
POGUE:
She uses only a small amount,
but it's incredibly potent.
1055
00:47:30,200 --> 00:47:34,100
{\an1}It can attract males
from up to a mile away.
1056
00:47:34,133 --> 00:47:35,866
ARNOLD:These are complicated molecules.
1057
00:47:35,900 --> 00:47:38,066
These are the Chanel No. 5
1058
00:47:38,100 --> 00:47:40,466
of insects.
(laughter)
1059
00:47:40,500 --> 00:47:44,700
POGUE:
But such a powerful
"sex perfume"
1060
00:47:44,733 --> 00:47:47,833
{\an1}can become a means of control.
1061
00:47:47,866 --> 00:47:51,433
{\an1}So imagine, now, you come with
a bottle of Chanel No. 5
1062
00:47:51,466 --> 00:47:53,166
{\an1}and you spray it everywhere.
1063
00:47:53,200 --> 00:47:55,133
{\an1}(spritzing sound effect)
1064
00:47:55,166 --> 00:47:56,933
ARNOLD:
Then he can't find her,
1065
00:47:56,966 --> 00:48:01,666
{\an1}and they don't mate
and have caterpillars.
1066
00:48:01,700 --> 00:48:02,933
♪
1067
00:48:02,966 --> 00:48:04,666
POGUE:
Provivi has figured out
1068
00:48:04,700 --> 00:48:08,033
how to replicate
the fall army pheromone,
1069
00:48:08,066 --> 00:48:11,700
{\an1}and put it into a slow release
spray for crops.
1070
00:48:11,733 --> 00:48:13,566
{\an1}Which you have to imagine
1071
00:48:13,600 --> 00:48:16,633
{\an1}is very confusing
for the male moths.
1072
00:48:16,666 --> 00:48:19,600
{\an1}They have so much trouble
finding females
1073
00:48:19,633 --> 00:48:23,766
{\an1}that in the end there are fewer
eggs, and worms.
1074
00:48:23,800 --> 00:48:26,000
{\an7}So you're not killing
these things,
1075
00:48:26,033 --> 00:48:28,333
{\an7}and you're not driving
them away,
1076
00:48:28,366 --> 00:48:29,800
{\an7}you're just confusing them?
1077
00:48:29,833 --> 00:48:34,266
{\an1}Yeah, so it's not a repellant,
and it's not a kill agent,
1078
00:48:34,300 --> 00:48:36,866
{\an1}it's simply a mating disruptor.
1079
00:48:36,900 --> 00:48:39,300
♪
1080
00:48:39,333 --> 00:48:43,366
POGUE:Pedro tells me using pheromones
to combat pests isn't new.
1081
00:48:45,433 --> 00:48:47,100
But until now,
it's been expensive,
1082
00:48:47,133 --> 00:48:50,833
{\an1}and therefore limited
to high-value smaller crops
1083
00:48:50,866 --> 00:48:53,833
{\an1}like apples or grapes.
1084
00:48:53,866 --> 00:48:57,333
{\an1}So the real breakthrough at
Provivi isn't using pheromones
1085
00:48:57,366 --> 00:49:00,366
{\an1}but making them inexpensively.
1086
00:49:00,400 --> 00:49:04,966
{\an1}They've studied the enzyme
catalysts the insect uses
1087
00:49:05,000 --> 00:49:06,600
{\an1}to make the pheromone,
1088
00:49:06,633 --> 00:49:12,466
{\an1}and moved the genes for those
enzyme catalysts into yeast.
1089
00:49:12,500 --> 00:49:14,900
{\an1}Then, through directed
evolution,
1090
00:49:14,933 --> 00:49:17,966
{\an1}they optimize those little yeast
cell factories
1091
00:49:18,000 --> 00:49:21,433
{\an1}for larger scale production
in vessels similar
1092
00:49:21,466 --> 00:49:24,133
{\an1}to those used for brewing beer.
1093
00:49:24,166 --> 00:49:25,633
(machine beeps)
1094
00:49:25,666 --> 00:49:28,333
COELHO:
And the key is that
by just changing the microbe,
1095
00:49:28,366 --> 00:49:29,900
{\an1}we can make many different
pheromones
1096
00:49:29,933 --> 00:49:31,433
{\an1}but using the same
infrastructure,
1097
00:49:31,466 --> 00:49:33,166
{\an1}which gives us the economies
of scale
1098
00:49:33,200 --> 00:49:35,300
{\an1}and should make this
cost effective.
1099
00:49:35,333 --> 00:49:37,500
POGUE:
Making it possible to use
1100
00:49:37,533 --> 00:49:39,733
on staple crops grown around the
world,
1101
00:49:39,766 --> 00:49:41,133
like corn,
1102
00:49:41,166 --> 00:49:42,933
and rice.
1103
00:49:42,966 --> 00:49:44,766
COELHO:
Our mission very much
1104
00:49:44,800 --> 00:49:46,866
{\an1}is to take this proven tool
of pheromones
1105
00:49:46,900 --> 00:49:49,133
{\an1}to the largest markets
of agriculture,
1106
00:49:49,166 --> 00:49:51,300
{\an1}which are the staples
of humankind.
1107
00:49:51,333 --> 00:49:54,533
♪
1108
00:49:54,566 --> 00:49:57,200
POGUE:
Companies like Provivi aren't
the only sign
1109
00:49:57,233 --> 00:50:00,033
{\an1}that directed evolution
and cell factories
1110
00:50:00,066 --> 00:50:03,733
{\an1}are having a big impact
on manufacturing.
1111
00:50:03,766 --> 00:50:08,066
{\an1}Well, I teach this course
called Reaction Engineering
1112
00:50:08,100 --> 00:50:10,200
which is how do you take
chemical reactions
1113
00:50:10,233 --> 00:50:11,866
and scale them up?
1114
00:50:11,900 --> 00:50:17,400
POGUE:
In 2018, Frances Arnold won
the Nobel Prize in Chemistry,
1115
00:50:17,433 --> 00:50:21,633
{\an1}for her pioneering work
in directed evolution.
1116
00:50:21,666 --> 00:50:22,933
Is this idea
1117
00:50:22,966 --> 00:50:25,200
of chemistry and biology
1118
00:50:25,233 --> 00:50:27,400
to manufacture stuff,
1119
00:50:27,433 --> 00:50:30,533
is that catchingon these days?
1120
00:50:30,566 --> 00:50:33,000
It is,
it most definitely is.
1121
00:50:33,033 --> 00:50:36,700
{\an1}I think the future
is so exciting,
1122
00:50:36,733 --> 00:50:39,766
{\an1}because now what happens
is with these tools
1123
00:50:39,800 --> 00:50:43,233
{\an1}of being able to manipulate DNA,
1124
00:50:43,266 --> 00:50:45,566
{\an1}and the code of life, really,
1125
00:50:45,600 --> 00:50:50,066
we can now merge all
these beautiful mechanisms
1126
00:50:50,100 --> 00:50:51,700
of the biological world
1127
00:50:51,733 --> 00:50:54,466
with the inventions of
human chemistry.
1128
00:50:54,500 --> 00:50:58,633
And that way,
it merges in new innovations.
1129
00:50:58,666 --> 00:51:02,000
♪
1130
00:51:02,033 --> 00:51:05,300
POGUE:
That both chemists and
biologists have a lot to learn
1131
00:51:05,333 --> 00:51:08,766
{\an1}from each other should come
as no surprise.
1132
00:51:10,133 --> 00:51:12,266
{\an1}But what is surprising is that
1133
00:51:12,300 --> 00:51:15,266
{\an1}biology would arise out of
chemistry at all.
1134
00:51:15,300 --> 00:51:16,633
{\an1}Look at this, look at this!
1135
00:51:16,666 --> 00:51:18,033
{\an1}Cell division!
1136
00:51:18,066 --> 00:51:20,866
{\an1}(dramatic voice):
The blueprints of life!
1137
00:51:20,900 --> 00:51:24,133
{\an1}The origin of life
remains one of the great
1138
00:51:24,166 --> 00:51:27,200
{\an1}unsolved mysteries of science.
1139
00:51:27,233 --> 00:51:29,566
{\an1}Was the mix of chemicals
on early Earth
1140
00:51:29,600 --> 00:51:32,266
{\an1}destined to give rise to life?
1141
00:51:32,300 --> 00:51:33,633
{\an1}And once it started,
1142
00:51:33,666 --> 00:51:36,900
{\an1}was the road that lead to the
chemical complexity
1143
00:51:36,933 --> 00:51:38,366
{\an1}of photosynthesis
1144
00:51:38,400 --> 00:51:41,466
{\an1}and the harnessing of the power
of the sun...
1145
00:51:41,500 --> 00:51:43,300
{\an1}Probably the most important
process on the planet.
1146
00:51:43,333 --> 00:51:46,400
POGUE:
...the only road to be taken?
1147
00:51:46,433 --> 00:51:51,066
{\an1}Are we alone in the universe?
1148
00:51:51,100 --> 00:51:56,000
{\an1}Or just the local branch
of cosmic bio-chem?
1149
00:51:56,033 --> 00:51:59,700
{\an1}The answers to questions like
these will be found
1150
00:51:59,733 --> 00:52:02,400
{\an1}only through science...
1151
00:52:02,433 --> 00:52:05,833
{\an1}as we go beyond the elements.
1152
00:52:05,866 --> 00:52:08,966
♪
1153
00:52:33,100 --> 00:52:37,733
{\an8}♪
1154
00:52:48,800 --> 00:52:52,733
{\an7}To order this program on DVD,
visit ShopPBS
1155
00:52:52,766 --> 00:52:56,100
{\an7}or call 1-800-PLAY-PBS.
1156
00:52:56,133 --> 00:52:58,766
{\an7}Episodes of "NOVA" are available
with Passport.
1157
00:52:58,800 --> 00:53:02,566
{\an7}"NOVA" is also available
on Amazon Prime Video.
1158
00:53:02,600 --> 00:53:07,700
{\an8}♪
91644
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