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These are the user uploaded subtitles that are being translated: 1 00:00:01,400 --> 00:00:03,133 ♪ 2 00:00:06,900 --> 00:00:08,733 ♪ 3 00:00:08,766 --> 00:00:12,366 DAVID POGUE: What's it take to make our modern world? 4 00:00:12,400 --> 00:00:13,233 Ah! 5 00:00:13,266 --> 00:00:14,133 (Pogue shouts) 6 00:00:14,166 --> 00:00:15,666 That's amazing! 7 00:00:15,700 --> 00:00:18,266 I'm David Pogue. 8 00:00:18,300 --> 00:00:21,833 {\an1}Join me on a high-speed chase 9 00:00:21,866 --> 00:00:24,233 {\an1}through the elements... 10 00:00:24,266 --> 00:00:25,766 and beyond. 11 00:00:25,800 --> 00:00:26,966 (explosions) 12 00:00:27,000 --> 00:00:28,033 Oh, my God! 13 00:00:28,066 --> 00:00:30,433 {\an1}As we smash our way into the materials, 14 00:00:30,466 --> 00:00:31,466 molecules, 15 00:00:31,500 --> 00:00:32,533 and reactions... 16 00:00:32,566 --> 00:00:33,800 AMANDA CAVANAGH:It's a really cool enzyme 17 00:00:33,833 --> 00:00:35,300 {\an1}because it makes life on Earth possible. 18 00:00:35,333 --> 00:00:38,000 POGUE:...that make the places we live, 19 00:00:38,033 --> 00:00:39,700 the bodies we live in, 20 00:00:39,733 --> 00:00:43,066 {\an1}and the stuff we can't seem to live without. 21 00:00:43,100 --> 00:00:46,000 {\an1}The only thing between me and certain death... 22 00:00:46,033 --> 00:00:47,533 {\an1}(explosions boom, glass shatters) 23 00:00:47,566 --> 00:00:49,100 ...is chemistry? 24 00:00:49,133 --> 00:00:51,000 {\an1}From killer snails... 25 00:00:51,033 --> 00:00:52,600 MANDEË HOLFORD:Just when you think you've heard of everything, 26 00:00:52,633 --> 00:00:53,800 {\an1}nature will surprise you. 27 00:00:53,833 --> 00:00:56,100 POGUE: ...and exploding glass 28 00:00:56,133 --> 00:00:59,500 {\an1}to the price a pepper-eating Pogue pays. 29 00:00:59,533 --> 00:01:02,366 {\an1}There's got to be some easier way to learn about molecules. 30 00:01:02,400 --> 00:01:03,733 ♪ 31 00:01:03,766 --> 00:01:06,266 We'll dig into the surprising way 32 00:01:06,300 --> 00:01:10,233 {\an1}different elements combine together 33 00:01:10,266 --> 00:01:12,533 and blow apart. 34 00:01:12,566 --> 00:01:14,533 (loud explosion) 35 00:01:15,433 --> 00:01:18,200 In this hour, 36 00:01:18,233 --> 00:01:21,000 {\an1}we tackle one of the biggest mysteries of all: 37 00:01:21,033 --> 00:01:23,366 {\an1}the origin of life. 38 00:01:23,400 --> 00:01:25,033 {\an1}How do a bunch of chemicals get together 39 00:01:25,066 --> 00:01:26,366 {\an1}and start acting like a cell? 40 00:01:26,400 --> 00:01:28,666 POGUE: Part of the answer might be... 41 00:01:28,700 --> 00:01:29,866 soap? 42 00:01:29,900 --> 00:01:31,266 Cell division! 43 00:01:31,300 --> 00:01:34,700 {\an1}We explore how the chemistryof life transformed the planet. 44 00:01:34,733 --> 00:01:36,100 LISA AINSWORTH: So everything that we eat, 45 00:01:36,133 --> 00:01:37,633 {\an1}and the air that we breathe, 46 00:01:37,666 --> 00:01:38,866 all have to do 47 00:01:38,900 --> 00:01:41,200 with the process of photosynthesis. 48 00:01:41,233 --> 00:01:43,000 POGUE: All right, so let's find the lipids aisle. 49 00:01:43,033 --> 00:01:47,633 {\an1}I go shopping for the macromolecules of my body. 50 00:01:47,666 --> 00:01:51,266 {\an1}You're telling me that that'sonly half the amount of fats 51 00:01:51,300 --> 00:01:52,600 {\an1}in my body? Absolutely. 52 00:01:52,633 --> 00:01:54,100 (laughing) 53 00:01:54,133 --> 00:01:57,200 POGUE:And I meet an engineer who uses nature's tools 54 00:01:57,233 --> 00:01:59,633 {\an1}to invent new molecules. 55 00:01:59,666 --> 00:02:01,500 FRANCES ARNOLD:Humans have been using microbes 56 00:02:01,533 --> 00:02:02,666 to make beer and wine. 57 00:02:02,700 --> 00:02:05,633 {\an1}Instead of making sake, we make jet fuel. 58 00:02:05,666 --> 00:02:08,533 POGUE: "Beyond the Elements: Life"-- 59 00:02:08,566 --> 00:02:11,066 {\an1}right now on "NOVA". 60 00:02:11,100 --> 00:02:26,033 ♪ 61 00:02:26,033 --> 00:02:31,166 ♪ 62 00:02:32,500 --> 00:02:36,300 POGUE: The world we live in is made of atoms-- 63 00:02:36,333 --> 00:02:40,400 {\an1}all listed here as elements on the periodic table. 64 00:02:40,433 --> 00:02:43,966 {\an1}They're the building blocks of everything around us 65 00:02:44,000 --> 00:02:47,900 {\an1}and putting atoms togetherto make molecules and compounds 66 00:02:47,933 --> 00:02:51,000 {\an1}is what we call chemistry. 67 00:02:51,033 --> 00:02:54,933 {\an1}And maybe the strangest event in the history of chemistry 68 00:02:54,966 --> 00:02:57,900 {\an1}is the birth of biology. 69 00:02:57,933 --> 00:03:01,600 {\an1}How do a bunch of chemicals somehow get together 70 00:03:01,633 --> 00:03:04,566 to form life? 71 00:03:04,600 --> 00:03:07,133 {\an1}And if you look back at the conditions on early Earth, 72 00:03:07,166 --> 00:03:09,866 {\an1}how did life get off the starting block? 73 00:03:09,900 --> 00:03:13,000 {\an1}(thunder rumbles) 74 00:03:13,033 --> 00:03:14,300 {\an1}There was a turning point, 75 00:03:14,333 --> 00:03:16,633 {\an1}the evolution of a transformative series 76 00:03:16,666 --> 00:03:19,966 {\an1}of chemical reactions that, over time, 77 00:03:20,000 --> 00:03:21,500 {\an1}remade the planet, 78 00:03:21,533 --> 00:03:24,400 {\an1}even allowing us to come along. 79 00:03:24,433 --> 00:03:27,633 {\an8}But first, let's take a trip back, 80 00:03:27,666 --> 00:03:29,666 {\an8}to Life 1.0. 81 00:03:29,700 --> 00:03:31,866 (tape rewinding) 82 00:03:31,900 --> 00:03:35,033 {\an1}So, here's the ad: 83 00:03:35,066 --> 00:03:38,466 {\an1}Planet available. 84 00:03:38,500 --> 00:03:41,666 {\an7}Recently scoured by asteroids. 85 00:03:41,700 --> 00:03:45,200 {\an7}New construction. 86 00:03:45,233 --> 00:03:46,633 {\an7}Now with many water views. 87 00:03:46,666 --> 00:03:49,033 {\an8}♪ 88 00:03:49,066 --> 00:03:50,800 The atmosphere? 89 00:03:50,833 --> 00:03:52,433 {\an1}Eh... a fixer-upper. 90 00:03:52,466 --> 00:03:53,600 {\an8}(loud eruption) 91 00:03:53,633 --> 00:03:55,300 {\an7}Devoid of oxygen. 92 00:03:55,333 --> 00:04:00,333 {\an7}Likely full of whatever the volcanoes spewed forth-- 93 00:04:00,366 --> 00:04:04,900 {\an7}gases like hydrogen sulfide and methane. 94 00:04:04,933 --> 00:04:06,366 {\an8}(loud eruption) 95 00:04:06,400 --> 00:04:09,033 {\an7}Somehow in that very harsh environment, 96 00:04:09,066 --> 00:04:12,866 {\an7}primitive life got its start. 97 00:04:12,900 --> 00:04:16,000 {\an7}But the going stayed tough. 98 00:04:16,033 --> 00:04:18,666 {\an7}Food-- molecules and minerals that early organisms 99 00:04:18,700 --> 00:04:20,200 {\an7}could use for energy-- 100 00:04:20,233 --> 00:04:24,400 {\an7}consisted of whatever was left over from Earth's formation, 101 00:04:24,433 --> 00:04:27,733 {\an1}or was welling up from the Earth's core 102 00:04:27,766 --> 00:04:31,466 {\an1}at places like deep sea vents. 103 00:04:31,500 --> 00:04:35,200 {\an1}But in a surprisingly short amount of time-- 104 00:04:35,233 --> 00:04:38,333 {\an1}perhaps 500 million years-- 105 00:04:38,366 --> 00:04:41,766 {\an1}a new survival strategy evolved-- 106 00:04:41,800 --> 00:04:44,433 {\an1}possibly the most important chemical process for life 107 00:04:44,466 --> 00:04:46,166 {\an1}on Earth today... 108 00:04:48,833 --> 00:04:51,766 Photosynthesis-- 109 00:04:51,800 --> 00:04:56,733 the ability to turn sunlight into fuel. 110 00:04:58,666 --> 00:05:02,166 Life now had access to the vast power of the sun. 111 00:05:02,200 --> 00:05:05,766 {\an1}In the words of one biologist, "When photosynthesis 112 00:05:05,800 --> 00:05:08,833 {\an1}"entered the picture, 113 00:05:08,866 --> 00:05:11,666 life connected up to the cosmos." 114 00:05:11,700 --> 00:05:13,633 ♪ 115 00:05:13,666 --> 00:05:16,166 AINSWORTH: So, everything that we eat, what we wear, 116 00:05:16,200 --> 00:05:18,000 {\an1}the air that we breathe, 117 00:05:18,033 --> 00:05:22,133 {\an7}the ecosystem services that we rely on-- 118 00:05:22,166 --> 00:05:23,666 {\an7}so things like having clean water-- 119 00:05:23,700 --> 00:05:27,433 {\an7}all have to do with the process of photosynthesis. 120 00:05:27,466 --> 00:05:28,700 {\an1}It's an incredibly important, 121 00:05:28,733 --> 00:05:31,900 {\an1}probably the most important, process on the planet. 122 00:05:31,933 --> 00:05:34,133 ♪ 123 00:05:34,166 --> 00:05:36,833 POGUE: Photosynthesis harnesses the power of sunlight 124 00:05:36,866 --> 00:05:40,466 {\an1}to break down water molecules. 125 00:05:40,500 --> 00:05:42,466 {\an1}Discarding the oxygen, it uses the electrons 126 00:05:42,500 --> 00:05:45,666 {\an1}from the hydrogen atoms to power the assembly 127 00:05:45,700 --> 00:05:49,566 {\an1}of carbon dioxide molecules into carbohydrates, 128 00:05:49,600 --> 00:05:52,100 {\an7}which become both building blocks 129 00:05:52,133 --> 00:05:56,033 {\an7}and long-term energy storage. 130 00:05:56,066 --> 00:05:58,966 {\an7}It's not an overstatement to say that all life on this planet 131 00:05:59,000 --> 00:06:00,900 {\an7}depends on photosynthesis. 132 00:06:02,400 --> 00:06:04,833 STEVE LONG: It's exactly where all of our food comes from-- 133 00:06:04,866 --> 00:06:07,466 {\an1}directly or indirectly. 134 00:06:07,500 --> 00:06:10,600 {\an8}So understanding how this process works 135 00:06:10,633 --> 00:06:12,766 {\an7}is so important to humanity. 136 00:06:12,800 --> 00:06:16,100 POGUE: Steve Long and Don Ort, 137 00:06:16,133 --> 00:06:17,966 {\an1}two plant biologists 138 00:06:18,000 --> 00:06:21,033 {\an1}at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, 139 00:06:21,066 --> 00:06:24,700 {\an1}along with thousands of otherscientists from around the world 140 00:06:24,733 --> 00:06:30,033 {\an1}have spent decades teasing apartthe workings of photosynthesis. 141 00:06:30,066 --> 00:06:31,366 {\an1}Light intensity is 900 right now? 142 00:06:31,400 --> 00:06:33,566 {\an5}Right now, yeah. Oh yeah. For... that makes sense. 143 00:06:33,600 --> 00:06:36,300 Sorghum is animportant grain. 144 00:06:36,333 --> 00:06:38,500 POGUE: Now, with that knowledge in hand, 145 00:06:38,533 --> 00:06:42,966 {\an1}there is a new international research effort based here 146 00:06:43,000 --> 00:06:47,000 {\an1}at the university with an audacious goal. 147 00:06:47,033 --> 00:06:48,233 ♪ 148 00:06:48,266 --> 00:06:50,600 {\an1}The program's called RIPE: 149 00:06:50,633 --> 00:06:53,766 {\an1}Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency. 150 00:06:53,800 --> 00:06:55,000 WOMAN: This year was a huge hit 151 00:06:55,033 --> 00:06:57,333 for the canola farmers because it was too wet. 152 00:06:57,366 --> 00:06:58,533 LONG:So I've been wondering 153 00:06:58,566 --> 00:06:59,900 {\an1}whether it would be worth 154 00:06:59,933 --> 00:07:01,833 {\an1}trying to find a substitute 155 00:07:01,866 --> 00:07:03,000 as our test bed. 156 00:07:03,033 --> 00:07:04,033 {\an1}That'd be perfect. 157 00:07:04,066 --> 00:07:05,133 POGUE: These folks 158 00:07:05,166 --> 00:07:07,700 {\an1}want to hack photosynthesis. 159 00:07:07,733 --> 00:07:10,000 ♪ 160 00:07:10,033 --> 00:07:13,666 {\an1}But why would you want to do that? 161 00:07:13,700 --> 00:07:16,200 {\an1}Because experts think the Earth is about to get 162 00:07:16,233 --> 00:07:18,766 {\an1}a whole lot more people. 163 00:07:18,800 --> 00:07:22,200 {\an1}(crowd chattering) 164 00:07:22,233 --> 00:07:26,466 {\an7}Today, the world's population is close to eight billion. 165 00:07:26,500 --> 00:07:31,066 {\an7}And that's forecast to hit 9.7 billion by 2050. 166 00:07:31,100 --> 00:07:34,033 ♪ 167 00:07:34,066 --> 00:07:36,200 {\an1}Raising the question: 168 00:07:36,233 --> 00:07:38,933 {\an1}will there be enough food? 169 00:07:38,966 --> 00:07:40,866 {\an1}(harvester rumbling) 170 00:07:40,900 --> 00:07:43,200 LONG:If you look at the current rate 171 00:07:43,233 --> 00:07:45,033 {\an1}at which we're improving crop productivity 172 00:07:45,066 --> 00:07:47,733 {\an1}per acre of land, 173 00:07:47,766 --> 00:07:49,333 {\an1}we're not going to get there. 174 00:07:49,366 --> 00:07:51,966 ♪ 175 00:07:52,000 --> 00:07:53,333 ORT: Part of the answer is going to be 176 00:07:53,366 --> 00:07:55,333 {\an1}redesigning photosynthesis. 177 00:07:55,366 --> 00:07:58,366 ♪ 178 00:07:58,400 --> 00:08:00,966 {\an1}(birds twittering) 179 00:08:01,000 --> 00:08:02,566 POGUE: To learn more about RIPE's plans, 180 00:08:02,600 --> 00:08:05,133 {\an1}I've joined Lisa Ainsworth, 181 00:08:05,166 --> 00:08:06,933 {\an1}a U.S.D.A. scientist, 182 00:08:06,966 --> 00:08:09,000 {\an1}and professor at the University of Illinois... 183 00:08:09,033 --> 00:08:10,666 {\an1}You can see just how differentthe height is 184 00:08:10,700 --> 00:08:11,933 {\an1}just in walking from one. Wow. 185 00:08:11,966 --> 00:08:14,833 POGUE: ...on an early morning tour of a field 186 00:08:14,866 --> 00:08:19,500 {\an1}that contains 600 different varieties of soybeans. 187 00:08:19,533 --> 00:08:21,900 Usually you hear about efficiency, 188 00:08:21,933 --> 00:08:25,300 {\an1}like of a gas engine, measured in terms of a percentage, 189 00:08:25,333 --> 00:08:26,933 {\an1}how much of the fuel 190 00:08:26,966 --> 00:08:28,366 {\an1}is ultimately converted to energy. 191 00:08:28,400 --> 00:08:31,566 {\an1}What's the percentage efficiency for a plant? 192 00:08:31,600 --> 00:08:32,733 {\an1}Well, in terms of 193 00:08:32,766 --> 00:08:35,900 {\an1}how much of the light energyit turns into sugar, 194 00:08:35,933 --> 00:08:37,033 {\an1}it's pretty low-- 195 00:08:37,066 --> 00:08:39,433 {\an1}maybe around three percent. Three percent?! 196 00:08:39,466 --> 00:08:40,766 That's terrible! 197 00:08:40,800 --> 00:08:42,700 {\an1}But you guys are going to help it. 198 00:08:42,733 --> 00:08:44,300 That's the plan. (chuckles) 199 00:08:44,333 --> 00:08:45,900 ♪ 200 00:08:45,933 --> 00:08:47,033 POGUE: To improve photosynthesis, 201 00:08:47,066 --> 00:08:48,966 {\an1}two other researchers with RIPE-- 202 00:08:49,000 --> 00:08:51,700 {\an1}Amanda Cavanagh and Paul South-- 203 00:08:51,733 --> 00:08:54,300 {\an1}have focused on one of its key molecules. 204 00:08:54,333 --> 00:08:55,866 ♪ 205 00:08:55,900 --> 00:08:59,400 {\an1}It has a very catchy name. 206 00:08:59,433 --> 00:09:01,333 {\an1}So the molecule is what we biologists call an enzyme. 207 00:09:01,366 --> 00:09:02,466 {\an1}And so it does the work. 208 00:09:02,500 --> 00:09:05,033 {\an8}Enzymes are like biological workers. 209 00:09:05,066 --> 00:09:06,600 {\an8}And the enzyme's called rubisco. 210 00:09:06,633 --> 00:09:11,100 ♪ 211 00:09:11,133 --> 00:09:13,033 {\an8}SOUTH: It's R.U.B.P.-- 212 00:09:13,066 --> 00:09:16,533 {\an8}or ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase oxygenase. 213 00:09:16,566 --> 00:09:18,133 ♪ 214 00:09:18,166 --> 00:09:20,566 CAVANAGH: And it's, for most plant biologists, 215 00:09:20,600 --> 00:09:22,966 {\an1}one of our favorite enzymes on the planet. 216 00:09:23,000 --> 00:09:25,166 {\an1}Yeah, rubisco is our shortened term for it. 217 00:09:25,200 --> 00:09:27,400 POGUE: Mainly because it's fun to say. 218 00:09:27,433 --> 00:09:28,366 Well, it's super fun to say. 219 00:09:28,400 --> 00:09:29,833 {\an5}(rolling R): Rubisco.Of course. 220 00:09:29,866 --> 00:09:31,333 {\an5}♪ Rubisco. 221 00:09:31,366 --> 00:09:32,800 {\an5}But, it's also a really cool enzyme 222 00:09:32,833 --> 00:09:34,300 {\an1}because it makes life on Earth possible. 223 00:09:34,333 --> 00:09:36,833 ♪ 224 00:09:36,866 --> 00:09:39,433 POGUE:Rubisco may not look so special 225 00:09:39,466 --> 00:09:43,566 {\an1}but it is arguably the most important enzyme on the planet 226 00:09:43,600 --> 00:09:47,966 {\an1}because of its critical role in photosynthesis. 227 00:09:48,000 --> 00:09:52,000 {\an1}Rubisco's job is to grab a molecule of carbon dioxide 228 00:09:52,033 --> 00:09:54,733 {\an8}and feed it into a molecular machine 229 00:09:54,766 --> 00:09:57,733 {\an7}that's building carbon chains. 230 00:09:57,766 --> 00:10:00,600 {\an1}That means any carbon atom 231 00:10:00,633 --> 00:10:03,333 {\an1}that's part of any plant anywhere 232 00:10:03,366 --> 00:10:08,733 {\an1}got there thanks to rubisco, or one of its close variants. 233 00:10:08,766 --> 00:10:14,000 {\an1}And because we eat plants, or animals that ate plants, 234 00:10:14,033 --> 00:10:19,200 {\an1}that also includes just aboutevery carbon atom in your body. 235 00:10:19,233 --> 00:10:25,433 {\an1}All approximately 800 million billion billion of them. 236 00:10:25,466 --> 00:10:27,900 {\an1}That's 26 zeroes. 237 00:10:29,900 --> 00:10:34,100 {\an1}Not bad, rubisco, not bad. 238 00:10:34,133 --> 00:10:36,033 SOUTH: Yeah, so, if it's ever come from a plant, 239 00:10:36,066 --> 00:10:38,500 {\an1}it had to have gone through that enzyme of rubisco. 240 00:10:38,533 --> 00:10:39,933 {\an1}That's wild! Yeah. 241 00:10:39,966 --> 00:10:40,933 How come there's not like a... 242 00:10:40,966 --> 00:10:43,233 {\an1}a memorial to rubisco in Washington? 243 00:10:43,266 --> 00:10:46,600 {\an1}("The Star-Spangled Banner" playing) 244 00:10:46,633 --> 00:10:48,533 It seems, like, sort of important. 245 00:10:48,566 --> 00:10:50,133 ♪ 246 00:10:50,166 --> 00:10:52,966 {\an7}Rubisco is important and that's why it's the 247 00:10:53,000 --> 00:10:55,633 {\an7}most plentiful protein on Earth. 248 00:10:55,666 --> 00:10:58,366 {\an8}But just because you're important 249 00:10:58,400 --> 00:11:02,200 {\an8}doesn't mean you're entirely... competent. 250 00:11:02,233 --> 00:11:06,566 {\an1}It's... in this case, not the best enzyme in the world. 251 00:11:06,600 --> 00:11:09,200 {\an1}It's got a hard job, so it's doing its best, 252 00:11:09,233 --> 00:11:11,866 {\an1}but at the same time it exists in an atmosphere that's not 253 00:11:11,900 --> 00:11:14,466 {\an1}predominantly carbon dioxide, it's mostly oxygen. 254 00:11:14,500 --> 00:11:17,800 {\an1}And about one in every four or five reactions it grabs oxygen 255 00:11:17,833 --> 00:11:19,266 {\an1}instead of carbon dioxide. 256 00:11:19,300 --> 00:11:20,866 ♪ 257 00:11:20,900 --> 00:11:22,133 POGUE: That's right. 258 00:11:22,166 --> 00:11:26,033 {\an7}Rubisco screws up about a fifth of the time. 259 00:11:26,066 --> 00:11:28,166 {\an7}Instead of attaching a carbon dioxide 260 00:11:28,200 --> 00:11:31,166 {\an7}it attaches an oxygen molecule. 261 00:11:31,200 --> 00:11:32,300 {\an7}And that's trouble. 262 00:11:32,333 --> 00:11:33,466 {\an7}You're saying nature 263 00:11:33,500 --> 00:11:37,100 {\an1}has created a screwed-up little worker enzyme? 264 00:11:37,133 --> 00:11:39,666 SOUTH: Yeah, so, 400 million years ago, 265 00:11:39,700 --> 00:11:40,833 {\an1}when this enzyme evolved, 266 00:11:40,866 --> 00:11:42,166 {\an1}there wasn't very much oxygen in the air. 267 00:11:42,200 --> 00:11:43,566 ♪ 268 00:11:43,600 --> 00:11:44,700 {\an1}All right, so I'm the little 269 00:11:44,733 --> 00:11:46,166 {\an4}rubisco enzyme...CAVANAGH:Yup. 270 00:11:46,200 --> 00:11:48,233 {\an7}and I'm like on the conveyor belt here.Yeah. 271 00:11:48,266 --> 00:11:50,633 {\an7}And like, okay, carbon dioxide,carbon dioxide, carbon dioxide, 272 00:11:50,666 --> 00:11:52,866 {\an7}carbon dioxide, oxygen and I, I don't notice 273 00:11:52,900 --> 00:11:54,566 {\an7}I accidentally grabbed an oxygen out of the box. 274 00:11:54,600 --> 00:11:56,133 (laughing) 275 00:11:56,166 --> 00:11:57,866 SOUTH: And it produces 276 00:11:57,900 --> 00:12:00,300 {\an1}compounds that are inhibitory to photosynthesis, 277 00:12:00,333 --> 00:12:01,766 {\an1}so it kind of starts to shut things down. 278 00:12:01,800 --> 00:12:03,833 POGUE: I mean it's been going on for billions of years 279 00:12:03,866 --> 00:12:05,333 {\an1}and nobody has cared.Yeah, well... 280 00:12:05,366 --> 00:12:07,100 {\an1}I mean, it all... all basically works. 281 00:12:07,133 --> 00:12:08,166 {\an1}Photosynthesis, right now, 282 00:12:08,200 --> 00:12:10,333 {\an1}is sort of a victim of its own success-- 283 00:12:10,366 --> 00:12:11,600 {\an1}rubisco certainly is. 284 00:12:11,633 --> 00:12:14,900 {\an1}So by oxygenating the atmosphere via photosynthesis, 285 00:12:14,933 --> 00:12:18,666 {\an1}you now have a huge amount of oxygen in the atmosphere 286 00:12:18,700 --> 00:12:22,133 {\an1}but you need a carbon dioxide to make the reaction work. 287 00:12:22,166 --> 00:12:24,533 (alarm blaring) 288 00:12:24,566 --> 00:12:27,100 POGUE: So what happens when rubisco screws up? 289 00:12:27,133 --> 00:12:28,166 (bell ringing) 290 00:12:28,200 --> 00:12:31,733 {\an1}The result gets shipped out 291 00:12:31,766 --> 00:12:34,566 {\an1}through a couple other parts of the cell 292 00:12:34,600 --> 00:12:37,900 {\an1}to where the mess is taken apart and recycled, 293 00:12:37,933 --> 00:12:39,466 {\an1}all of which consumes 294 00:12:39,500 --> 00:12:42,200 a lot of energy. 295 00:12:42,233 --> 00:12:44,933 If you could fix this inefficiency problem, 296 00:12:44,966 --> 00:12:48,533 {\an1}the plant might make more...soybeans, corn, whatever it is? 297 00:12:48,566 --> 00:12:49,900 CAVANAGH: That's exactly it. 298 00:12:49,933 --> 00:12:51,833 Then they will have that energy to put towards something 299 00:12:51,866 --> 00:12:53,366 {\an1}that we would consider useful 300 00:12:53,400 --> 00:12:55,433 {\an1}like making more food for us to eat. 301 00:12:55,466 --> 00:12:58,133 {\an1}Is this just a crazy theory or is there some indication 302 00:12:58,166 --> 00:12:59,500 {\an1}that this could actually work? 303 00:12:59,533 --> 00:13:01,266 {\an1}There's quite a bit of evidence that this is working. 304 00:13:01,300 --> 00:13:02,866 So right now, we have this tested 305 00:13:02,900 --> 00:13:03,933 {\an1}in a couple of model species. 306 00:13:03,966 --> 00:13:07,066 ♪ 307 00:13:07,100 --> 00:13:08,533 POGUE: It is tropical in here. 308 00:13:08,566 --> 00:13:13,566 {\an1}Amanda and Paul take me to the greenhouse to see one example. 309 00:13:13,600 --> 00:13:15,300 Using two genes, 310 00:13:15,333 --> 00:13:19,100 one from algae and the other from a pumpkin, 311 00:13:19,133 --> 00:13:21,366 they've modified tobacco plants 312 00:13:21,400 --> 00:13:23,766 {\an1}to address rubisco's sloppy work. 313 00:13:23,800 --> 00:13:26,200 {\an1}And why are we usingtobacco plants? 314 00:13:26,233 --> 00:13:28,733 {\an1}Yeah, tobacco's a really useful model crop for us. 315 00:13:28,766 --> 00:13:30,566 POGUE: Why tobacco? 316 00:13:30,600 --> 00:13:33,100 {\an1}Turns out it's one of the easiest plants 317 00:13:33,133 --> 00:13:34,400 {\an1}to genetically manipulate, 318 00:13:34,433 --> 00:13:37,000 {\an1}which makes it a common test subject. 319 00:13:37,033 --> 00:13:40,233 SOUTH: They have definitely shown improvements in plant growth 320 00:13:40,266 --> 00:13:41,533 {\an1}and total biomass, 321 00:13:41,566 --> 00:13:44,000 {\an1}and we've been studying the rates of photosynthesis. 322 00:13:44,033 --> 00:13:46,900 {\an1}And we are pretty confident now that our model crop 323 00:13:46,933 --> 00:13:50,066 {\an1}is successful in this pathway,and now we're really interested 324 00:13:50,100 --> 00:13:52,100 {\an1}in moving these into something we like to eat. 325 00:13:52,133 --> 00:13:54,000 ♪ 326 00:13:54,033 --> 00:13:55,533 POGUE: Reducing the energy penalty 327 00:13:55,566 --> 00:14:00,166 crops pay for rubisco's mistakes could be huge. 328 00:14:00,200 --> 00:14:04,833 {\an1}In soybeans, a 25% reduction 329 00:14:04,866 --> 00:14:06,933 {\an1}could result in plants that produce 330 00:14:06,966 --> 00:14:10,433 {\an1}more than 60 million more bushels a year. 331 00:14:10,466 --> 00:14:13,533 CAVANAGH: This to a lot of people is an idea 332 00:14:13,566 --> 00:14:16,200 {\an1}that might be out there, but if we can get it, 333 00:14:16,233 --> 00:14:18,433 {\an1}if we can get this moonshot approach to work, 334 00:14:18,466 --> 00:14:20,533 {\an1}then we're going to have more food. 335 00:14:20,566 --> 00:14:22,000 {\an1}And so that's really what drives what I do. 336 00:14:22,033 --> 00:14:23,800 ♪ 337 00:14:23,833 --> 00:14:26,300 POGUE: The RIPE program is international. 338 00:14:26,333 --> 00:14:29,533 {\an1}And, likely, so will be thereach of any of its discoveries. 339 00:14:29,566 --> 00:14:31,366 {\an1}♪ 340 00:14:31,400 --> 00:14:35,066 {\an1}But work like theirs is not without controversy. 341 00:14:35,100 --> 00:14:39,033 {\an1}Some of RIPE's solutionsdepend on cross-breeding plants 342 00:14:39,066 --> 00:14:41,300 {\an1}chosen for their genes. 343 00:14:41,333 --> 00:14:44,133 {\an1}But other solutions, like the rubisco work, 344 00:14:44,166 --> 00:14:46,633 {\an1}depend on genetic engineering-- 345 00:14:46,666 --> 00:14:51,200 {\an1}also called genetic modification, or GM-- 346 00:14:51,233 --> 00:14:55,033 adding new genes from other types of plants, 347 00:14:55,066 --> 00:14:58,033 {\an1}or even organisms, entirely. 348 00:14:58,066 --> 00:15:01,766 {\an1}The laws governing genetically modified crops vary 349 00:15:01,800 --> 00:15:04,866 {\an1}from country to country, especially when it comes to 350 00:15:04,900 --> 00:15:07,833 {\an1}labeling their use in food. 351 00:15:07,866 --> 00:15:09,533 {\an1}(indistinct chatter) 352 00:15:09,566 --> 00:15:11,566 {\an1}And there have been objections to some companies 353 00:15:11,600 --> 00:15:13,600 {\an1}that patent their new crops 354 00:15:13,633 --> 00:15:15,666 {\an1}and control who can plant them. 355 00:15:15,700 --> 00:15:18,300 {\an1}But the general scientific consensus 356 00:15:18,333 --> 00:15:19,933 is that they are no more dangerous 357 00:15:19,966 --> 00:15:21,300 {\an1}than conventional crops, 358 00:15:21,333 --> 00:15:24,400 {\an1}though they need to be carefully studied for potential health 359 00:15:24,433 --> 00:15:26,300 {\an1}and environmental effects. 360 00:15:26,333 --> 00:15:32,800 {\an1}The U.S., unlike Europe, has largely adopted GM plants. 361 00:15:32,833 --> 00:15:36,466 {\an1}An overwhelming percentage of corn, soybeans, and cotton 362 00:15:36,500 --> 00:15:40,700 {\an1}grown in the United States is genetically modified. 363 00:15:40,733 --> 00:15:42,466 ♪ 364 00:15:42,500 --> 00:15:45,866 LONG:I understand there are concerns. 365 00:15:45,900 --> 00:15:47,433 {\an8}As a scientist, 366 00:15:47,466 --> 00:15:52,133 {\an7}I feel those concerns have very little validity, 367 00:15:52,166 --> 00:15:55,933 {\an1}although clearly people have become very concerned-- 368 00:15:55,966 --> 00:15:56,933 {\an1}particularly in Europe. 369 00:15:56,966 --> 00:15:59,133 Of course, in this part of the world, 370 00:15:59,166 --> 00:16:03,833 genetically modified crops have been grown for over 20 years. 371 00:16:03,866 --> 00:16:07,133 {\an1}This technology has spread throughout the Americas. 372 00:16:07,166 --> 00:16:10,133 ♪ 373 00:16:10,166 --> 00:16:12,500 POGUE: In fact, as the global population grows, 374 00:16:12,533 --> 00:16:15,500 {\an1}it's in poorer countries that RIPE's work may end up 375 00:16:15,533 --> 00:16:17,533 {\an1}having the greatest impact. 376 00:16:17,566 --> 00:16:22,233 {\an1}Especially if geneticallymodified foods gain acceptance. 377 00:16:22,266 --> 00:16:25,533 LONG: The place where I see the technology needed most 378 00:16:25,566 --> 00:16:28,433 {\an1}is actually in sub-Saharan Africa. 379 00:16:28,466 --> 00:16:31,133 {\an1}And this opposition to GM 380 00:16:31,166 --> 00:16:35,000 {\an1}is having quite an influence in Africa. 381 00:16:35,033 --> 00:16:38,200 {\an1}It's keeping the science, which is needed, out 382 00:16:38,233 --> 00:16:39,466 and I fear that 383 00:16:39,500 --> 00:16:43,533 this could risk people starving when we could actually 384 00:16:43,566 --> 00:16:46,466 {\an1}be giving them seed which would allow them 385 00:16:46,500 --> 00:16:49,900 {\an1}to feed themselves into the future. 386 00:16:49,933 --> 00:16:52,000 ♪ 387 00:16:52,033 --> 00:16:55,466 POGUE: Even if scientists succeed in improving photosynthesis, 388 00:16:55,500 --> 00:16:58,300 {\an1}it won't have anywhere near the dramatic impact 389 00:16:58,333 --> 00:16:59,400 {\an1}of the original version 390 00:16:59,433 --> 00:17:04,733 {\an1}introduced about three billion years ago. 391 00:17:04,766 --> 00:17:06,400 {\an1}Back then, scientists believe, 392 00:17:06,433 --> 00:17:10,300 {\an1}photosynthetic cyanobacteria began cranking out oxygen 393 00:17:10,333 --> 00:17:14,133 {\an1}as a waste product. 394 00:17:14,166 --> 00:17:17,666 {\an1}Eventually, bacteria produced enough oxygen 395 00:17:17,700 --> 00:17:20,833 {\an1}that it started to accumulate in the atmosphere. 396 00:17:20,866 --> 00:17:23,833 {\an1}Which, in turn, gave rise to one of life's 397 00:17:23,866 --> 00:17:29,700 {\an1}underappreciated molecular allies-- the ozone layer. 398 00:17:29,733 --> 00:17:32,666 {\an1}It's in the lowest level of the stratosphere, 399 00:17:32,700 --> 00:17:36,233 between roughly eight and 22 miles up. 400 00:17:36,266 --> 00:17:37,800 ♪ 401 00:17:37,833 --> 00:17:40,300 {\an1}Atmospheric research planes venture up here... 402 00:17:40,333 --> 00:17:41,566 (radio chatter) 403 00:17:41,600 --> 00:17:42,600 {\an1}...but not much else. 404 00:17:42,633 --> 00:17:45,100 ♪ 405 00:17:45,133 --> 00:17:46,833 {\an1}The ozone comes from a process 406 00:17:46,866 --> 00:17:50,200 even higher up in the stratosphere. 407 00:17:50,233 --> 00:17:53,933 {\an1}There, solar radiation busts up O2 molecules 408 00:17:53,966 --> 00:17:57,066 {\an1}into individual oxygen atoms. 409 00:17:57,100 --> 00:17:59,500 They drift down to the ozone layer 410 00:17:59,533 --> 00:18:06,266 where they convert O2 into O3-- ozone. 411 00:18:06,300 --> 00:18:09,033 {\an1}Despite the name, there's not that much ozone 412 00:18:09,066 --> 00:18:10,733 {\an1}in the ozone layer-- 413 00:18:10,766 --> 00:18:13,700 {\an1}less than ten parts per million-- 414 00:18:13,733 --> 00:18:16,866 {\an1}yet it's had a profound effect on the evolution 415 00:18:16,900 --> 00:18:18,733 {\an1}of life on Earth. 416 00:18:18,766 --> 00:18:21,400 ♪ 417 00:18:21,433 --> 00:18:22,866 {\an1}To find out more... 418 00:18:22,900 --> 00:18:24,466 {\an1}POGUE:So ozone is O3, right? 419 00:18:24,500 --> 00:18:26,000 {\an1}KERRY HANSON:Ozone is O3. 420 00:18:26,033 --> 00:18:28,433 {\an8}POGUE: ...I travel to the University of California, Riverside, 421 00:18:28,466 --> 00:18:30,433 {\an1}to meet Kerry Hanson... 422 00:18:30,466 --> 00:18:31,366 {\an1}We came alive because... 423 00:18:31,400 --> 00:18:32,466 POGUE: ...a research chemist 424 00:18:32,500 --> 00:18:35,600 {\an1}who studies how molecules like ozone 425 00:18:35,633 --> 00:18:39,033 {\an1}and those in sunscreens interact with light. 426 00:18:39,066 --> 00:18:40,833 {\an1}So any moleculecan absorb light. 427 00:18:40,866 --> 00:18:42,200 POGUE: It turns out 428 00:18:42,233 --> 00:18:47,066 {\an1}the ozone layer and sunscreens have a lot in common. 429 00:18:47,100 --> 00:18:52,233 {\an1}This O3 gas is out there in the atmosphere in such quantity 430 00:18:52,266 --> 00:18:54,000 {\an1}that there's an envelope around the whole planet? 431 00:18:54,033 --> 00:18:55,200 {\an1}Yeah. It's a layer. 432 00:18:55,233 --> 00:18:56,500 {\an7}Think of like a sunscreen. 433 00:18:56,533 --> 00:18:58,500 {\an7}You know, how we use sunscreen on our skin? Yeah. 434 00:18:58,533 --> 00:18:59,500 {\an7}So it's the exact same thing. 435 00:18:59,533 --> 00:19:03,500 {\an7}The ozone layeris earth's sunscreen. 436 00:19:03,533 --> 00:19:05,566 ♪ 437 00:19:05,600 --> 00:19:07,566 POGUE: Both the ozone layer and sunscreens 438 00:19:07,600 --> 00:19:09,266 protect us from the harmful effects 439 00:19:09,300 --> 00:19:11,500 {\an1}of ultraviolet radiation-- 440 00:19:11,533 --> 00:19:14,833 or U.V.-- a kind of sunlight that, 441 00:19:14,866 --> 00:19:19,133 {\an1}unlike the colors of the rainbow, we can't see. 442 00:19:19,166 --> 00:19:22,000 ♪ 443 00:19:22,033 --> 00:19:24,066 On the electromagnetic spectrum, 444 00:19:24,100 --> 00:19:27,533 {\an1}visible light sits here, 445 00:19:27,566 --> 00:19:32,500 {\an7}but U.V. sits up here at a higher energy. 446 00:19:32,533 --> 00:19:35,766 {\an7}Scientists divide it roughly into three kinds-- 447 00:19:35,800 --> 00:19:39,500 {\an8}A, B, and C. 448 00:19:39,533 --> 00:19:42,000 {\an1}And while A and B, aren't good for you-- 449 00:19:42,033 --> 00:19:46,400 {\an1}and they're the reason to wear sunscreen-- 450 00:19:46,433 --> 00:19:50,066 {\an1}it's C that's the big problem for living things 451 00:19:50,100 --> 00:19:53,366 {\an1}because it's particularly destructive to DNA. 452 00:19:56,600 --> 00:19:59,200 ♪ 453 00:19:59,233 --> 00:20:01,933 {\an1}(players shouting) 454 00:20:01,966 --> 00:20:05,000 {\an1}Kerry tells me how all this relates to ozone. 455 00:20:05,033 --> 00:20:07,766 Just another Sunday watching volleyball. 456 00:20:07,800 --> 00:20:10,333 {\an8}(voiceover): And it's kind of like volleyball. 457 00:20:10,366 --> 00:20:12,466 ♪ 458 00:20:12,500 --> 00:20:14,066 Oh! He's good. 459 00:20:14,100 --> 00:20:18,933 POGUE: Well... if the balls were different kinds of U.V. 460 00:20:18,966 --> 00:20:22,066 {\an1}In the early days of life on Earth, 461 00:20:22,100 --> 00:20:25,600 {\an1}before photosynthetic bacteria oxygenated our atmosphere... 462 00:20:25,633 --> 00:20:27,100 {\an1}Get it, get it, get it... yeah, yeah, yeah! 463 00:20:27,133 --> 00:20:29,966 ♪ 464 00:20:30,000 --> 00:20:31,233 {\an1}There was no ozone layer 465 00:20:31,266 --> 00:20:35,900 {\an1}and no global defense against ultra violet radiation. 466 00:20:35,933 --> 00:20:38,000 Aw... ooh... 467 00:20:38,033 --> 00:20:41,800 The most dangerous kind, U.V.C., bathed the planet, 468 00:20:41,833 --> 00:20:47,900 {\an1}which may have effectively limited where life could grow. 469 00:20:47,933 --> 00:20:49,933 {\an1}But oxygen accumulating in the atmosphere 470 00:20:49,966 --> 00:20:51,400 {\an1}and the rise of the ozone layer 471 00:20:51,433 --> 00:20:52,633 {\an1}changed all that. 472 00:20:52,666 --> 00:20:54,800 The layer blocks 473 00:20:54,833 --> 00:20:57,566 all the U.V.C. and most of the U.V.B. 474 00:20:57,600 --> 00:21:01,133 from reaching the Earth's surface. 475 00:21:01,166 --> 00:21:02,666 HANSON:Oh... good block! 476 00:21:02,700 --> 00:21:04,933 POGUE: Here's how it works: 477 00:21:04,966 --> 00:21:09,200 {\an1}when U.V. radiation hits a molecule of ozone, 478 00:21:09,233 --> 00:21:14,933 {\an1}it splits it into an oxygen atom and a molecule of O2. 479 00:21:14,966 --> 00:21:18,733 {\an1}The U.V. light has been absorbed and neutralized. 480 00:21:18,766 --> 00:21:22,933 {\an1}The lone atom quickly rejoins another molecule of O2 481 00:21:22,966 --> 00:21:25,733 to reform ozone. 482 00:21:25,766 --> 00:21:29,600 {\an1}The net result is a conversion of that harmful radiation 483 00:21:29,633 --> 00:21:32,333 into heat. 484 00:21:32,366 --> 00:21:35,800 {\an1}Despite the ozone layer, 485 00:21:35,833 --> 00:21:40,266 {\an1}we can still get hit by unhealthy amounts of U.V. 486 00:21:40,300 --> 00:21:43,233 {\an1}And that's why it's a good idea to use sunscreen. 487 00:21:43,266 --> 00:21:45,866 HANSON: If you read the label, and if it says broad spectrum, 488 00:21:45,900 --> 00:21:48,433 that means it's blocking U.V.B. and U.V.A. 489 00:21:48,466 --> 00:21:50,266 {\an3}Wow. Not U.V.C., 490 00:21:50,300 --> 00:21:52,800 like ozone,but U.V.A. and B. 491 00:21:52,833 --> 00:21:54,500 ♪ 492 00:21:54,533 --> 00:21:55,700 Just like we use 493 00:21:55,733 --> 00:21:59,400 {\an1}sunscreen to block harmful U.V.A. and B radiation 494 00:21:59,433 --> 00:22:01,900 from our skin... 495 00:22:01,933 --> 00:22:04,233 {\an1}the ozone layer protects planet Earth from harmful 496 00:22:04,266 --> 00:22:07,466 {\an1}U.V.C. radiation... 497 00:22:07,500 --> 00:22:14,600 {\an1}that would destroy the building blocks of life-- DNA. 498 00:22:14,633 --> 00:22:17,166 {\an1}Without the blocking of U.V.C. by the ozone layer, 499 00:22:17,200 --> 00:22:20,266 {\an1}life would not have been able to come out of those oceans, 500 00:22:20,300 --> 00:22:21,666 {\an1}come up on to land, 501 00:22:21,700 --> 00:22:24,366 {\an1}and you and I wouldn't betalking here today. 502 00:22:24,400 --> 00:22:28,100 POGUE (echoing): Thanks, ozone! 503 00:22:28,133 --> 00:22:30,133 ♪ 504 00:22:30,166 --> 00:22:31,766 Without that global protection, 505 00:22:31,800 --> 00:22:33,066 {\an1}the grand story of evolution 506 00:22:33,100 --> 00:22:36,800 that began fromsingle-cell ocean-dwelling life 507 00:22:36,833 --> 00:22:38,466 and led to the wondrous 508 00:22:38,500 --> 00:22:42,200 {\an1}complexity of multicellular animals occupying 509 00:22:42,233 --> 00:22:47,666 {\an1}land, sea, and sky would probably never have been told. 510 00:22:47,700 --> 00:22:49,133 {\an1}(film reel clicking, score stops) 511 00:22:49,166 --> 00:22:50,733 (grunts) 512 00:22:50,766 --> 00:22:53,066 {\an1}And yada yada yada... 513 00:22:53,100 --> 00:22:54,466 {\an7}Yeah, yeah, I know, 514 00:22:54,500 --> 00:22:55,866 {\an7}the evolution of life is important, 515 00:22:55,900 --> 00:23:01,300 {\an7}but let's talk about something really important-- me! 516 00:23:01,333 --> 00:23:04,033 Or at least me and my molecules. 517 00:23:04,066 --> 00:23:05,866 {\an1}I know what elements I'm made of: 518 00:23:05,900 --> 00:23:11,066 {\an1}CHNOPS-- carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, 519 00:23:11,100 --> 00:23:13,366 {\an1}phosphorus, sulfur-- CHNOPS! 520 00:23:13,400 --> 00:23:17,066 {\an1}There are other elements in the human body, 521 00:23:17,100 --> 00:23:20,033 {\an1}but these are the main six. 522 00:23:20,066 --> 00:23:24,833 {\an1}And, of course, a good chunk of me by mass is good old H2O. 523 00:23:24,866 --> 00:23:28,766 {\an1}But if you take that water away... 524 00:23:28,800 --> 00:23:32,766 {\an1}most of what's left is macromolecules-- 525 00:23:32,800 --> 00:23:36,733 {\an1}mostly big, long polymers-- 526 00:23:36,766 --> 00:23:39,700 {\an1}chains of smaller molecules. 527 00:23:39,733 --> 00:23:42,666 {\an1}Yeah, so I once went "CHNOPing." 528 00:23:42,700 --> 00:23:44,066 That's C-H-N-O... 529 00:23:44,100 --> 00:23:45,400 (voiceover): To learn more about them, 530 00:23:45,433 --> 00:23:47,700 {\an1}biologist Monica Hall-Porter-- 531 00:23:47,733 --> 00:23:48,966 {\an1}formerly at Lasell University, 532 00:23:49,000 --> 00:23:51,600 {\an1}now at the University of Texas-- 533 00:23:51,633 --> 00:23:54,066 {\an1}offers to show me around a local... 534 00:23:54,100 --> 00:23:56,466 supermarket? 535 00:23:56,500 --> 00:24:03,166 ♪ 536 00:24:03,200 --> 00:24:04,533 It's kind of weird, 537 00:24:04,566 --> 00:24:06,433 I ask you aboutthe molecules of my body, 538 00:24:06,466 --> 00:24:08,766 and you bring usto a grocery store. 539 00:24:08,800 --> 00:24:10,466 Yeah, so today's shopping trip 540 00:24:10,500 --> 00:24:13,466 is about the macromolecules thatactually make up the human body. 541 00:24:13,500 --> 00:24:14,933 ♪ 542 00:24:14,966 --> 00:24:18,766 {\an1}Specifically protein, lipids or fats, carbohydrates, 543 00:24:18,800 --> 00:24:20,166 {\an1}and nucleic acid. 544 00:24:20,200 --> 00:24:22,300 {\an1}And if you take a look around the grocery store, 545 00:24:22,333 --> 00:24:24,900 {\an1}there are many examples of those macromolecules here. 546 00:24:24,933 --> 00:24:26,333 {\an1}All right,show me the ropes. 547 00:24:26,366 --> 00:24:28,266 Let's go shopping. 548 00:24:28,300 --> 00:24:30,800 ♪ 549 00:24:30,833 --> 00:24:32,300 {\an1}(laughing) 550 00:24:32,333 --> 00:24:34,166 POGUE: Our first objective? 551 00:24:34,200 --> 00:24:36,533 {\an1}Protein molecules. 552 00:24:36,566 --> 00:24:38,566 {\an1}Monica tells me, by weight, 553 00:24:38,600 --> 00:24:41,566 {\an1}that's about 20% of my body. 554 00:24:41,600 --> 00:24:44,400 Does that mean pure masculine muscle? 555 00:24:44,433 --> 00:24:46,133 {\an1}Is that what you're saying?Well, not necessarily muscle. 556 00:24:46,166 --> 00:24:50,666 ♪ 557 00:24:50,700 --> 00:24:53,333 {\an1}Proteins are the molecules that actually do work in cells. 558 00:24:53,366 --> 00:24:55,600 {\an1}So not just composing muscle 559 00:24:55,633 --> 00:24:57,566 {\an1}but also the proteins that 560 00:24:57,600 --> 00:24:59,366 {\an1}serve as the structural proteins 561 00:24:59,400 --> 00:25:02,233 {\an1}in our hair,fingernails. 562 00:25:02,266 --> 00:25:06,366 {\an8}POGUE: The most abundant protein in your body is collagen, 563 00:25:06,400 --> 00:25:11,400 {\an7}making up fibrous tissues like skin, tendons, and ligaments. 564 00:25:11,433 --> 00:25:17,000 {\an1}There's also collagen in teeth and bone. 565 00:25:17,033 --> 00:25:18,633 {\an1}But even though there are tens of thousands 566 00:25:18,666 --> 00:25:21,266 {\an1}of different proteins in the human body-- 567 00:25:21,300 --> 00:25:24,233 {\an1}maybe millions, no one is sure-- 568 00:25:24,266 --> 00:25:28,600 {\an1}amazingly, they're all made from stringing together 569 00:25:28,633 --> 00:25:31,933 {\an7}about 20 different kinds of small molecules 570 00:25:31,966 --> 00:25:34,200 {\an7}called amino acids, 571 00:25:34,233 --> 00:25:37,733 {\an1}which we get by breaking down the proteins we eat 572 00:25:37,766 --> 00:25:40,166 {\an1}in a variety of foods. 573 00:25:40,200 --> 00:25:43,366 {\an1}HALL-PORTER:And so when we consume protein,like in turkey for example... 574 00:25:43,400 --> 00:25:44,766 {\an1}(chortling):Whoa! 575 00:25:44,800 --> 00:25:47,233 Our body breaks the amino acids down 576 00:25:47,266 --> 00:25:51,200 {\an7}and then the amino acids are incorporated into proteins 577 00:25:51,233 --> 00:25:52,533 {\an7}that our bodies synthesizes or makes. 578 00:25:52,566 --> 00:25:54,233 Yep, there you go! 579 00:25:54,266 --> 00:25:55,600 Handsome little gobbler. 580 00:25:55,633 --> 00:26:00,466 POGUE: Next on the macromolecule shopping list: lipids. 581 00:26:00,500 --> 00:26:02,166 All right let's find the lipids aisle. 582 00:26:02,200 --> 00:26:03,833 Well, there's no lipidsaisle, (laughs) 583 00:26:03,866 --> 00:26:06,266 but we can getoils and fats. 584 00:26:06,300 --> 00:26:07,800 So let's headdown this way 585 00:26:07,833 --> 00:26:10,300 {\an1}and let's get some oil. 586 00:26:10,333 --> 00:26:12,566 {\an1}This is massive,how much fats are we getting? 587 00:26:12,600 --> 00:26:13,766 A lot. 588 00:26:13,800 --> 00:26:14,933 POGUE:Oh, man. 589 00:26:16,400 --> 00:26:18,500 POGUE: This seems like we've got 590 00:26:18,533 --> 00:26:20,466 {\an1}15 pounds of fats here. 591 00:26:20,500 --> 00:26:21,966 {\an3}Yes.And you're telling me 592 00:26:22,000 --> 00:26:24,133 {\an3}that's only half the amountin my body? 593 00:26:24,166 --> 00:26:26,600 {\an3}Absolutely, you're about 30 pounds of fat. 594 00:26:26,633 --> 00:26:30,400 {\an3}Now, I have to say I findthat a little insulting. 595 00:26:30,433 --> 00:26:31,600 Well, you shouldn't. 596 00:26:31,633 --> 00:26:33,566 {\an8}♪ 597 00:26:33,600 --> 00:26:35,100 {\an8}POGUE: Compared to proteins, 598 00:26:35,133 --> 00:26:38,800 {\an8}lipids or fats do get a bad rap. 599 00:26:38,833 --> 00:26:42,000 {\an7}But in addition to their role in cell membranes, 600 00:26:42,033 --> 00:26:45,100 {\an7}and long-term energy storage-- 601 00:26:45,133 --> 00:26:47,300 {\an7}you know, body fat-- 602 00:26:47,333 --> 00:26:52,066 {\an7}they also provide protection for internal organs. 603 00:26:52,100 --> 00:26:55,133 {\an1}Oh, and don't forget the lipids in earwax! 604 00:26:55,166 --> 00:26:56,866 HALL-PORTER: And so literally 605 00:26:56,900 --> 00:26:59,800 there's fat in every part of you. 606 00:26:59,833 --> 00:27:04,033 So even a slim, lean,handsome, physically fit person 607 00:27:04,066 --> 00:27:06,466 could have thirty poundsof fat in him? 608 00:27:06,500 --> 00:27:07,466 Absolutely. 609 00:27:07,500 --> 00:27:09,400 ♪ 610 00:27:09,433 --> 00:27:13,366 POGUE: Next up, the third most common macromolecule type... 611 00:27:13,400 --> 00:27:14,833 {\an1}Oh, this is my kind of food group. 612 00:27:14,866 --> 00:27:15,800 Carbohydrates. 613 00:27:15,833 --> 00:27:17,633 Sugar! Sugar! 614 00:27:17,666 --> 00:27:20,266 Does this count as carbs? Absolutely. 615 00:27:20,300 --> 00:27:23,500 POGUE: While I would have thought I was sweeter, 616 00:27:23,533 --> 00:27:25,666 {\an7}turns out on average there's only about 617 00:27:25,700 --> 00:27:28,066 {\an7}two pounds of carbs in me. 618 00:27:28,100 --> 00:27:31,833 {\an7}Glucose is the most abundant carb in the human body. 619 00:27:31,866 --> 00:27:36,133 {\an7}It circulates to provide energy for cells. 620 00:27:36,166 --> 00:27:38,400 {\an1}Now we're talking carbs-- carb city, 621 00:27:38,433 --> 00:27:39,966 {\an1}carb heaven, carb central... 622 00:27:40,000 --> 00:27:41,666 {\an1}We are in the bread aisle,my friend. 623 00:27:41,700 --> 00:27:42,666 I like it! 624 00:27:42,700 --> 00:27:43,700 All right,we can toast this up 625 00:27:43,733 --> 00:27:45,566 and put some butteron it... (laughs) 626 00:27:45,600 --> 00:27:48,266 {\an8}POGUE: Many glucose molecules joined together 627 00:27:48,300 --> 00:27:49,933 {\an7}can make a plant starch, 628 00:27:49,966 --> 00:27:53,466 {\an7}the kind you find in cereals and root vegetables. 629 00:27:53,500 --> 00:27:56,666 {\an7}It's the most common carb in the human diet. 630 00:27:56,700 --> 00:27:58,166 {\an8}So did I under... (indistinct voice over loudspeaker) 631 00:27:58,200 --> 00:28:00,533 {\an1}Hey, we're workin' here! 632 00:28:00,566 --> 00:28:02,033 So we've got lipids. 633 00:28:02,066 --> 00:28:03,533 Yeah. Proteins. 634 00:28:03,566 --> 00:28:04,800 Yeah. And carbohydrates. 635 00:28:04,833 --> 00:28:07,166 Yeah, the three macromoleculesof the human body. 636 00:28:07,200 --> 00:28:08,633 Right, but we're missing one. 637 00:28:08,666 --> 00:28:10,366 There's another one? Yeah, we don't have anything 638 00:28:10,400 --> 00:28:12,966 that's representative of nucleic acids. 639 00:28:13,000 --> 00:28:18,233 {\an8}POGUE: Nucleic acids are better known as DNA and RNA. 640 00:28:19,700 --> 00:28:22,266 {\an8}DNA is the famous double helix. 641 00:28:22,300 --> 00:28:25,366 {\an1}It's usually two long chains of molecules 642 00:28:25,400 --> 00:28:28,133 {\an7}that wrap around each other. 643 00:28:28,166 --> 00:28:33,366 {\an7}It contains genetic instructions for making proteins. 644 00:28:33,400 --> 00:28:37,466 {\an7}RNA is often a long molecular chain as well. 645 00:28:37,500 --> 00:28:42,033 {\an7}If DNA is the cookbook, RNA is the chef, 646 00:28:42,066 --> 00:28:45,133 {\an7}reading DNA's instructions for proteins, 647 00:28:45,166 --> 00:28:48,000 {\an7}gathering the ingredient amino acids, 648 00:28:48,033 --> 00:28:50,033 {\an7}and assembling them in the right order 649 00:28:50,066 --> 00:28:53,333 {\an7}in a macromolecular protein printing machine 650 00:28:53,366 --> 00:28:56,600 {\an7}called a ribosome. 651 00:28:56,633 --> 00:28:58,400 {\an1}Life on Earth exists 652 00:28:58,433 --> 00:29:00,633 in a spectacular variety of forms, 653 00:29:00,666 --> 00:29:02,266 {\an8}but in the end, 654 00:29:02,300 --> 00:29:04,033 {\an7}it all depends on the arrangement 655 00:29:04,066 --> 00:29:08,033 {\an7}of a handful of different small molecules-- 656 00:29:08,066 --> 00:29:10,100 {\an7}the nucleotides-- 657 00:29:10,133 --> 00:29:14,766 {\an7}in the nucleic acids DNA and RNA. 658 00:29:14,800 --> 00:29:17,866 {\an1}And we are now arriving at the DNA aisle. 659 00:29:17,900 --> 00:29:18,900 All righty. 660 00:29:18,933 --> 00:29:20,200 And why strawberries? 661 00:29:20,233 --> 00:29:22,666 {\an1}Well, strawberries actually have eight copies 662 00:29:22,700 --> 00:29:24,766 {\an1}of each chromosome per cell. 663 00:29:24,800 --> 00:29:26,300 So relative to other fruits, 664 00:29:26,333 --> 00:29:28,200 {\an1}strawberries are actually very rich in DNA. 665 00:29:28,233 --> 00:29:29,200 {\an1}Wow, all right. 666 00:29:29,233 --> 00:29:31,966 {\an1}Here's our DNA-ey berries. 667 00:29:32,000 --> 00:29:34,233 ♪ 668 00:29:34,266 --> 00:29:39,400 Actually seeing DNA-- you know, the code of life-- 669 00:29:39,433 --> 00:29:43,466 {\an7}has always seemed beyond the reach of ordinary folks. 670 00:29:43,500 --> 00:29:47,733 {\an7}You can't just find some, can you? 671 00:29:49,333 --> 00:29:51,666 {\an1}When you said we were going to extract DNA 672 00:29:51,700 --> 00:29:54,666 {\an1}from strawberries, I figured we would go to some humming, 673 00:29:54,700 --> 00:29:56,966 {\an1}high-tech lab with millions of dollars of equipment... 674 00:29:57,000 --> 00:29:58,733 {\an1}(maniacal laughter) 675 00:29:58,766 --> 00:30:01,466 {\an1}No, actually DNA extraction from strawberries 676 00:30:01,500 --> 00:30:04,266 {\an1}is something that can be achieved at home. 677 00:30:05,733 --> 00:30:08,600 POGUE: As it turns out, 678 00:30:08,633 --> 00:30:11,066 {\an1}using some easily available household items 679 00:30:11,100 --> 00:30:12,666 {\an1}like plastic bags, 680 00:30:12,700 --> 00:30:14,900 {\an1}detergent, rubbing alcohol, 681 00:30:14,933 --> 00:30:17,533 {\an1}cheesecloth and strawberries, 682 00:30:17,566 --> 00:30:19,800 {\an1}(liquid dripping) 683 00:30:22,266 --> 00:30:24,300 {\an1}along with a little bit of waiting time, 684 00:30:24,333 --> 00:30:26,633 {\an1}you too can catch a glimpse 685 00:30:26,666 --> 00:30:30,200 {\an1}of the code of life-- DNA. 686 00:30:31,633 --> 00:30:33,300 ♪ 687 00:30:33,333 --> 00:30:34,600 There it is. 688 00:30:35,966 --> 00:30:38,800 You'll see an accumulation 689 00:30:38,833 --> 00:30:41,633 of white, stringy substance. 690 00:30:41,666 --> 00:30:44,533 {\an1}That's actually a very crude prep of DNA. 691 00:30:44,566 --> 00:30:48,433 ♪ 692 00:30:48,466 --> 00:30:49,800 Basically, what's goingto happen is, 693 00:30:49,833 --> 00:30:51,966 it's going to clump on the endof your glass rod. 694 00:30:53,500 --> 00:30:56,700 Strawberry DNA slime, right there.(laughs) 695 00:30:56,733 --> 00:30:58,200 ♪ 696 00:30:58,233 --> 00:30:59,833 POGUE: Pretty amazing. 697 00:30:59,866 --> 00:31:01,866 {\an1}And so are the other three macromolecules 698 00:31:01,900 --> 00:31:04,800 {\an1}that make up my body. 699 00:31:06,433 --> 00:31:07,966 {\an1}But all their wondrous complexity 700 00:31:08,000 --> 00:31:11,200 raises a deeply mysterious question: 701 00:31:11,233 --> 00:31:15,300 {\an1}how did chemistry give rise to biology? 702 00:31:15,333 --> 00:31:17,700 {\an1}How did life get its start? 703 00:31:19,533 --> 00:31:22,033 ♪ 704 00:31:22,066 --> 00:31:24,200 {\an1}A famous experiment in 1952 705 00:31:24,233 --> 00:31:28,233 {\an1}suggested the answer might not be that hard to find. 706 00:31:29,800 --> 00:31:34,066 {\an1}At the University of Chicago,graduate student Stanley Miller, 707 00:31:34,100 --> 00:31:37,433 {\an1}with help from his doctoral advisor Harold Urey... 708 00:31:37,466 --> 00:31:39,300 (gas hissing) 709 00:31:39,333 --> 00:31:41,366 {\an7}Mixed what were then thought to be 710 00:31:41,400 --> 00:31:45,566 {\an7}the dominant ingredients of Earth's early atmosphere-- 711 00:31:45,600 --> 00:31:50,666 {\an7}methane, ammonia, and hydrogen-- inside some sealed glassware. 712 00:31:50,700 --> 00:31:54,600 {\an7}Boiling water added water vapor to the mix. 713 00:31:58,466 --> 00:32:02,133 {\an7}Then Miller created sparks between electrodes 714 00:32:02,166 --> 00:32:04,366 {\an7}simulating lightning, 715 00:32:04,400 --> 00:32:07,700 {\an7}and let the mixture cool and condense. 716 00:32:07,733 --> 00:32:10,533 {\an7}After running the experiment for a week, 717 00:32:10,566 --> 00:32:14,100 {\an7}Miller found five amino acids... 718 00:32:16,000 --> 00:32:19,133 {\an7}some of them critical building blocks of proteins. 719 00:32:19,166 --> 00:32:22,533 JACK SZOSTAK: You know, it was a dramatic breakthrough at the time 720 00:32:22,566 --> 00:32:25,100 {\an1}for people to realize that amino acids could be made 721 00:32:25,133 --> 00:32:26,533 in such a simple way. 722 00:32:26,566 --> 00:32:27,766 ♪ 723 00:32:27,800 --> 00:32:30,033 POGUE: At Massachusetts General Hospital, 724 00:32:30,066 --> 00:32:33,133 {\an1}Jack Szostak runs one of the several research labs 725 00:32:33,166 --> 00:32:35,333 {\an1}around the world that are trying to figure out 726 00:32:35,366 --> 00:32:39,666 {\an1}how chemistry gave rise to biology. 727 00:32:39,700 --> 00:32:40,966 {\an1}So this is like increasingthe amount of sodium hydroxide, 728 00:32:41,000 --> 00:32:42,066 {\an1}and so increasing... Oh, okay. 729 00:32:42,100 --> 00:32:45,600 POGUE: Today, it's clear 730 00:32:45,633 --> 00:32:47,833 even the Miller Urey experiment, 731 00:32:47,866 --> 00:32:49,333 {\an1}while groundbreaking, 732 00:32:49,366 --> 00:32:51,433 {\an1}just scratched the surface of the problem. 733 00:32:51,466 --> 00:32:53,200 SZOSTAK: In retrospect, 734 00:32:53,233 --> 00:32:55,833 it kind of fooled people into thinking that 735 00:32:55,866 --> 00:32:57,366 the answers might be easier than 736 00:32:57,400 --> 00:32:59,700 they turned out to be, right? 737 00:32:59,733 --> 00:33:02,666 {\an7}Once you've got the right chemicals, then what? 738 00:33:02,700 --> 00:33:03,766 {\an7}POGUE:Right, right. 739 00:33:03,800 --> 00:33:05,000 {\an7}How do a bunch of chemicals get together 740 00:33:05,033 --> 00:33:06,866 {\an7}and start acting like a cell? 741 00:33:06,900 --> 00:33:09,366 {\an8}♪ 742 00:33:09,400 --> 00:33:13,400 POGUE: A key requirement seems to be a container. 743 00:33:13,433 --> 00:33:14,933 {\an7}All life on Earth, 744 00:33:14,966 --> 00:33:17,366 {\an7}from the simplest to the most complex, 745 00:33:17,400 --> 00:33:21,700 {\an1}is made of cells, with "outer membranes." 746 00:33:21,733 --> 00:33:24,733 {\an1}So on the road to life, 747 00:33:24,766 --> 00:33:26,866 {\an1}how did that happen? 748 00:33:26,900 --> 00:33:27,966 ♪ 749 00:33:28,000 --> 00:33:30,300 {\an1}Scientists like Anna Wang, 750 00:33:30,333 --> 00:33:33,266 {\an1}a former post-doc in Jack Szostak's lab, 751 00:33:33,300 --> 00:33:37,000 {\an1}now a professor at UNSW Sydney, 752 00:33:37,033 --> 00:33:39,000 {\an1}have been working with a simple molecule 753 00:33:39,033 --> 00:33:42,766 that is one of the prime suspects. 754 00:33:42,800 --> 00:33:44,133 {\an1}It's also present here. 755 00:33:44,166 --> 00:33:45,200 {\an3}Wow. 756 00:33:45,233 --> 00:33:47,833 ♪ 757 00:33:47,866 --> 00:33:52,366 {\an8}POGUE: Shaped into bars in a wide variety of colors and scents. 758 00:33:52,400 --> 00:33:54,300 {\an8}Smells good in here. Smells amazing. 759 00:33:54,333 --> 00:33:57,366 POGUE: At Molly's Apothecary outside of Boston. 760 00:33:57,400 --> 00:33:58,566 Oh, that's wonderful. 761 00:33:58,600 --> 00:34:02,233 {\an8}POGUE: That's right... soap! 762 00:34:02,266 --> 00:34:05,600 {\an1}Soap's interesting because a soap molecule 763 00:34:05,633 --> 00:34:08,233 {\an1}is a combination of two different types of molecules, 764 00:34:08,266 --> 00:34:11,200 {\an1}called polar and non-polar. 765 00:34:11,233 --> 00:34:13,733 ♪ 766 00:34:13,766 --> 00:34:17,200 For example, water molecules are polar. 767 00:34:17,233 --> 00:34:20,600 {\an1}Each one has a concentration of electrons in one part, 768 00:34:20,633 --> 00:34:25,266 {\an1}making it negative, which leaves another part more positive. 769 00:34:25,300 --> 00:34:27,866 That's polarity. 770 00:34:27,900 --> 00:34:30,466 {\an1}And it makes water molecules want to stick together, 771 00:34:30,500 --> 00:34:32,833 {\an1}each negative part attracted 772 00:34:32,866 --> 00:34:35,633 {\an1}to another molecule's positive part. 773 00:34:39,100 --> 00:34:42,133 An oil molecule,made up of carbon and hydrogen, 774 00:34:42,166 --> 00:34:45,500 {\an1}is an example of a non-polar molecule. 775 00:34:45,533 --> 00:34:48,366 {\an1}It has an even distribution of electrons-- 776 00:34:48,400 --> 00:34:50,200 no polarity. 777 00:34:50,233 --> 00:34:53,466 {\an7}And less stickiness between molecules. 778 00:34:53,500 --> 00:34:59,566 {\an1}In fact, polarity is why oil and water don't mix. 779 00:34:59,600 --> 00:35:01,866 {\an1}The polar water molecules stick together, 780 00:35:01,900 --> 00:35:05,266 {\an1}keeping the oil molecules at bay. 781 00:35:05,300 --> 00:35:08,466 {\an1}The less dense oil floats on top. 782 00:35:10,133 --> 00:35:11,933 {\an1}That's also why trying to clean 783 00:35:11,966 --> 00:35:14,833 {\an1}oily grease off your hands with water alone, 784 00:35:14,866 --> 00:35:16,800 {\an1}doesn't work very well. 785 00:35:16,833 --> 00:35:19,466 {\an1}It actually won't come off, it's super oily. 786 00:35:19,500 --> 00:35:21,400 {\an1}The two just don't interact. 787 00:35:21,433 --> 00:35:23,600 {\an8}♪ 788 00:35:23,633 --> 00:35:26,600 {\an8}And that's where soap molecules come in. 789 00:35:26,633 --> 00:35:30,433 {\an1}They're hybrids; at one end are some negatively charged, 790 00:35:30,466 --> 00:35:33,533 {\an1}electron-rich oxygens, ready to interact 791 00:35:33,566 --> 00:35:36,200 {\an1}with polar molecules like water, 792 00:35:36,233 --> 00:35:40,566 {\an1}but the rest is a long, non-polar hydrocarbon tail, 793 00:35:40,600 --> 00:35:43,466 with no positive or negative charge. 794 00:35:43,500 --> 00:35:47,333 {\an1}It's more comfortable mixingwith other non-polar molecules, 795 00:35:47,366 --> 00:35:49,066 {\an1}like grease. 796 00:35:49,100 --> 00:35:52,100 {\an1}Put some soap on your greasy hands... 797 00:35:52,133 --> 00:35:53,366 Soapy! 798 00:35:55,433 --> 00:35:59,700 {\an1}And the soap's non-polar tails stick into the grease 799 00:35:59,733 --> 00:36:02,800 {\an1}while its polar heads act like handles, 800 00:36:02,833 --> 00:36:04,733 {\an1}ready to interact with the water 801 00:36:04,766 --> 00:36:08,200 {\an1}taking the grease along for the ride. 802 00:36:08,233 --> 00:36:10,933 {\an1}Here's another interesting soap fact. 803 00:36:10,966 --> 00:36:13,266 {\an1}Drop some soap into water, 804 00:36:13,300 --> 00:36:16,766 {\an1}and the molecules form little balls called micelles, 805 00:36:16,800 --> 00:36:20,766 {\an7}with their water-loving polar heads sticking out, 806 00:36:20,800 --> 00:36:26,166 {\an7}and their water-hating non-polar tails sticking in. 807 00:36:26,200 --> 00:36:28,933 {\an1}That naturally occurring little container 808 00:36:28,966 --> 00:36:31,733 {\an1}has piqued the interest of scientists like Anna. 809 00:36:31,766 --> 00:36:33,733 {\an8}♪ 810 00:36:33,766 --> 00:36:37,533 {\an7}Back at the lab, she adds some soap molecules to water 811 00:36:37,566 --> 00:36:40,633 {\an7}containing short fragments of RNA. 812 00:36:40,666 --> 00:36:45,266 {\an7}They've been tagged with a molecule that makes them glow. 813 00:36:45,300 --> 00:36:47,933 {\an8}Why RNA? 814 00:36:47,966 --> 00:36:49,733 {\an8}The current scientific consensus 815 00:36:49,766 --> 00:36:54,133 {\an8}is that a primitive form of RNAmay have been the first molecule 816 00:36:54,166 --> 00:36:57,266 {\an8}with the ability to replicate itself, 817 00:36:57,300 --> 00:37:00,200 {\an7}jump-starting evolution. 818 00:37:00,233 --> 00:37:01,600 Next stop... 819 00:37:01,633 --> 00:37:03,433 {\an1}Now we're going to go look at it under the microscope. 820 00:37:03,466 --> 00:37:05,666 POGUE: The microscope room... 821 00:37:06,933 --> 00:37:10,066 {\an1}where Anna loads up a sample she prepared yesterday. 822 00:37:10,100 --> 00:37:12,933 WANG: So this is what our soap molecules 823 00:37:12,966 --> 00:37:14,466 {\an1}have self-assembled into overnight. 824 00:37:14,500 --> 00:37:15,766 {\an1}POGUE:What are they, bubbles? 825 00:37:15,800 --> 00:37:18,133 WANG: Yeah, they're almost like bubbles 826 00:37:18,166 --> 00:37:19,400 {\an8}and so what we're looking here 827 00:37:19,433 --> 00:37:21,466 {\an7}is not the soap molecules themselves 828 00:37:21,500 --> 00:37:22,800 {\an8}but what they've been able to trap 829 00:37:22,833 --> 00:37:25,566 {\an8}inside these cell-sized structures. 830 00:37:25,600 --> 00:37:29,266 POGUE: Overnight, the soap micelles have self-assembled 831 00:37:29,300 --> 00:37:34,833 {\an1}into larger spheres, trapping the fluorescing RNA inside. 832 00:37:34,866 --> 00:37:38,566 {\an1}And if we could zoom into one of them... 833 00:37:38,600 --> 00:37:40,500 {\an7}we'd see that it actually consists 834 00:37:40,533 --> 00:37:43,166 {\an7}of two layers of soap molecules, 835 00:37:43,200 --> 00:37:45,400 {\an7}arranged with the water-loving heads 836 00:37:45,433 --> 00:37:48,133 {\an7}toward the inside and outside, 837 00:37:48,166 --> 00:37:51,966 {\an7}and the water-hating tails brought together. 838 00:37:52,000 --> 00:37:54,333 {\an7}When you have molecules that have a polar head group 839 00:37:54,366 --> 00:37:56,233 {\an1}and a non-polar tail 840 00:37:56,266 --> 00:37:58,833 {\an1}but you don't give themany oil to interact with, 841 00:37:58,866 --> 00:38:01,766 {\an1}the oily tails actually want to interact with each other. 842 00:38:01,800 --> 00:38:02,766 {\an1}And so you end up forming 843 00:38:02,800 --> 00:38:04,600 {\an1}these bilayer structures. 844 00:38:04,633 --> 00:38:06,300 Wait, so these are soap molecules 845 00:38:06,333 --> 00:38:08,266 and these are also soap molecules? 846 00:38:08,300 --> 00:38:09,766 Yeah. And they like to... 847 00:38:09,800 --> 00:38:10,866 assemble into this position? 848 00:38:10,900 --> 00:38:12,666 Yeah, that's right,so they like to form 849 00:38:12,700 --> 00:38:14,233 these really thin envelopes, 850 00:38:14,266 --> 00:38:16,133 and you can imagine thisstructure extending onwards 851 00:38:16,166 --> 00:38:19,200 and onwards and curvingaround and forming a sphere. 852 00:38:19,233 --> 00:38:20,366 {\an1}And that's what we're seeing here. 853 00:38:20,400 --> 00:38:22,333 {\an1}We're seeing this bilayer structure 854 00:38:22,366 --> 00:38:25,366 encapsulating some green-dyed RNA molecules. 855 00:38:25,400 --> 00:38:29,666 {\an8}POGUE: This lipid, bilayer structure isn't alive, 856 00:38:29,700 --> 00:38:32,466 {\an8}but it's familiar to biologists. 857 00:38:32,500 --> 00:38:35,633 {\an7}It's similar to the bilayer structure of the membranes 858 00:38:35,666 --> 00:38:39,933 {\an7}that surrounds something that is alive-- cells. 859 00:38:39,966 --> 00:38:41,933 {\an7}Of course those are much more complicated 860 00:38:41,966 --> 00:38:44,000 {\an7}and more stable containers, 861 00:38:44,033 --> 00:38:46,366 {\an7}better at keeping things in or out, 862 00:38:46,400 --> 00:38:49,800 {\an7}though that feature comes at a price. 863 00:38:49,833 --> 00:38:51,900 {\an1}If you take the membranes that we have now 864 00:38:51,933 --> 00:38:55,266 {\an1}but get rid of all the highly evolved protein machinery, 865 00:38:55,300 --> 00:38:57,433 {\an1}what you're left with is just an inert sack. 866 00:38:57,466 --> 00:38:59,066 {\an1}It can't grow, it can't divide. 867 00:38:59,100 --> 00:39:00,700 {\an1}It can't even get nutrients in and out. 868 00:39:00,733 --> 00:39:04,466 {\an8}POGUE: That's why in the days of proto-life, 869 00:39:04,500 --> 00:39:08,466 {\an8}less-stable membranes built out of simpler molecules like soap 870 00:39:08,500 --> 00:39:11,333 {\an7}may have been an advantage. 871 00:39:11,366 --> 00:39:13,766 {\an1}Anna shows me an example. 872 00:39:13,800 --> 00:39:16,200 So what I'm about to do is I have 873 00:39:16,233 --> 00:39:18,333 some soapy water in here and I'm just going to add it. 874 00:39:18,366 --> 00:39:21,566 ♪ 875 00:39:21,600 --> 00:39:25,366 WANG: What happens is those soap molecules start incorporating 876 00:39:25,400 --> 00:39:27,033 {\an4}onto the existing membrane... Look at this, look at this! 877 00:39:27,066 --> 00:39:29,000 {\an5}Yeah! (chuckles) It just split! 878 00:39:29,033 --> 00:39:30,700 So they look pretty spherical now, 879 00:39:30,733 --> 00:39:32,566 but they're starting to wiggle a bit. 880 00:39:32,600 --> 00:39:34,533 And all of a sudden... 881 00:39:34,566 --> 00:39:38,066 {\an5}it looks like they might melt.Cell division! 882 00:39:38,100 --> 00:39:39,766 {\an5}POGUE: Wow. 883 00:39:39,800 --> 00:39:41,266 {\an1}Our cells grow and divide 884 00:39:41,300 --> 00:39:43,300 {\an1}because we have something giving instructions. 885 00:39:43,333 --> 00:39:44,566 {\an1}Yes. 886 00:39:44,600 --> 00:39:47,333 {\an7}But you're saying that billions of years ago, 887 00:39:47,366 --> 00:39:48,866 {\an7}none of that existed. 888 00:39:48,900 --> 00:39:50,766 {\an1}There's none of that in here,so what we're kind of simulating 889 00:39:50,800 --> 00:39:53,966 {\an1}is a condition where maybe these protocells have 890 00:39:54,000 --> 00:39:55,733 {\an7}floated somewhere down the stream, 891 00:39:55,766 --> 00:40:00,100 {\an7}and they've come across a pool of excess soap molecules, 892 00:40:00,133 --> 00:40:03,800 {\an7}and these soap molecules can join the membrane and grow it. 893 00:40:03,833 --> 00:40:05,233 {\an7}So I think what it means is that 894 00:40:05,266 --> 00:40:07,033 {\an1}we can still get simple cells 895 00:40:07,066 --> 00:40:09,466 {\an1}to divide by purely physical mechanisms, 896 00:40:09,500 --> 00:40:12,233 {\an1}and that's what we're trying to understand in the field, 897 00:40:12,266 --> 00:40:15,666 {\an1}like how do you get to do things that kind of seem like life 898 00:40:15,700 --> 00:40:18,200 and mimic life but without any biology? 899 00:40:18,233 --> 00:40:19,866 ♪ 900 00:40:19,900 --> 00:40:21,166 POGUE: In the early days of Earth, 901 00:40:21,200 --> 00:40:23,200 {\an1}soap or similar molecules 902 00:40:23,233 --> 00:40:27,600 {\an1}may have self-assembled into cell-like containers... 903 00:40:27,633 --> 00:40:28,966 {\an1}POGUE:Did they have the bilayerthing already? 904 00:40:29,000 --> 00:40:30,600 {\an1}They have a bilayer membrane.Yeah. 905 00:40:30,633 --> 00:40:33,866 POGUE: But Jack Szostak realizes that's just a start. 906 00:40:33,900 --> 00:40:38,466 There are many more steps on theroad from chemistry to biology. 907 00:40:38,500 --> 00:40:40,766 Once you got the right kinds of molecules, 908 00:40:40,800 --> 00:40:42,166 {\an1}which are pretty simple, 909 00:40:42,200 --> 00:40:44,633 they can assemble into membranes. 910 00:40:44,666 --> 00:40:48,800 {\an7}But they can't actually start to do anything interesting 911 00:40:48,833 --> 00:40:50,500 {\an7}in terms of, like, getting more complicated 912 00:40:50,533 --> 00:40:53,000 {\an1}and being more, like, more and more advanced life 913 00:40:53,033 --> 00:40:54,600 {\an1}until you have genetics.Yeah. 914 00:40:54,633 --> 00:40:58,933 {\an8}SZOSTAK:You need a hereditary material, something like RNA or DNA. 915 00:40:58,966 --> 00:41:02,500 {\an7}And once you've done that,you have cycles of replication, 916 00:41:02,533 --> 00:41:04,966 {\an7}because that's got to go on inside these protocells. 917 00:41:05,000 --> 00:41:08,066 {\an1}And it's got to happen just by chemistry and physics 918 00:41:08,100 --> 00:41:09,633 {\an1}because there were no enzymes. 919 00:41:09,666 --> 00:41:11,500 {\an1}There was no evolved machinery, right? 920 00:41:11,533 --> 00:41:13,466 So, in a sense, 921 00:41:13,500 --> 00:41:15,466 {\an4}the answer has to be simple.Yeah. 922 00:41:15,500 --> 00:41:18,300 {\an1}And we just have to figure out how it works. 923 00:41:18,333 --> 00:41:19,866 (chuckling) 924 00:41:19,900 --> 00:41:22,033 ♪ 925 00:41:22,066 --> 00:41:23,733 POGUE: Scientists like Jack and Anna 926 00:41:23,766 --> 00:41:25,833 are searching for the mysterious road 927 00:41:25,866 --> 00:41:27,733 {\an1}that led not only to life 928 00:41:27,766 --> 00:41:30,033 {\an1}but to the mechanism that's allowed it 929 00:41:30,066 --> 00:41:32,966 {\an1}to overcome adversity-- evolution. 930 00:41:33,000 --> 00:41:37,900 ♪ 931 00:41:37,933 --> 00:41:40,533 {\an1}Today, some scientists wonder 932 00:41:40,566 --> 00:41:43,933 {\an1}what if we could harness evolution's creative power 933 00:41:43,966 --> 00:41:47,966 {\an1}to solve some of our own challenges? 934 00:41:48,000 --> 00:41:49,100 {\an3}Wow. 935 00:41:49,133 --> 00:41:51,400 FRANCES ARNOLD: Nature is constantly changing. 936 00:41:51,433 --> 00:41:52,700 Hi, boys. 937 00:41:52,733 --> 00:41:56,066 Because there is this tremendous effort to survive. 938 00:41:56,100 --> 00:41:59,933 {\an1}If you can harness that power, that innovation 939 00:41:59,966 --> 00:42:01,866 {\an7}that nature is doing 940 00:42:01,900 --> 00:42:05,666 {\an7}and direct it in a beneficial way, 941 00:42:05,700 --> 00:42:07,500 {\an8}then we can use that power of innovation 942 00:42:07,533 --> 00:42:11,400 {\an1}to solve some of our really tough problems. 943 00:42:11,433 --> 00:42:14,933 POGUE: Harnessing the innovative power of evolution 944 00:42:14,966 --> 00:42:16,400 {\an1}is at the heart of the work 945 00:42:16,433 --> 00:42:19,666 {\an1}of chemical engineer Frances Arnold of Caltech 946 00:42:19,700 --> 00:42:21,700 {\an1}in Pasadena, California. 947 00:42:21,733 --> 00:42:23,633 {\an1}That could be a huge deal in the world. 948 00:42:23,666 --> 00:42:25,166 {\an1}I hope so. 949 00:42:25,200 --> 00:42:28,466 POGUE: And she's used it to engineer new molecules 950 00:42:28,500 --> 00:42:31,533 {\an1}to solve a wide range of problems. 951 00:42:31,566 --> 00:42:34,366 {\an7}From the search for new antibiotics, 952 00:42:34,400 --> 00:42:37,666 {\an7}or methods to convert waste into biofuels, 953 00:42:37,700 --> 00:42:40,166 {\an7}to teaching cells to bond elements 954 00:42:40,200 --> 00:42:42,833 {\an7}in ways never before seen in nature. 955 00:42:43,766 --> 00:42:45,333 ARNOLD:So do come if you're interested 956 00:42:45,366 --> 00:42:47,833 in the process of protein engineering, 957 00:42:47,866 --> 00:42:50,033 {\an1}because that's the future, so all of you 958 00:42:50,066 --> 00:42:51,666 {\an1}who are going to do... 959 00:42:51,700 --> 00:42:53,133 POGUE: She's achieved her successes 960 00:42:53,166 --> 00:42:56,200 {\an1}by discovering new catalysts, 961 00:42:56,233 --> 00:42:58,300 {\an1}the materials that speed up chemical reactions 962 00:42:58,333 --> 00:43:00,733 {\an1}without getting consumed by them. 963 00:43:00,766 --> 00:43:02,700 {\an1}In C edge functionalization... 964 00:43:02,733 --> 00:43:07,966 POGUE: In living things, catalysts are called enzymes-- 965 00:43:08,000 --> 00:43:10,833 for example, the protein rubisco. 966 00:43:10,866 --> 00:43:13,333 {\an1}Enzymes help facilitate the reactions 967 00:43:13,366 --> 00:43:15,300 {\an1}that make life possible. 968 00:43:15,333 --> 00:43:18,200 ARNOLD: The reason that you and I can sit here and talk 969 00:43:18,233 --> 00:43:22,633 {\an1}is that we have thousands of catalysts in us, proteins, 970 00:43:22,666 --> 00:43:24,866 that can convert the food we eat 971 00:43:24,900 --> 00:43:27,600 {\an1}into the thoughts that you think... 972 00:43:27,633 --> 00:43:29,500 {\an1}and the motor mouth, right? (chuckles) 973 00:43:29,533 --> 00:43:32,200 {\an1}These are catalysts that do all this chemistry. 974 00:43:32,233 --> 00:43:34,200 These are chemical transformations 975 00:43:34,233 --> 00:43:36,200 that make life possible. 976 00:43:36,233 --> 00:43:37,733 {\an8}♪ 977 00:43:37,766 --> 00:43:39,700 POGUE: In fact they work so well, 978 00:43:39,733 --> 00:43:42,333 {\an1}engineers and scientists have wanted to find a way 979 00:43:42,366 --> 00:43:44,300 {\an1}to co-opt the idea, 980 00:43:44,333 --> 00:43:47,866 {\an1}to create new enzymes that would do our bidding, 981 00:43:47,900 --> 00:43:50,866 {\an1}assisting reactions that aren't found in nature at all. 982 00:43:50,900 --> 00:43:53,766 {\an1}The question is how? 983 00:43:53,800 --> 00:43:59,266 ARNOLD: Many scientists and engineers feel that 984 00:43:59,300 --> 00:44:01,600 {\an1}in order to design a new product, 985 00:44:01,633 --> 00:44:03,766 {\an1}you sit down and you calculate, 986 00:44:03,800 --> 00:44:07,933 {\an1}you know, the right anglesand the right weights and loads. 987 00:44:07,966 --> 00:44:09,233 {\an1}I come from a different 988 00:44:09,266 --> 00:44:12,533 {\an1}point of view, that these very complicated things 989 00:44:12,566 --> 00:44:14,300 are the products of evolution. 990 00:44:14,333 --> 00:44:17,933 {\an1}So I say, "Let's just go straight to the answer, 991 00:44:17,966 --> 00:44:21,366 {\an1}using this gift given to us." 992 00:44:21,400 --> 00:44:25,100 ♪ 993 00:44:25,133 --> 00:44:26,500 POGUE: Frances uses an approach 994 00:44:26,533 --> 00:44:28,000 {\an1}called directed evolution. 995 00:44:28,033 --> 00:44:31,833 ARNOLD: One way to think about directing evolution, 996 00:44:31,866 --> 00:44:34,500 {\an1}is it's like breeding. 997 00:44:34,533 --> 00:44:37,133 {\an1}It's like breeding cats or dogs. 998 00:44:37,166 --> 00:44:38,766 {\an8}♪ 999 00:44:38,800 --> 00:44:42,700 POGUE: With a specific end goal in mind, 1000 00:44:42,733 --> 00:44:44,533 {\an1}She starts with DNA 1001 00:44:44,566 --> 00:44:46,833 {\an1}that encodes for some protein catalysts 1002 00:44:46,866 --> 00:44:49,266 {\an1}that have some promising traits, 1003 00:44:49,300 --> 00:44:51,066 {\an1}depending on what she's looking for. 1004 00:44:51,100 --> 00:44:57,300 {\an1}The DNA gets copied in a waythat produces random mutations. 1005 00:44:57,333 --> 00:45:00,466 {\an1}She puts that into microorganisms that multiply 1006 00:45:00,500 --> 00:45:04,100 {\an1}and produce a variety of slightly different proteins. 1007 00:45:04,133 --> 00:45:05,900 ARNOLD: So you have a gene, 1008 00:45:05,933 --> 00:45:08,933 {\an1}the organism reads the gene, makes the proteins, 1009 00:45:08,966 --> 00:45:10,333 and they're all slightly different, 1010 00:45:10,366 --> 00:45:12,266 {\an1}just like your children... (laughs) 1011 00:45:12,300 --> 00:45:16,333 but now I can decide who goes on to parent the next generation 1012 00:45:16,366 --> 00:45:20,166 {\an1}because I measure what those proteins do. 1013 00:45:20,200 --> 00:45:22,366 POGUE: Frances tests the results 1014 00:45:22,400 --> 00:45:25,033 {\an1}to see if any represent a step in the right direction. 1015 00:45:25,066 --> 00:45:26,733 {\an1}If so, that becomes 1016 00:45:26,766 --> 00:45:31,566 {\an1}the new starting point, and she repeats the process. 1017 00:45:33,733 --> 00:45:36,733 ARNOLD:To see how quickly you can train 1018 00:45:36,766 --> 00:45:39,033 {\an1}enzymes, that's what we're doing, we're training them, 1019 00:45:39,066 --> 00:45:40,300 {\an1}we're breeding them... 1020 00:45:40,333 --> 00:45:45,000 {\an1}to do something that perhaps nature never did before. 1021 00:45:45,033 --> 00:45:48,200 {\an1}When you discover that they've learned how to do that 1022 00:45:48,233 --> 00:45:52,766 {\an1}and they do it better than anyhuman can do, it is so exciting. 1023 00:45:52,800 --> 00:45:55,033 {\an1}♪ 1024 00:45:55,066 --> 00:45:59,600 POGUE: To see how directed evolution can work outside the lab... 1025 00:45:59,633 --> 00:46:01,466 {\an1}Farming has always been about increasing productivity. 1026 00:46:01,500 --> 00:46:03,266 POGUE: ...Frances suggested that I contact 1027 00:46:03,300 --> 00:46:06,900 {\an1}one of her former students, Pedro Coelho. 1028 00:46:06,933 --> 00:46:08,833 {\an1}Along with a partner, 1029 00:46:08,866 --> 00:46:12,133 {\an1}she and Pedro founded a company Provivi, 1030 00:46:12,166 --> 00:46:13,900 {\an1}based in Santa Monica. 1031 00:46:13,933 --> 00:46:17,400 {\an1}Pedro is the CEO. 1032 00:46:17,433 --> 00:46:21,533 {\an1}Provivi makes a chemical to fight this agricultural pest, 1033 00:46:21,566 --> 00:46:24,466 {\an1}the fall army worm. 1034 00:46:24,500 --> 00:46:26,600 COELHO: It's a pest that is native to the Americas, 1035 00:46:26,633 --> 00:46:30,500 {\an1}but in the last three years, it's invaded all of Africa 1036 00:46:30,533 --> 00:46:31,833 and now, all of Asia, 1037 00:46:31,866 --> 00:46:33,933 {\an7}going from India to China, 1038 00:46:33,966 --> 00:46:36,433 {\an7}and it's a very difficult pest to control 1039 00:46:36,466 --> 00:46:38,866 because once it infests the corn, 1040 00:46:38,900 --> 00:46:41,433 {\an1}it hides inside the corn plant 1041 00:46:41,466 --> 00:46:44,533 {\an1}where the insecticides can't touch it. 1042 00:46:44,566 --> 00:46:45,933 ♪ 1043 00:46:45,966 --> 00:46:49,166 POGUE: But Provivi's chemical isn't a pesticide, 1044 00:46:49,200 --> 00:46:50,866 {\an1}it doesn't kill anything. 1045 00:46:52,400 --> 00:46:56,833 {\an1}Instead it disrupts the way fall army worms mate. 1046 00:46:56,866 --> 00:46:58,866 {\an1}Here's how it works: 1047 00:46:58,900 --> 00:47:03,000 {\an7}Fall army worms eventually become adult moths, 1048 00:47:03,033 --> 00:47:05,333 {\an7}and that's when they mate. 1049 00:47:05,366 --> 00:47:09,566 {\an7}To attract males, female moths release a pheromone, 1050 00:47:09,600 --> 00:47:14,300 {\an7}a molecule that acts as a chemical signal. 1051 00:47:14,333 --> 00:47:17,000 {\an7}So the female moth will release a little bit of pheromone, 1052 00:47:17,033 --> 00:47:20,166 {\an1}and then the male will pick up that signal with his antenna 1053 00:47:20,200 --> 00:47:24,333 {\an1}and will fly towards her to mate and reproduce. 1054 00:47:24,366 --> 00:47:30,166 POGUE: She uses only a small amount, but it's incredibly potent. 1055 00:47:30,200 --> 00:47:34,100 {\an1}It can attract males from up to a mile away. 1056 00:47:34,133 --> 00:47:35,866 ARNOLD:These are complicated molecules. 1057 00:47:35,900 --> 00:47:38,066 These are the Chanel No. 5 1058 00:47:38,100 --> 00:47:40,466 of insects. (laughter) 1059 00:47:40,500 --> 00:47:44,700 POGUE: But such a powerful "sex perfume" 1060 00:47:44,733 --> 00:47:47,833 {\an1}can become a means of control. 1061 00:47:47,866 --> 00:47:51,433 {\an1}So imagine, now, you come with a bottle of Chanel No. 5 1062 00:47:51,466 --> 00:47:53,166 {\an1}and you spray it everywhere. 1063 00:47:53,200 --> 00:47:55,133 {\an1}(spritzing sound effect) 1064 00:47:55,166 --> 00:47:56,933 ARNOLD: Then he can't find her, 1065 00:47:56,966 --> 00:48:01,666 {\an1}and they don't mate and have caterpillars. 1066 00:48:01,700 --> 00:48:02,933 ♪ 1067 00:48:02,966 --> 00:48:04,666 POGUE: Provivi has figured out 1068 00:48:04,700 --> 00:48:08,033 how to replicate the fall army pheromone, 1069 00:48:08,066 --> 00:48:11,700 {\an1}and put it into a slow release spray for crops. 1070 00:48:11,733 --> 00:48:13,566 {\an1}Which you have to imagine 1071 00:48:13,600 --> 00:48:16,633 {\an1}is very confusing for the male moths. 1072 00:48:16,666 --> 00:48:19,600 {\an1}They have so much trouble finding females 1073 00:48:19,633 --> 00:48:23,766 {\an1}that in the end there are fewer eggs, and worms. 1074 00:48:23,800 --> 00:48:26,000 {\an7}So you're not killing these things, 1075 00:48:26,033 --> 00:48:28,333 {\an7}and you're not driving them away, 1076 00:48:28,366 --> 00:48:29,800 {\an7}you're just confusing them? 1077 00:48:29,833 --> 00:48:34,266 {\an1}Yeah, so it's not a repellant, and it's not a kill agent, 1078 00:48:34,300 --> 00:48:36,866 {\an1}it's simply a mating disruptor. 1079 00:48:36,900 --> 00:48:39,300 ♪ 1080 00:48:39,333 --> 00:48:43,366 POGUE:Pedro tells me using pheromones to combat pests isn't new. 1081 00:48:45,433 --> 00:48:47,100 But until now, it's been expensive, 1082 00:48:47,133 --> 00:48:50,833 {\an1}and therefore limited to high-value smaller crops 1083 00:48:50,866 --> 00:48:53,833 {\an1}like apples or grapes. 1084 00:48:53,866 --> 00:48:57,333 {\an1}So the real breakthrough at Provivi isn't using pheromones 1085 00:48:57,366 --> 00:49:00,366 {\an1}but making them inexpensively. 1086 00:49:00,400 --> 00:49:04,966 {\an1}They've studied the enzyme catalysts the insect uses 1087 00:49:05,000 --> 00:49:06,600 {\an1}to make the pheromone, 1088 00:49:06,633 --> 00:49:12,466 {\an1}and moved the genes for those enzyme catalysts into yeast. 1089 00:49:12,500 --> 00:49:14,900 {\an1}Then, through directed evolution, 1090 00:49:14,933 --> 00:49:17,966 {\an1}they optimize those little yeast cell factories 1091 00:49:18,000 --> 00:49:21,433 {\an1}for larger scale production in vessels similar 1092 00:49:21,466 --> 00:49:24,133 {\an1}to those used for brewing beer. 1093 00:49:24,166 --> 00:49:25,633 (machine beeps) 1094 00:49:25,666 --> 00:49:28,333 COELHO: And the key is that by just changing the microbe, 1095 00:49:28,366 --> 00:49:29,900 {\an1}we can make many different pheromones 1096 00:49:29,933 --> 00:49:31,433 {\an1}but using the same infrastructure, 1097 00:49:31,466 --> 00:49:33,166 {\an1}which gives us the economies of scale 1098 00:49:33,200 --> 00:49:35,300 {\an1}and should make this cost effective. 1099 00:49:35,333 --> 00:49:37,500 POGUE: Making it possible to use 1100 00:49:37,533 --> 00:49:39,733 on staple crops grown around the world, 1101 00:49:39,766 --> 00:49:41,133 like corn, 1102 00:49:41,166 --> 00:49:42,933 and rice. 1103 00:49:42,966 --> 00:49:44,766 COELHO: Our mission very much 1104 00:49:44,800 --> 00:49:46,866 {\an1}is to take this proven tool of pheromones 1105 00:49:46,900 --> 00:49:49,133 {\an1}to the largest markets of agriculture, 1106 00:49:49,166 --> 00:49:51,300 {\an1}which are the staples of humankind. 1107 00:49:51,333 --> 00:49:54,533 ♪ 1108 00:49:54,566 --> 00:49:57,200 POGUE: Companies like Provivi aren't the only sign 1109 00:49:57,233 --> 00:50:00,033 {\an1}that directed evolution and cell factories 1110 00:50:00,066 --> 00:50:03,733 {\an1}are having a big impact on manufacturing. 1111 00:50:03,766 --> 00:50:08,066 {\an1}Well, I teach this course called Reaction Engineering 1112 00:50:08,100 --> 00:50:10,200 which is how do you take chemical reactions 1113 00:50:10,233 --> 00:50:11,866 and scale them up? 1114 00:50:11,900 --> 00:50:17,400 POGUE: In 2018, Frances Arnold won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1115 00:50:17,433 --> 00:50:21,633 {\an1}for her pioneering work in directed evolution. 1116 00:50:21,666 --> 00:50:22,933 Is this idea 1117 00:50:22,966 --> 00:50:25,200 of chemistry and biology 1118 00:50:25,233 --> 00:50:27,400 to manufacture stuff, 1119 00:50:27,433 --> 00:50:30,533 is that catchingon these days? 1120 00:50:30,566 --> 00:50:33,000 It is, it most definitely is. 1121 00:50:33,033 --> 00:50:36,700 {\an1}I think the future is so exciting, 1122 00:50:36,733 --> 00:50:39,766 {\an1}because now what happens is with these tools 1123 00:50:39,800 --> 00:50:43,233 {\an1}of being able to manipulate DNA, 1124 00:50:43,266 --> 00:50:45,566 {\an1}and the code of life, really, 1125 00:50:45,600 --> 00:50:50,066 we can now merge all these beautiful mechanisms 1126 00:50:50,100 --> 00:50:51,700 of the biological world 1127 00:50:51,733 --> 00:50:54,466 with the inventions of human chemistry. 1128 00:50:54,500 --> 00:50:58,633 And that way, it merges in new innovations. 1129 00:50:58,666 --> 00:51:02,000 ♪ 1130 00:51:02,033 --> 00:51:05,300 POGUE: That both chemists and biologists have a lot to learn 1131 00:51:05,333 --> 00:51:08,766 {\an1}from each other should come as no surprise. 1132 00:51:10,133 --> 00:51:12,266 {\an1}But what is surprising is that 1133 00:51:12,300 --> 00:51:15,266 {\an1}biology would arise out of chemistry at all. 1134 00:51:15,300 --> 00:51:16,633 {\an1}Look at this, look at this! 1135 00:51:16,666 --> 00:51:18,033 {\an1}Cell division! 1136 00:51:18,066 --> 00:51:20,866 {\an1}(dramatic voice): The blueprints of life! 1137 00:51:20,900 --> 00:51:24,133 {\an1}The origin of life remains one of the great 1138 00:51:24,166 --> 00:51:27,200 {\an1}unsolved mysteries of science. 1139 00:51:27,233 --> 00:51:29,566 {\an1}Was the mix of chemicals on early Earth 1140 00:51:29,600 --> 00:51:32,266 {\an1}destined to give rise to life? 1141 00:51:32,300 --> 00:51:33,633 {\an1}And once it started, 1142 00:51:33,666 --> 00:51:36,900 {\an1}was the road that lead to the chemical complexity 1143 00:51:36,933 --> 00:51:38,366 {\an1}of photosynthesis 1144 00:51:38,400 --> 00:51:41,466 {\an1}and the harnessing of the power of the sun... 1145 00:51:41,500 --> 00:51:43,300 {\an1}Probably the most important process on the planet. 1146 00:51:43,333 --> 00:51:46,400 POGUE: ...the only road to be taken? 1147 00:51:46,433 --> 00:51:51,066 {\an1}Are we alone in the universe? 1148 00:51:51,100 --> 00:51:56,000 {\an1}Or just the local branch of cosmic bio-chem? 1149 00:51:56,033 --> 00:51:59,700 {\an1}The answers to questions like these will be found 1150 00:51:59,733 --> 00:52:02,400 {\an1}only through science... 1151 00:52:02,433 --> 00:52:05,833 {\an1}as we go beyond the elements. 1152 00:52:05,866 --> 00:52:08,966 ♪ 1153 00:52:33,100 --> 00:52:37,733 {\an8}♪ 1154 00:52:48,800 --> 00:52:52,733 {\an7}To order this program on DVD, visit ShopPBS 1155 00:52:52,766 --> 00:52:56,100 {\an7}or call 1-800-PLAY-PBS. 1156 00:52:56,133 --> 00:52:58,766 {\an7}Episodes of "NOVA" are available with Passport. 1157 00:52:58,800 --> 00:53:02,566 {\an7}"NOVA" is also available on Amazon Prime Video. 1158 00:53:02,600 --> 00:53:07,700 {\an8}♪ 91644

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