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The 20th century was a time
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of incredible change.
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(shouting in a foreign language)
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Unspeakable horrors.
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And amazing leaps of scientific discovery.
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It was a century marked by events
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that united and divided us,
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from great feats to great wars.
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(booming)
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With advancements and setbacks
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that showed us that power of many, the power of one.
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I have a dream.
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A century of revolutions,
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evolutions,
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and retributions.
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He's been shot!
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A century made by conflicts and crimes,
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inventions and entertainment,
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politics,
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protests,
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discoveries,
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and disasters.
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Oh the humanity!
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We will count down
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the 101 events of the 20th century.
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Their stories form the tapestries of our history
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and shape the world in which we live.
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(dramatic music)
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In this episode ...
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It's the first time, really, the whole of the population
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were drawn into the business of war.
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But it created also a broader accessibility to culture.
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It created an early form of our information society.
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It completely transformed our understanding
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and expectations of life and death.
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(delicate music)
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1960s America was a new Camelot,
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a time of regeneration and expansion,
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a nation looking with hope to the future,
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and out to the stars.
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But that dream will be shattered
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on a sunny afternoon in Dallas.
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(sobbing)
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My fellow citizens of the world,
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ask not what America will do for you
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but what together we can do for the freedom of man.
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(crowd applauding)
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John Fitzgerald Kennedy was young, smart,
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charming, and he had a young family of his own.
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He brought the American people a sense
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that they were being listened to
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and represented in his short presidential term.
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Firstly, of course, he is a very charismatic president.
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He succeeds Eisenhower, who was the oldest man
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to have held office at that time.
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And he himself is the youngest elected president.
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So it's a symbolic passing of the torch between generations.
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Kennedy promises a kind of new leadership.
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Everywhere he went,
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crowds gathered to see the man
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who held a world's weight lightly on young soldiers.
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The events on the 22nd of November, 1963
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left the American people reeling.
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They lost their president in a very public shooting.
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During a motorcade through Dallas,
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the local residents were filming the excitement
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as John and Jacqueline Kennedy drove through the streets.
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They caught the action on film.
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Its bumpy nature depicts the shocked reaction
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of the one holding the camera.
(gun popping)
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Kennedy falls forward in the convertible.
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And his panicked wife tries to help her fallen husband.
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Taken to hospital, the president
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was pronounced dead 30 minutes later.
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A shocked nation weeps.
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Across the country, around the world,
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disbelief was the first reaction,
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then a great outpouring of grief, shock, and revulsion.
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90 minutes after the attack,
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in a movie theater a few blocks from the scene,
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Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested.
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Against the wall.
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These people have given me a hearing
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without legal representation or anything.
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Did you shoot the president?
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I didn't shoot anybody.
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No, sir.
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Oswald worked in the book depository
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on the cavalcade route from which the shot had come.
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Equally as fast, aboard the jet leaving Dallas,
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Vice President Lyndon Johnson,
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standing beside Jackie Kennedy, in her blood-stained dress,
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was sworn in as president.
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America was still in shock about the day's events
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when Oswald was shot dead on live television.
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(gun firing)
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He's been shot!
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He's been shot!
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Lee Oswald has been shot!
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48 hours and seven minutes
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after the president's death, his accused slayer is dead.
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The killer, a dance hall owner named Jack Ruby,
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was arrested, tried, sentenced to death, and died in prison.
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Americans stayed home to watch
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the blanket television coverage
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on a national day of mourning following the tragedy,
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feeling the death of their leader and the loss of hope
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he had represented for their nation.
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How 'bout you, sir?
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What is your reaction?
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He's the best man we ever had.
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Believe me.
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And I'm very sorry.
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What was your reaction?
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Well we were just completely shocked.
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I think that the American people
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have just suffered a great loss.
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It was just such a terrible thing.
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Their grieving was shared by much of the world.
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Less than three years after taking office,
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his body was brought back to Washington to lie in state,
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and the world mourned for a man
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who had given the world new hope.
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The confusion that swept over the nation
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as America tried to understand
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each piece of the news in this short period
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has fueled conspiracy theories ever since.
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This man, Mark Lane,
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has been asking for a fresh inquiry.
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He's always claimed that five bullets were fired,
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at least two of which came from the front,
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which means at least two gunmen, and therefore a conspiracy.
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The more we know now, the more likely it was
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that Lee Harvey Oswald acted alone.
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But 50 years of less than conclusive evidence
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breeds conspiracy ideas, and there are always books
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and films to be made on who killed JFK.
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Shock waves from the Kennedy assassination
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continued throughout the 20th century.
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The feeling that something was being hidden,
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the mystique of the Kennedy clan,
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the allure of Jackie all remain prominent.
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Whether John F. Kennedy, as a president,
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would have defined the age in which he lived
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will never be known.
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But his death is one of the great
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punctuation points of this century.
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(cheering)
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(dramatic music)
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On a June morning in 1914, a shot was fired.
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It will begin a chain of events that would lead
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to one of the bloodiest conflicts in human history.
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(dramatic music)
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At the start of 1914, much of the globe
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was divided into spheres of influence.
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In each sphere was one of the great empires
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supported by a complex system of alliances.
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On the morning of the 28th of June,
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Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne
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of the great Austro-Hungarian Empire,
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was visiting the Bosnian capital, Sarajevo.
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It was not a popular visit.
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A Serbian-backed Bosnian independence group,
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the Black Hand, planned an attack.
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When the Archduke's car paused to change gear
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outside a cafe, a Bosnian nationalist, Gavrilo Princip,
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stepped from the crowd and fired shots
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that killed the archduke and his wife Sophie.
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From a pistol shot at Sarajevo,
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the first of the great modern world wars exploded.
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The first thing that the assassination did, of course,
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is force Austria's hand; Austria needed to react.
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The intention is to punish Serbia.
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The question is how do you do it,
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and if you do it, there's a danger that Russia,
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who is allied to Serbia, will respond,
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and so they needed German support.
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The went to Germany and they said,
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"Look, we're planning to take action.
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"Will you support us?"
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German gave effectively a blank check,
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saying whatever happens, even if Russia
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goes to war with you as a result of this, we'll support you.
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Austria declared war on Serbia,
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who called on Russia's support,
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and the old system of alliances came to life.
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(dramatic music)
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Russia called on its ally, France.
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Germany, to confront France, invaded Belgium,
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whose neutrality had been pledged by Britain.
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And she and her empire entered the conflict
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on August the 4th.
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The world was at war.
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The Great War, the war to end all wars,
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unleashed a scale of conflict and devastation
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unprecedented in human history.
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War.
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It seemed as though the whole earth
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had gone mad with the spirit of blood-lust.
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Human life seemed as nothing, the cheapest thing
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with which to satisfy the insatiable hunger
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of the gods of war.
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It was also the first war that civilians
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were actually targeted behind the lines by bombers.
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This was the first war where you had airplanes.
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Cities were bombed in the UK.
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London was bombed by zeppelins.
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We bombed German cities.
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And so it was the first time, really,
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the whole of the population
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were drawn into the business of war.
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Or since history began, the gods of Mars
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had never given humans such incredible power.
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Never had war taken such a devastating toll.
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The war that had happened
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in such a sudden and seemingly careless way
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that a century later historians
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still argue about its causes,
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it did much more than change military tactics;
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it changed the map of the world and the balance of power.
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Permanently.
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In 1917, the United States of America entered the war.
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And when the war was over, it having impoverished
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the great states of Europe, the USA found itself
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the wealthiest and most powerful nation on Earth.
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Russia imploded after disastrous campaigns
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on the eastern front.
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The Romanovs, who had ruled
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for hundreds of years, were gone.
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The revolutionary government
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was overthrown by the Bolsheviks.
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And they made peace with Germany
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so they could focus on the civil war
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out of which would come the USSR.
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The Ottoman Empire fell.
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The Austro-Hungarian Empire was dismantled.
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And Germany was defeated.
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Kaiser Wilhelm abdicated, an armistice was signed,
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and the guns finally fell silent
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on the 11th hour of the 11th of November, 1918.
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German troops were still on foreign soil,
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and they were unwittingly setting the scene
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for the rise of the dictators barely a decade later.
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Could all that be because a teenager named Gavrilo Princip
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emptied his revolver on a Sarajevo side street?
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You could argue that the First World War
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and the conditions of peace in the 1920s and 1930s
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led directly to the Second World War,
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and that of course led to the Cold War,
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and ultimately, really, a lot of the situation,
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geopolitical situation we find in the world today
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you can trace all the way back to the First World War
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and the assassination that caused it.
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(upbeat electronic music)
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From a prototype built in a garage
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would come one of the greatest
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technological revolutions in human history.
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The rise of a device and a company
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that would forever change the way we communicate.
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The word "computer" was first used in the 17th century
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to refer to someone who performed calculations.
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By the Second World War, machines like Colossus
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were being used to break enemy code
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and read encrypted messages.
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2,000 electronic tubes,
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several thousand relays, 150 motors,
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and about 200 miles of wire
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are contained in this intricate apparatus.
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These were large, static machines
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that weighed tons and occupied entire rooms or buildings.
271
00:12:57,120 --> 00:12:59,430
First transistors, and then microchips
272
00:12:59,430 --> 00:13:00,950
saw the development of smaller,
273
00:13:00,950 --> 00:13:04,200
faster, more productive machines.
274
00:13:04,200 --> 00:13:06,120
In the '70s, the silicon chip
275
00:13:06,120 --> 00:13:10,230
became the basis of a new generation of computerized devices
276
00:13:10,230 --> 00:13:12,090
that looked sure to create a social
277
00:13:12,090 --> 00:13:14,680
and industrial revolution as profound
278
00:13:14,680 --> 00:13:18,373
as that of the first machine age nearly 200 years ago.
279
00:13:19,250 --> 00:13:21,350
Photocopier company Xerox
280
00:13:21,350 --> 00:13:24,043
created a prototype in 1973.
281
00:13:24,990 --> 00:13:27,710
An individual unit that had mouse control,
282
00:13:27,710 --> 00:13:31,680
a graphic user interface, and an ethernet connection.
283
00:13:31,680 --> 00:13:34,440
Xerox Alto, that's the computer that Steve Jobs
284
00:13:34,440 --> 00:13:37,650
and Bill Gates saw to get their idea,
285
00:13:37,650 --> 00:13:40,210
their visions for Apple and Microsoft.
286
00:13:40,210 --> 00:13:43,460
Just before the release of the Apple I,
287
00:13:43,460 --> 00:13:47,790
personal computing was essentially a hobby activity
288
00:13:47,790 --> 00:13:52,203
for a group of kind of dedicated electronic hobbyists.
289
00:13:53,330 --> 00:13:56,850
And the Apple I really changed
290
00:13:56,850 --> 00:13:59,540
that aspect of personal computing.
291
00:13:59,540 --> 00:14:02,710
First demonstrated in May 1976,
292
00:14:02,710 --> 00:14:07,013
the Apple company sold the Apple I for $666.66,
293
00:14:08,870 --> 00:14:12,400
before replacing it in 1977 with the more practical
294
00:14:12,400 --> 00:14:14,560
and user-friendly Apple II.
295
00:14:14,560 --> 00:14:15,900
And when you look at an Apple II,
296
00:14:15,900 --> 00:14:18,800
what you're seeing is a fully finished example
297
00:14:18,800 --> 00:14:20,700
of industrial design.
298
00:14:20,700 --> 00:14:23,850
It is a packaged, commercial product
299
00:14:23,850 --> 00:14:25,490
ready to go to the consumer.
300
00:14:25,490 --> 00:14:28,180
It's got a built-in interface, keyboard.
301
00:14:28,180 --> 00:14:31,040
It could be hooked up to a color monitor.
302
00:14:31,040 --> 00:14:34,380
And that actually became an industry standard then
303
00:14:34,380 --> 00:14:36,940
for a lot of business applications
304
00:14:36,940 --> 00:14:38,890
and really set the tone for personal
305
00:14:38,890 --> 00:14:42,063
and business computing afterwards.
306
00:14:43,100 --> 00:14:45,270
By the 1980s, computers
307
00:14:45,270 --> 00:14:47,690
were sophisticated enough to hid their complex
308
00:14:47,690 --> 00:14:50,963
technical aspects behind a user-friendly interface.
309
00:14:53,050 --> 00:14:56,260
Individuals could afford and understand computers,
310
00:14:56,260 --> 00:14:58,700
and the revolution was reaching every town,
311
00:14:58,700 --> 00:15:00,743
home, school, and workplace.
312
00:15:01,930 --> 00:15:04,110
Now, when I was a boy, an apple
313
00:15:04,110 --> 00:15:06,010
was something you brought the teacher.
314
00:15:06,910 --> 00:15:09,180
Today, you learn on an Apple.
315
00:15:09,180 --> 00:15:11,020
The computer essentially took
316
00:15:11,020 --> 00:15:15,290
all of the communications technologies and revolutions
317
00:15:15,290 --> 00:15:17,730
that had occurred in the 19th and 20th century,
318
00:15:17,730 --> 00:15:21,090
and bundled them together in one box.
319
00:15:21,090 --> 00:15:26,090
And I think it's really difficult to fully understand
320
00:15:26,370 --> 00:15:30,970
just what a great impact that's had on people's lives.
321
00:15:30,970 --> 00:15:33,960
But certainly in terms of the internet
322
00:15:33,960 --> 00:15:37,050
and the World Wide Web, that's had an enormous impact
323
00:15:37,050 --> 00:15:40,023
on society that we are still living today.
324
00:15:41,120 --> 00:15:42,910
The stage was set for computers
325
00:15:42,910 --> 00:15:46,313
and digital technology to become completely mobile.
326
00:15:48,540 --> 00:15:51,890
Work being conducted in the last few years of the 1990s
327
00:15:51,890 --> 00:15:56,400
at Apple created small, light devices with all the functions
328
00:15:56,400 --> 00:15:59,313
of the gigantic computers form the 1950s.
329
00:16:00,630 --> 00:16:03,410
We arrive at the age of the smart device.
330
00:16:03,410 --> 00:16:06,170
We see how a 20th century revolution
331
00:16:06,170 --> 00:16:09,480
set up the dominant image of the 21st century.
332
00:16:13,860 --> 00:16:17,400
(dramatic electronic music)
333
00:16:17,400 --> 00:16:20,680
Almost a century after the end of the Civil War,
334
00:16:20,680 --> 00:16:24,253
inequality and racial segregation persisted in America.
335
00:16:26,030 --> 00:16:28,650
The Civil Rights Movement needed a voice,
336
00:16:28,650 --> 00:16:31,718
one strong enough to make people listen.
337
00:16:31,718 --> 00:16:33,719
[Martin Luther King, Jr] I have a dream today!
338
00:16:33,719 --> 00:16:36,469
(crowd cheering)
339
00:16:38,890 --> 00:16:42,290
At the March on Washington in 1963,
340
00:16:42,290 --> 00:16:44,840
protesters from all over America came together
341
00:16:44,840 --> 00:16:47,523
against discrimination and segregation.
342
00:16:48,380 --> 00:16:49,370
They come by train.
343
00:16:49,370 --> 00:16:50,960
They come by bus and by air.
344
00:16:50,960 --> 00:16:54,170
They come from the north, the south, the east and west.
345
00:16:54,170 --> 00:16:55,660
Few realize that, in a sense,
346
00:16:55,660 --> 00:16:58,850
they are participants in an historical day.
347
00:16:58,850 --> 00:17:01,090
16 speakers address the crowd,
348
00:17:01,090 --> 00:17:03,200
but it was the words of the last to speak
349
00:17:03,200 --> 00:17:05,823
that would resonate then and through the years.
350
00:17:07,060 --> 00:17:10,320
He was Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
351
00:17:10,320 --> 00:17:13,080
Well I think, first of all, that was his largest audience.
352
00:17:13,080 --> 00:17:17,060
I was among the people who were there, by the way, in 1963.
353
00:17:17,060 --> 00:17:19,610
So it was the biggest demonstration yet
354
00:17:19,610 --> 00:17:22,591
of the civil rights struggle.
355
00:17:22,591 --> 00:17:26,640
And Martin Luther King delivered the concluding speech.
356
00:17:26,640 --> 00:17:28,440
And the fact that he was selected for that role
357
00:17:28,440 --> 00:17:31,360
says something about his reputation as an orator.
358
00:17:31,360 --> 00:17:32,810
And there's a great swell of cheers
359
00:17:32,810 --> 00:17:35,180
to welcome Martin Luther King to the speaker's podium,
360
00:17:35,180 --> 00:17:38,793
a man who stands as a symbol of all they are fighting for.
361
00:17:40,980 --> 00:17:42,380
When he started to speak,
362
00:17:42,380 --> 00:17:44,350
King read from his notes.
363
00:17:44,350 --> 00:17:47,240
They were important words about the need for change.
364
00:17:47,240 --> 00:17:50,470
The prepared speech was really about the American ideals
365
00:17:50,470 --> 00:17:53,280
expressed in the Declaration of Independence:
366
00:17:53,280 --> 00:17:55,560
life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness,
367
00:17:55,560 --> 00:17:58,620
that that should be the right of all people.
368
00:17:58,620 --> 00:18:02,290
His question, then, is have we lived up to that?
369
00:18:02,290 --> 00:18:03,800
Then something changed.
370
00:18:03,800 --> 00:18:06,780
King all but abandoned his notes.
371
00:18:06,780 --> 00:18:08,320
He started to preach.
372
00:18:08,320 --> 00:18:11,010
When he finished that prepared remarks,
373
00:18:11,010 --> 00:18:14,970
then I think he felt this needed to be something more,
374
00:18:14,970 --> 00:18:17,500
and that something more was,
375
00:18:17,500 --> 00:18:21,150
if we do live up to that promise, he envisioned a world
376
00:18:21,150 --> 00:18:24,550
that was quite different from the world in 1963.
377
00:18:24,550 --> 00:18:25,983
I have a dream ...
378
00:18:27,168 --> 00:18:28,097
that one day ...
379
00:18:29,460 --> 00:18:31,993
this nation will rise up ...
380
00:18:33,333 --> 00:18:35,533
and live out the true meaning of his creeds.
381
00:18:36,620 --> 00:18:39,147
We hold these truths to be self-evident,
382
00:18:39,990 --> 00:18:42,054
that all men are created equal.
383
00:18:42,054 --> 00:18:43,040
(cheering)
384
00:18:43,040 --> 00:18:46,710
King's intensity revitalized the sleepy crowd.
385
00:18:46,710 --> 00:18:49,590
His words infected them with his dream
386
00:18:49,590 --> 00:18:51,557
and brought new fervor to the cause.
387
00:18:51,557 --> 00:18:53,343
'Cause I have a dream ...
388
00:18:54,180 --> 00:18:56,213
my poor little children ...
389
00:18:57,870 --> 00:18:59,240
will one day live in a nation
390
00:18:59,240 --> 00:19:02,600
where they will not be judged by the color of their skin
391
00:19:02,600 --> 00:19:04,780
but by the content of their character.
392
00:19:04,780 --> 00:19:06,589
I have a dream today!
393
00:19:06,589 --> 00:19:08,330
(cheering and applauding)
394
00:19:08,330 --> 00:19:11,270
But I think what made the speech really special
395
00:19:11,270 --> 00:19:14,230
was that it, you needed to express a vision
396
00:19:14,230 --> 00:19:18,530
for what might happen if we did live up to those ideals
397
00:19:18,530 --> 00:19:22,880
and give that dream, that vision,
398
00:19:22,880 --> 00:19:27,100
substance by describing an America beyond race.
399
00:19:27,100 --> 00:19:28,520
Free at last, free at last!
400
00:19:29,964 --> 00:19:32,789
Thank God almighty we are free at last!
401
00:19:32,789 --> 00:19:35,039
(cheering)
402
00:19:38,340 --> 00:19:40,150
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
403
00:19:40,150 --> 00:19:43,710
was speaking of discrimination against African Americans,
404
00:19:43,710 --> 00:19:45,790
but the spirit of the speech endures
405
00:19:45,790 --> 00:19:48,490
because it can be used to defend human rights
406
00:19:48,490 --> 00:19:51,203
and the fight against any injustice anywhere.
407
00:19:52,850 --> 00:19:55,400
King's galvanizing speech influenced the passing
408
00:19:55,400 --> 00:19:58,700
of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
409
00:19:58,700 --> 00:20:01,743
and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
410
00:20:03,000 --> 00:20:04,820
Many of us who were there
411
00:20:04,820 --> 00:20:06,770
thought that the march was about getting
412
00:20:06,770 --> 00:20:10,580
the Kennedy civil rights bill through Congress.
413
00:20:10,580 --> 00:20:13,900
And he's saying, yeah, that's important,
414
00:20:13,900 --> 00:20:18,130
but what's really important is realizing
415
00:20:18,130 --> 00:20:21,203
the basic ideals on which this nation was based.
416
00:20:23,270 --> 00:20:27,510
And his last book, Where Do We Go From Here?,
417
00:20:27,510 --> 00:20:31,460
is written in 1967, so it's after the passage
418
00:20:31,460 --> 00:20:34,240
of major civil rights legislation,
419
00:20:34,240 --> 00:20:38,070
but he's still asking where do we go from here,
420
00:20:38,070 --> 00:20:40,740
and I think we still need to ask that question.
421
00:20:40,740 --> 00:20:42,113
Where do we go from here?
422
00:20:46,604 --> 00:20:49,354
(dramatic music)
423
00:20:51,500 --> 00:20:54,560
In the early 1900s, scientists and inventors
424
00:20:54,560 --> 00:20:56,930
were looking for faster ways of communicating
425
00:20:56,930 --> 00:20:58,333
across long distances.
426
00:21:00,060 --> 00:21:03,350
The result would usher in the age of broadcasting,
427
00:21:03,350 --> 00:21:05,630
bringing the world into people's homes,
428
00:21:05,630 --> 00:21:09,516
from sitcoms and soap operas to news on the hour.
429
00:21:09,516 --> 00:21:12,349
(radio crackling)
430
00:21:17,830 --> 00:21:22,350
Inventor Guglielmo Marconi was fascinated by invisible waves
431
00:21:22,350 --> 00:21:24,220
and how they could travel.
432
00:21:24,220 --> 00:21:28,050
Guglielmo Marconi was a founding father of radio.
433
00:21:28,050 --> 00:21:29,830
He was an Italian inventor.
434
00:21:29,830 --> 00:21:31,263
He didn't invent radio.
435
00:21:32,430 --> 00:21:35,880
You could say that James Clark Maxwell invented radio
436
00:21:35,880 --> 00:21:40,090
by postulating that there were electromagnetic waves
437
00:21:40,090 --> 00:21:41,990
that traveled at the speed of light,
438
00:21:41,990 --> 00:21:46,090
and it was Marconi and others who learnt how to put signals
439
00:21:46,090 --> 00:21:48,193
on those electromagnetic waves.
440
00:21:49,190 --> 00:21:51,240
He was soon able to broadcast the waves
441
00:21:51,240 --> 00:21:53,740
up to several hundred meters.
442
00:21:53,740 --> 00:21:56,950
In December 1901, his team in Cornwall
443
00:21:56,950 --> 00:22:00,850
transmitted an S in morse code hundreds of kilometers
444
00:22:00,850 --> 00:22:02,513
to the St. John's Signal Hill.
445
00:22:04,260 --> 00:22:07,020
Radio was born and quickly became a standard
446
00:22:07,020 --> 00:22:08,563
in seafaring vessels.
447
00:22:09,960 --> 00:22:12,930
It famously made news when a radio transmission
448
00:22:12,930 --> 00:22:15,760
alerted shipping to the fate of the Titanic,
449
00:22:15,760 --> 00:22:18,693
which meant saving 703 lives.
450
00:22:20,870 --> 00:22:24,180
Guglielmo Marconi, his famous signal CQD
451
00:22:24,180 --> 00:22:26,990
was the first used for distress calls.
452
00:22:26,990 --> 00:22:28,960
The Titanic was one of the earliest tragedies
453
00:22:28,960 --> 00:22:30,663
to be mitigated by his invention.
454
00:22:32,160 --> 00:22:33,800
As radio became established
455
00:22:33,800 --> 00:22:36,693
as in-home entertainment, audiences grew.
456
00:22:37,700 --> 00:22:40,910
Advertisers and more broadcasters followed.
457
00:22:40,910 --> 00:22:42,590
In the radio studios of America,
458
00:22:42,590 --> 00:22:45,620
the technicians, the entertainers, the commentators,
459
00:22:45,620 --> 00:22:48,950
the administrative personnel daily unite their efforts
460
00:22:48,950 --> 00:22:51,070
in the creation of programs to please
461
00:22:51,070 --> 00:22:53,320
and entertain a vast radio public.
462
00:22:53,320 --> 00:22:56,660
It was the first mass medium
463
00:22:56,660 --> 00:22:59,060
that came into people's homes.
464
00:22:59,060 --> 00:23:04,060
It allowed people to hear events with far quicker lead times
465
00:23:04,200 --> 00:23:06,140
than the old days of newspapers.
466
00:23:06,140 --> 00:23:08,390
The King arrives at broadcasting house,
467
00:23:08,390 --> 00:23:10,880
and alone in a small studio makes his pronouncement
468
00:23:10,880 --> 00:23:12,650
in these memorable words.
469
00:23:12,650 --> 00:23:15,590
As more broadcasters took up their microphones,
470
00:23:15,590 --> 00:23:17,403
frequencies had to be allocated.
471
00:23:18,550 --> 00:23:20,400
Interference decreased further
472
00:23:20,400 --> 00:23:22,823
as innovation modulated the airwaves.
473
00:23:24,380 --> 00:23:26,510
Scientific progression created
474
00:23:26,510 --> 00:23:30,060
a more user-friendly experience for the variety show,
475
00:23:30,060 --> 00:23:32,713
the discussion, and the radio play.
476
00:23:36,070 --> 00:23:38,440
Orson Welles and the Mercury Theater Company
477
00:23:38,440 --> 00:23:41,540
dramatized the classics, until their broadcast,
478
00:23:41,540 --> 00:23:44,433
the night before Halloween in 1938.
479
00:23:45,390 --> 00:23:49,010
The company performed an adaptation of War of the Worlds.
480
00:23:49,010 --> 00:23:51,600
The War of the Worlds broadcast became very famous
481
00:23:51,600 --> 00:23:55,020
because it created a sense of panic,
482
00:23:55,020 --> 00:23:59,310
allegedly, among large numbers of its radio audience.
483
00:23:59,310 --> 00:24:03,820
It was a radio enactment of H.G. Wells's famous book,
484
00:24:03,820 --> 00:24:07,665
done with voice and sound effect.
485
00:24:07,665 --> 00:24:11,021
(overlapping shouts)
486
00:24:11,021 --> 00:24:13,024
Ladies and gentlemen, this is the most terrifying thing
487
00:24:13,024 --> 00:24:14,691
I've ever witnessed.
488
00:24:15,683 --> 00:24:17,994
Eyes are black and they gleam like a serpent.
489
00:24:17,994 --> 00:24:19,840
The mouth is kind of V-shaped
490
00:24:19,840 --> 00:24:21,870
with saliva dripping from its limbless lips
491
00:24:21,870 --> 00:24:24,200
that seem to ooze, quiver, and pulsate,
492
00:24:24,200 --> 00:24:26,733
and the monster, or whatever it is, can hardly move!
493
00:24:28,090 --> 00:24:29,690
The probability is that reaction
494
00:24:29,690 --> 00:24:33,333
to the broadcast was grossly overstated by the newspapers.
495
00:24:34,750 --> 00:24:37,440
That indicates that the growing popularity of the radio
496
00:24:37,440 --> 00:24:39,760
was threatening the press, which hoped
497
00:24:39,760 --> 00:24:42,370
that publicizing such a sensation may provoke
498
00:24:42,370 --> 00:24:44,673
stricter government control of the airwaves.
499
00:24:46,500 --> 00:24:48,060
But it was too late.
500
00:24:48,060 --> 00:24:51,670
Radio was profitable, and it was here to stay.
501
00:24:51,670 --> 00:24:55,730
By 1925, you could buy ready-made sets.
502
00:24:55,730 --> 00:24:58,040
You just plugged them in or used batteries,
503
00:24:58,040 --> 00:25:00,100
switched the dial, put some earphones on
504
00:25:00,100 --> 00:25:02,700
or then a loudspeaker, and you could hear the radio.
505
00:25:03,730 --> 00:25:07,820
But it created also a broader accessibility to culture,
506
00:25:07,820 --> 00:25:11,210
to information, to news, to weather.
507
00:25:11,210 --> 00:25:15,093
It created an early form of our information society.
508
00:25:16,140 --> 00:25:18,620
Radio evolved over many years
509
00:25:18,620 --> 00:25:20,343
with the work of many inventors.
510
00:25:21,980 --> 00:25:24,720
From morse code to radio plays
511
00:25:24,720 --> 00:25:26,830
to presidential fireside chats
512
00:25:28,050 --> 00:25:30,630
to news broadcasts, Marconi's invention
513
00:25:30,630 --> 00:25:33,873
became an enormous influence on the 20th century.
514
00:25:35,303 --> 00:25:38,470
(lively string music)
515
00:25:39,550 --> 00:25:42,690
Bacteria was once the scourge of mankind.
516
00:25:42,690 --> 00:25:44,740
Left unchecked, ti would multiply
517
00:25:44,740 --> 00:25:47,343
until the human body could no longer fight back,
518
00:25:48,210 --> 00:25:50,910
until a fateful discovery in a messy lab
519
00:25:50,910 --> 00:25:52,833
changed the course of modern medicine.
520
00:25:59,120 --> 00:26:02,513
The beginning of the story of antibiotics is disputed.
521
00:26:03,370 --> 00:26:05,580
It can arguably attributed to the work
522
00:26:05,580 --> 00:26:08,050
of a man named Alexander Fleming,
523
00:26:08,050 --> 00:26:10,700
its discovery a result of his belief
524
00:26:10,700 --> 00:26:14,073
that lab cleanliness was a choice rather than a necessity.
525
00:26:16,000 --> 00:26:19,370
In 1928, Fleming's desk was a mess.
526
00:26:19,370 --> 00:26:21,420
Petri dishes spilled into each other,
527
00:26:21,420 --> 00:26:23,383
cross-contaminating their samples.
528
00:26:24,293 --> 00:26:25,800
He was working and looking at them,
529
00:26:25,800 --> 00:26:27,700
and he'd been sick that week
530
00:26:27,700 --> 00:26:30,280
and he sneezed into his Petri dish,
531
00:26:30,280 --> 00:26:31,980
and so that plate's ruined.
532
00:26:31,980 --> 00:26:35,160
He puts it to the side, and he went off on holiday.
533
00:26:35,160 --> 00:26:38,550
And he came back from holidays and looked at that plate,
534
00:26:38,550 --> 00:26:41,100
and it was growing a whole bunch of mold.
535
00:26:41,100 --> 00:26:44,010
But around some of those colonies of mold
536
00:26:44,010 --> 00:26:47,670
there was this blank space where no bacteria was growing,
537
00:26:47,670 --> 00:26:51,300
because that mold was killing the bacteria.
538
00:26:51,300 --> 00:26:52,670
Fleming published a paper
539
00:26:52,670 --> 00:26:55,243
about separating samples and moved on.
540
00:26:56,350 --> 00:26:59,150
Like many discoveries, what Fleming noted
541
00:26:59,150 --> 00:27:03,010
lay dormant for 10 years, until Howard Florey,
542
00:27:03,010 --> 00:27:06,490
with fellow scientist Ernst Chain and their team,
543
00:27:06,490 --> 00:27:08,560
worked to develop the miracle mold
544
00:27:08,560 --> 00:27:10,633
so that it could be put to medical use.
545
00:27:12,550 --> 00:27:15,160
What he knew was that he couldn't solve it alone,
546
00:27:15,160 --> 00:27:16,700
and so he did something that was really
547
00:27:16,700 --> 00:27:20,440
quite uncommon at the time: he pulled together
548
00:27:20,440 --> 00:27:24,780
people's expertise and information from this wide net
549
00:27:24,780 --> 00:27:27,973
of science and housed them under one roof.
550
00:27:29,810 --> 00:27:33,670
He had biologists, bacteriologists, pathologists,
551
00:27:33,670 --> 00:27:36,900
clinical doctors, all different styles of scientists
552
00:27:36,900 --> 00:27:39,970
working on the one problem and then coming together
553
00:27:39,970 --> 00:27:42,320
and discussing all of their different parts
554
00:27:42,320 --> 00:27:43,870
of that problem together.
555
00:27:43,870 --> 00:27:47,810
And it was that collaboration that really created
556
00:27:47,810 --> 00:27:50,483
this world-first antibiotic.
557
00:27:52,610 --> 00:27:54,780
Unfortunately, Britain was not equipped
558
00:27:54,780 --> 00:27:56,710
for the necessarily high yield,
559
00:27:56,710 --> 00:27:58,973
as their labs were tied up in the war effort.
560
00:27:59,980 --> 00:28:02,163
So Florey took it to the U.S.
561
00:28:03,020 --> 00:28:05,610
In June 1941, there was brought
562
00:28:05,610 --> 00:28:08,943
to the United States a tiny flask of the living mold.
563
00:28:10,340 --> 00:28:12,160
The altruistic men of science
564
00:28:12,160 --> 00:28:13,770
did not even patent their work
565
00:28:13,770 --> 00:28:15,593
before taking it across the sea.
566
00:28:17,340 --> 00:28:20,143
The Americans successfully improved its productivity.
567
00:28:21,280 --> 00:28:22,890
Through mass production methods,
568
00:28:22,890 --> 00:28:26,400
America is continually increasing its output of Penicillin,
569
00:28:26,400 --> 00:28:28,963
the new drug the affects almost miraculous cures.
570
00:28:30,400 --> 00:28:32,620
The first trial, on the infected cheek
571
00:28:32,620 --> 00:28:36,033
of Albert Alexander, was a partial success.
572
00:28:37,310 --> 00:28:40,100
But unfortunately, the limited supply ran out
573
00:28:40,100 --> 00:28:43,123
and the 43-year-old policeman died from his wounds.
574
00:28:45,150 --> 00:28:48,370
Supply was still growing, but the war restricted its use
575
00:28:48,370 --> 00:28:50,210
to the masses of injured soldiers
576
00:28:50,210 --> 00:28:52,383
and cases where the treatment had failed.
577
00:28:54,070 --> 00:28:58,410
By the war's end in 1945, supply vastly improved
578
00:28:58,410 --> 00:29:00,043
and restrictions were dropped.
579
00:29:01,510 --> 00:29:04,040
By the end of the century, the class of drugs
580
00:29:04,040 --> 00:29:06,610
had become so widespread that most people
581
00:29:06,610 --> 00:29:08,960
in the developed world will have been prescribed
582
00:29:08,960 --> 00:29:10,713
an antibiotic during childhood.
583
00:29:11,770 --> 00:29:14,700
Penicillin changed the world.
584
00:29:14,700 --> 00:29:18,760
It completely transformed our understanding
585
00:29:18,760 --> 00:29:21,520
and expectations of life and death.
586
00:29:21,520 --> 00:29:24,160
Women and children often died in childbirth.
587
00:29:24,160 --> 00:29:27,320
People who got pneumonia, a third of them would die.
588
00:29:27,320 --> 00:29:30,240
80% of common infections that people got
589
00:29:30,240 --> 00:29:32,700
from scratches in their day-to-day lives
590
00:29:32,700 --> 00:29:35,343
went to quite serious infections and often death.
591
00:29:36,360 --> 00:29:41,360
So, Penicillin, antibiotics, revolutionized the way
592
00:29:42,390 --> 00:29:45,140
that people dealt with their day-to-day lives
593
00:29:45,140 --> 00:29:48,150
and their relationship with infections.
594
00:29:48,150 --> 00:29:49,470
Other discoveries to come out
595
00:29:49,470 --> 00:29:52,400
of the original research had led to the development
596
00:29:52,400 --> 00:29:55,300
of more than 60 kinds of antibiotics,
597
00:29:55,300 --> 00:29:57,753
able to fight stronger strains of bacteria.
598
00:30:00,950 --> 00:30:03,960
As resistant strains evolve and mutate,
599
00:30:03,960 --> 00:30:06,620
the research continues in an unbroken line
600
00:30:06,620 --> 00:30:08,913
from Alexander Fleming's Petri dish.
601
00:30:13,302 --> 00:30:15,969
(curious music)
602
00:30:17,440 --> 00:30:20,653
A nation divided by the color of its citizens' skin.
603
00:30:22,320 --> 00:30:25,200
A blatant government policy of racial discrimination
604
00:30:25,200 --> 00:30:27,743
reviled and protested around the world.
605
00:30:29,050 --> 00:30:31,463
A change that many fought hard to achieve.
606
00:30:32,630 --> 00:30:34,440
One that was long overdue.
607
00:30:42,030 --> 00:30:44,960
South Africa's apartheid policy divided families,
608
00:30:44,960 --> 00:30:47,463
communities, and the country into fragments.
609
00:30:48,690 --> 00:30:52,403
The word "apartheid" means apartness.
610
00:30:53,450 --> 00:30:55,640
In the context of South Africa,
611
00:30:55,640 --> 00:30:58,490
it was fused with this ideology
612
00:30:58,490 --> 00:31:01,483
of white purity and supremacy.
613
00:31:02,700 --> 00:31:04,510
The apartheid laws had been set up
614
00:31:04,510 --> 00:31:07,863
on the 1948 program of racial registration.
615
00:31:09,810 --> 00:31:11,520
The African National Congress,
616
00:31:11,520 --> 00:31:14,600
and then the Pan Africanist Congress
617
00:31:14,600 --> 00:31:16,700
initially protested peacefully,
618
00:31:16,700 --> 00:31:19,313
but were met with rifle fire and imprisonment,
619
00:31:20,620 --> 00:31:24,883
notably in the infamous Sharpeville massacre of 1960.
620
00:31:26,350 --> 00:31:29,480
Apartheid remains rigidly enforced.
621
00:31:29,480 --> 00:31:31,440
There are over 12 million Africans
622
00:31:31,440 --> 00:31:33,390
to two-and-a-half million white people.
623
00:31:35,010 --> 00:31:36,370
The shooting at Sharpeville,
624
00:31:36,370 --> 00:31:40,020
in which many Africans died, shocked the world
625
00:31:40,020 --> 00:31:42,333
as evidence of the dangers of the situation.
626
00:31:43,490 --> 00:31:45,080
Soon, protestors became
627
00:31:45,080 --> 00:31:47,370
more active in their fight.
628
00:31:47,370 --> 00:31:50,700
Nelson Mandela led the armed wing Spear of the Nation
629
00:31:50,700 --> 00:31:53,027
at the African National Congress.
630
00:31:53,027 --> 00:31:56,168
There are many people who feel that it is useless
631
00:31:56,168 --> 00:31:58,990
and futile for us to continue talking peace
632
00:31:58,990 --> 00:32:01,500
and non-violence against a government
633
00:32:01,500 --> 00:32:05,170
whose reply is all these savage attacks
634
00:32:05,170 --> 00:32:07,790
on an unarmed and defenseless people.
635
00:32:07,790 --> 00:32:10,344
He was involved in every protest
636
00:32:10,344 --> 00:32:13,740
and was an outspoken critic,
637
00:32:13,740 --> 00:32:17,400
and for this reason was charged with high treason.
638
00:32:17,400 --> 00:32:20,460
Mandela would spend 27 years in prison,
639
00:32:20,460 --> 00:32:23,840
receiving worse treatment than the white inmates.
640
00:32:23,840 --> 00:32:26,150
His plight spurred the anti-apartheid feeling
641
00:32:26,150 --> 00:32:28,870
within the country and around the world,
642
00:32:28,870 --> 00:32:31,320
putting pressure on the South African government.
643
00:32:33,330 --> 00:32:36,350
Nelson Mandela in prison
644
00:32:36,350 --> 00:32:41,350
became a much more globally known figure ...
645
00:32:42,180 --> 00:32:45,430
than Nelson Mandela outside prison.
646
00:32:45,430 --> 00:32:50,430
And he was a very powerful contributing factor
647
00:32:50,430 --> 00:32:53,533
when it came to the downfall of apartheid.
648
00:32:55,230 --> 00:32:57,770
As the attitude of the rest of the world changed,
649
00:32:57,770 --> 00:33:00,160
policies toward South Africa hardened,
650
00:33:00,160 --> 00:33:02,840
both in trade and in sports.
651
00:33:02,840 --> 00:33:05,110
In Sydney, a force of 600 police
652
00:33:05,110 --> 00:33:07,700
prepare for a massive anti-apartheid demonstration
653
00:33:07,700 --> 00:33:09,900
at the South African Springboks rugby match.
654
00:33:11,280 --> 00:33:13,890
In 1989, the newly-elected leader
655
00:33:13,890 --> 00:33:18,040
of South Africa, F.W. de Klerk recognized that change
656
00:33:18,040 --> 00:33:20,763
was needed or the republic would collapse.
657
00:33:22,400 --> 00:33:25,710
De Klerk was saying, look, we can't carry on
658
00:33:25,710 --> 00:33:28,873
the way we are; otherwise, we will implode.
659
00:33:29,780 --> 00:33:31,770
His government negotiated with Mandela
660
00:33:31,770 --> 00:33:35,723
through house arrest to his eventual freedom in 1990.
661
00:33:37,820 --> 00:33:40,580
There's Mr. Mandela, Mr. Neslon Mandela,
662
00:33:40,580 --> 00:33:45,580
a free man, taking his first steps into a new South Africa.
663
00:33:47,750 --> 00:33:48,990
Mandela lost no time
664
00:33:48,990 --> 00:33:51,453
in renewing his efforts to end apartheid.
665
00:33:52,670 --> 00:33:55,820
By this time, the South African government recognized
666
00:33:55,820 --> 00:33:57,720
that its policy was no longer tenable
667
00:33:57,720 --> 00:33:59,170
in the international climate.
668
00:34:00,110 --> 00:34:03,950
De Klerk began repealing the laws behind apartheid.
669
00:34:03,950 --> 00:34:06,220
The South African statute book
670
00:34:06,220 --> 00:34:10,310
will be devoid within months of the remnants
671
00:34:10,310 --> 00:34:13,450
of the racially discriminatory legislation
672
00:34:13,450 --> 00:34:17,160
which have become known as the cornerstones of apartheid.
673
00:34:17,160 --> 00:34:20,000
The immediate impact of the end of apartheid
674
00:34:20,000 --> 00:34:22,130
was, I think, one of relief.
675
00:34:22,130 --> 00:34:23,967
The rest the the world went, "Phew!
676
00:34:25,477 --> 00:34:27,098
"That's the end of that."
677
00:34:27,098 --> 00:34:30,200
This is a country that has pockmarked
678
00:34:30,200 --> 00:34:32,600
the entire 20th century.
679
00:34:32,600 --> 00:34:35,980
It's flown in the face of global opinion
680
00:34:37,080 --> 00:34:39,700
and stuck to its guns with this vicious,
681
00:34:39,700 --> 00:34:43,200
oppressive, irrational system
682
00:34:43,200 --> 00:34:45,653
that is at odds with the rest of the world.
683
00:34:48,340 --> 00:34:49,400
The end of apartheid
684
00:34:49,400 --> 00:34:51,660
was also an end of a way of thinking
685
00:34:51,660 --> 00:34:54,453
synonymous with the empires of the past centuries.
686
00:34:56,030 --> 00:34:59,350
In July 1993, the nationalist government
687
00:34:59,350 --> 00:35:01,833
agreed to an election including all races.
688
00:35:02,940 --> 00:35:05,733
You hold the future in your hands.
689
00:35:08,150 --> 00:35:10,440
In 1994, the republic elected
690
00:35:10,440 --> 00:35:13,840
its first black president, Nelson Mandela.
691
00:35:13,840 --> 00:35:17,100
A new constitution came into effect in that year,
692
00:35:17,100 --> 00:35:19,873
finally ending the policy of apartheid.
693
00:35:21,630 --> 00:35:24,450
This is one of the most important moments
694
00:35:24,450 --> 00:35:26,193
in the life of our country.
695
00:35:27,960 --> 00:35:32,764
I stand before you filled with deep pride and joy.
696
00:35:32,764 --> 00:35:35,666
(cheering)
697
00:35:35,666 --> 00:35:38,249
(somber music)
698
00:35:39,216 --> 00:35:41,690
In 1917, two revolutions
699
00:35:41,690 --> 00:35:45,273
would bring down the Russian empire in a matter of months.
700
00:35:46,340 --> 00:35:49,680
In its wake would emerge a completely new political system
701
00:35:51,130 --> 00:35:53,003
and a new global superpower.
702
00:36:00,970 --> 00:36:03,220
Imperial Russia, the champion of Slavdom,
703
00:36:03,220 --> 00:36:06,624
had entered the First World War in 1914.
704
00:36:06,624 --> 00:36:08,010
(booming)
705
00:36:08,010 --> 00:36:10,070
Success in battle was short-lived,
706
00:36:10,070 --> 00:36:12,720
and military disasters were catastrophic
707
00:36:12,720 --> 00:36:14,143
and weakened the empire.
708
00:36:16,160 --> 00:36:19,250
By the start of 1917, Russia was gripped
709
00:36:19,250 --> 00:36:20,870
with severe shortages.
710
00:36:20,870 --> 00:36:23,370
If not teetering on the edge of starvation,
711
00:36:23,370 --> 00:36:26,200
so there was a loss of faith in the capacity
712
00:36:26,200 --> 00:36:30,230
of the tsarist government and the Tsar himself
713
00:36:30,230 --> 00:36:33,010
to actually continue prosecuting a war
714
00:36:33,010 --> 00:36:36,283
that was coming at such extraordinary social cost.
715
00:36:37,820 --> 00:36:39,030
On the 8th of March,
716
00:36:39,030 --> 00:36:42,910
female Petrograd factory workers finished their shift
717
00:36:42,910 --> 00:36:45,760
and were forced to queue for bread that wasn't available.
718
00:36:47,060 --> 00:36:49,710
Their street protest attracted others,
719
00:36:49,710 --> 00:36:53,270
and by the evening, 100,000 workers were protesting
720
00:36:53,270 --> 00:36:55,560
and declaring a strike of their labor.
721
00:36:55,560 --> 00:36:56,640
1917.
722
00:36:56,640 --> 00:36:58,940
A demonstration is St. Petersburg starts
723
00:36:58,940 --> 00:37:01,740
over a simple demand for a higher bread ration,
724
00:37:01,740 --> 00:37:04,440
gets out of hand, includes a new demand:
725
00:37:04,440 --> 00:37:07,670
transfer of power from the Tsar to an elected parliament.
726
00:37:07,670 --> 00:37:10,100
The Tsar reacts in customary fashion,
727
00:37:10,100 --> 00:37:12,320
turns his troops loose on the demonstrators.
728
00:37:12,320 --> 00:37:14,210
But something goes wrong.
729
00:37:14,210 --> 00:37:16,100
As the crisis escalated,
730
00:37:16,100 --> 00:37:18,243
Tsar Nicholas was forced to abdicate.
731
00:37:19,460 --> 00:37:23,600
The unexpected, accidental revolution created a vacuum,
732
00:37:23,600 --> 00:37:26,583
which an ill-prepared provisional government tried to fill.
733
00:37:27,430 --> 00:37:30,350
The inability of that provisional government
734
00:37:30,350 --> 00:37:33,360
to actually address the concerns that had brought about
735
00:37:33,360 --> 00:37:36,140
the fall of the autocracy in the first place
736
00:37:36,140 --> 00:37:41,140
actually sees the deepening radicalization ...
737
00:37:42,090 --> 00:37:46,313
of the ordinary people on the streets, in the countryside.
738
00:37:47,390 --> 00:37:48,300
Conditions were right
739
00:37:48,300 --> 00:37:50,850
for another political group to challenge for power.
740
00:37:51,870 --> 00:37:54,870
Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, observing events
741
00:37:54,870 --> 00:37:57,550
from exile in Switzerland, began to encourage
742
00:37:57,550 --> 00:38:00,693
his Bolshevik supporters to take advantage of the chaos.
743
00:38:02,960 --> 00:38:05,570
On the 7th of November, armed Bolsheviks stormed
744
00:38:05,570 --> 00:38:08,513
the Winter Palace, arresting the provisional government.
745
00:38:09,760 --> 00:38:13,843
They ousted it by virtually a bloodless insurrection.
746
00:38:14,970 --> 00:38:17,020
There's a very famous image, of course, and paintings
747
00:38:17,020 --> 00:38:19,420
and films about the taking of the Winter Palace,
748
00:38:19,420 --> 00:38:23,170
but in fact it wasn't quite as dramatic as all that.
749
00:38:23,170 --> 00:38:24,660
In fact, more people were killed
750
00:38:24,660 --> 00:38:28,163
during Sergei Eisenstein's filmed reenactment of the event.
751
00:38:30,270 --> 00:38:31,930
But it was an event that installed
752
00:38:31,930 --> 00:38:33,320
the new Bolshevik government,
753
00:38:33,320 --> 00:38:35,853
which began peace negotiations with Germany.
754
00:38:37,100 --> 00:38:39,050
Fearing the former Tsar and his family
755
00:38:39,050 --> 00:38:41,760
will be a rallying point for opposing factions,
756
00:38:41,760 --> 00:38:44,083
Lenin ordered the deaths of the royal family.
757
00:38:45,510 --> 00:38:48,640
By 1921, the Red Army had occupied
758
00:38:48,640 --> 00:38:52,083
all the independent republics of the defunct Russian empire.
759
00:38:53,840 --> 00:38:56,870
In 1922, Moscow proclaimed the creation
760
00:38:56,870 --> 00:38:59,623
of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics,
761
00:39:00,920 --> 00:39:03,570
with the Russian communist party the center of power.
762
00:39:04,560 --> 00:39:08,660
I would say almost all of the major events
763
00:39:08,660 --> 00:39:12,500
in 20th century history have been, in one way or other,
764
00:39:12,500 --> 00:39:16,490
defined by what started out as a revolution
765
00:39:16,490 --> 00:39:18,470
in the city of Petrograd in 1917.
766
00:39:21,250 --> 00:39:22,980
Although Lenin had led his supporters
767
00:39:22,980 --> 00:39:26,280
to victory and created a new system of government,
768
00:39:26,280 --> 00:39:30,520
his growing incapacity from 1922 created an opportunity
769
00:39:30,520 --> 00:39:32,993
for someone to step up and assume the mantle.
770
00:39:33,900 --> 00:39:36,750
Not quite out of the shadows stepped Joseph Stalin,
771
00:39:36,750 --> 00:39:38,974
the one man Lenin had warned against.
772
00:39:38,974 --> 00:39:41,420
(clapping)
773
00:39:41,420 --> 00:39:43,433
Lenin died in 19124.
774
00:39:44,430 --> 00:39:47,600
Under Stalin, the USSR would be transformed
775
00:39:47,600 --> 00:39:49,930
into one of the world's superpowers,
776
00:39:49,930 --> 00:39:52,613
through the sacrifices of collectivization,
777
00:39:53,880 --> 00:39:56,920
the famines of the Great Leap Forward,
778
00:39:56,920 --> 00:39:59,720
and above all through the war against Hitler,
779
00:39:59,720 --> 00:40:03,093
in which Stalin led them from disaster to triumph.
780
00:40:06,915 --> 00:40:09,498
(somber music)
781
00:40:11,680 --> 00:40:15,033
The Second World War ended in Europe in May 1945.
782
00:40:16,840 --> 00:40:19,540
But it was still being waged on land and at sea
783
00:40:19,540 --> 00:40:21,030
in the Asia pacific.
784
00:40:21,030 --> 00:40:23,320
(booming)
785
00:40:23,320 --> 00:40:25,640
Until a weapon of unprecedented power
786
00:40:25,640 --> 00:40:28,640
would be used against a civilian population,
787
00:40:28,640 --> 00:40:31,293
bringing the war to an abrupt and shocking end.
788
00:40:40,160 --> 00:40:44,093
The Manhattan Project began in 1940 with a deadly purpose.
789
00:40:45,080 --> 00:40:47,110
The Allies were pooling their resources
790
00:40:47,110 --> 00:40:50,020
to unlock the destructive power of the atom.
791
00:40:50,020 --> 00:40:53,890
Nuclear fission as a process was discovered in 1938.
792
00:40:53,890 --> 00:40:55,860
And just around the time that war
793
00:40:55,860 --> 00:40:58,010
was starting to break out in Europe,
794
00:40:58,010 --> 00:41:00,220
Albert Einstein and others drew the attention
795
00:41:00,220 --> 00:41:04,510
of President Roosevelt to the idea that the fission process
796
00:41:04,510 --> 00:41:08,580
might be used to produce a highly destructive weapon.
797
00:41:08,580 --> 00:41:10,900
After feasibility studies studies had been conducted,
798
00:41:10,900 --> 00:41:13,740
in 1941 Roosevelt signed off on the idea
799
00:41:13,740 --> 00:41:15,923
of a program to develop an atomic bomb.
800
00:41:17,690 --> 00:41:19,490
As the Japanese fought on,
801
00:41:19,490 --> 00:41:21,830
it was estimated that an American invasion
802
00:41:21,830 --> 00:41:23,850
of the home islands would cost
803
00:41:23,850 --> 00:41:26,500
more than a million American lives.
804
00:41:26,500 --> 00:41:27,880
Now the war in the Far East
805
00:41:27,880 --> 00:41:30,110
is by now means an easy affair.
806
00:41:30,110 --> 00:41:32,593
The cost in human lives is appallingly heavy.
807
00:41:34,530 --> 00:41:35,960
So the order was given,
808
00:41:35,960 --> 00:41:39,430
and on August 6th, 1945 and atomic bomb
809
00:41:39,430 --> 00:41:42,610
was dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima.
810
00:41:42,610 --> 00:41:45,010
As they approach the target area,
811
00:41:45,010 --> 00:41:47,871
the weapon is checked for the last time.
812
00:41:47,871 --> 00:41:49,171
(dial clicking)
813
00:41:49,171 --> 00:41:51,421
(rumbling)
814
00:41:52,440 --> 00:41:54,540
The bomb, nicknamed Little Boy,
815
00:41:54,540 --> 00:41:57,410
missed its civilian target, the Aioi Bridge,
816
00:41:57,410 --> 00:41:59,103
by approximately 300 meters,
817
00:42:00,090 --> 00:42:04,370
but it wiped out approximately 80,000 people instantly
818
00:42:04,370 --> 00:42:05,920
and destroyed most of the city.
819
00:42:07,410 --> 00:42:11,230
The Japanese began the war from the air at Pearl Harbor.
820
00:42:11,230 --> 00:42:13,353
They have been repaid manyfold.
821
00:42:16,218 --> 00:42:18,230
With this bomb we have now added
822
00:42:18,230 --> 00:42:22,483
a new and revolutionary increase in destruction.
823
00:42:24,110 --> 00:42:25,410
Those close to the epicenter
824
00:42:25,410 --> 00:42:27,550
of the blast were obliterated.
825
00:42:27,550 --> 00:42:30,240
In some cases, all that was left was a shadow
826
00:42:30,240 --> 00:42:32,440
burned into the wall and ground behind them.
827
00:42:33,770 --> 00:42:35,740
In stone etched by heat
828
00:42:35,740 --> 00:42:37,920
which reached thousands of degrees,
829
00:42:37,920 --> 00:42:40,760
a monument recorded the passage of the blast,
830
00:42:40,760 --> 00:42:42,920
and burned into the pavement was the silhouette
831
00:42:42,920 --> 00:42:45,833
of one of the many who perished on that fateful day.
832
00:42:49,500 --> 00:42:51,070
The death toll included 90%
833
00:42:51,070 --> 00:42:53,870
of the city's doctors and nurses,
834
00:42:53,870 --> 00:42:56,343
limiting the medical response to this new weapon.
835
00:42:57,890 --> 00:43:00,500
Another 60,000 people would die within months
836
00:43:00,500 --> 00:43:02,523
from radiation-related diseases.
837
00:43:06,280 --> 00:43:09,400
Three days after Hiroshima, the Japanese government,
838
00:43:09,400 --> 00:43:12,580
having failed to offer unconditional surrender,
839
00:43:12,580 --> 00:43:15,410
a second plane flew past cloud-covered Kakara
840
00:43:15,410 --> 00:43:16,613
to a clearer target.
841
00:43:18,090 --> 00:43:20,520
A few days later, a second atomic terror
842
00:43:20,520 --> 00:43:22,130
was loosed on Nagasaki.
843
00:43:22,130 --> 00:43:24,420
Although the end of Japan's aggression
844
00:43:24,420 --> 00:43:26,670
was in sight before atomic bombings,
845
00:43:26,670 --> 00:43:28,040
it was this terrific force
846
00:43:28,040 --> 00:43:30,033
that finally signed her death warrant.
847
00:43:31,710 --> 00:43:34,650
Six days after the bombings, on August 15th,
848
00:43:34,650 --> 00:43:36,520
the emperor Hirohito announced
849
00:43:36,520 --> 00:43:38,593
Japan's unconditional surrender.
850
00:43:40,520 --> 00:43:42,370
Almost instantaneously people realized
851
00:43:42,370 --> 00:43:45,400
that this is a very, very different weapon,
852
00:43:45,400 --> 00:43:47,540
and there is a realization that,
853
00:43:47,540 --> 00:43:49,410
although people are of course happy
854
00:43:49,410 --> 00:43:51,600
that after the bomb has been dropped
855
00:43:51,600 --> 00:43:54,920
on Hiroshima and Nagasaki that the war is ended,
856
00:43:54,920 --> 00:43:56,970
there is also an understanding that,
857
00:43:56,970 --> 00:43:59,540
if the Japanese surrendered as a result of this weapon,
858
00:43:59,540 --> 00:44:02,233
it must have been a very terrible weapon.
859
00:44:03,760 --> 00:44:06,610
Though the atomic bomb ended the Pacific War,
860
00:44:06,610 --> 00:44:08,440
it also graphically demonstrated
861
00:44:08,440 --> 00:44:10,163
the power of this new weapon.
862
00:44:12,260 --> 00:44:15,370
The power of the atom bomb was not theoretical.
863
00:44:15,370 --> 00:44:17,410
What had been made visible contributed
864
00:44:17,410 --> 00:44:19,580
to the deterrent effect that kept the peace
865
00:44:19,580 --> 00:44:21,573
between the world's two superpowers.
866
00:44:24,580 --> 00:44:27,380
Many people think that the development of atomic weapons
867
00:44:27,380 --> 00:44:29,130
and subsequently nuclear weapons
868
00:44:29,130 --> 00:44:33,030
has had a effect of actually insuring against
869
00:44:33,030 --> 00:44:35,520
great power conflict or superpower conflict.
870
00:44:35,520 --> 00:44:38,360
It's certainly the case that Kennedy and Khrushchev,
871
00:44:38,360 --> 00:44:39,790
during the Cuban Missile Crisis,
872
00:44:39,790 --> 00:44:42,640
were led and influenced very much
873
00:44:42,640 --> 00:44:44,310
towards the idea that a solution
874
00:44:44,310 --> 00:44:45,460
would be better than warfare
875
00:44:45,460 --> 00:44:47,920
because they both had a quite strong impression
876
00:44:47,920 --> 00:44:51,140
of what nuclear warfare would be like.
877
00:44:51,140 --> 00:44:52,820
The leaders of the two superpowers
878
00:44:52,820 --> 00:44:56,743
came close to the brink in 1962's nuclear standoff.
879
00:44:57,630 --> 00:44:59,250
But they didn't want to push the button
880
00:44:59,250 --> 00:45:00,903
on missiles being deployed.
881
00:45:01,780 --> 00:45:03,880
The bomb was never meant to be used again.
882
00:45:05,350 --> 00:45:06,990
You only really get to be unlucky once.
883
00:45:06,990 --> 00:45:09,180
And as we know, an awful lot of damage
884
00:45:09,180 --> 00:45:11,760
can result from nuclear emissions
885
00:45:11,760 --> 00:45:13,180
of the sort that would see a result
886
00:45:13,180 --> 00:45:15,273
from the use of nuclear weapons.
887
00:45:16,350 --> 00:45:17,960
Fear remains of the deadly effect
888
00:45:17,960 --> 00:45:19,430
of the atomic bomb.
889
00:45:19,430 --> 00:45:22,960
Its capacity to unleash such devastation
890
00:45:22,960 --> 00:45:26,423
has created the idea of mutually assured destruction.
891
00:45:27,610 --> 00:45:31,210
With the spread of nuclear power to other volatile powers,
892
00:45:31,210 --> 00:45:33,383
that threat has not diminished.
893
00:45:38,638 --> 00:45:43,070
(dramatic electronic music)
894
00:45:43,070 --> 00:45:45,320
It began with a pledge that symbolized
895
00:45:45,320 --> 00:45:48,510
all the great hopes of the early 1960s,
896
00:45:48,510 --> 00:45:52,550
an idea that would take almost a decade to make reality,
897
00:45:52,550 --> 00:45:55,470
an achievement that would redefine our science,
898
00:45:55,470 --> 00:45:57,110
our technology, and our place
899
00:45:57,110 --> 00:45:58,449
in the universe.
We have a liftoff!
900
00:45:58,449 --> 00:46:00,240
32 minutes past the hour.
901
00:46:00,240 --> 00:46:01,290
Liftoff on Apollo 11.
902
00:46:05,947 --> 00:46:06,997
"Man is not made
903
00:46:06,997 --> 00:46:09,627
"to go about safe and comfortable.
904
00:46:09,627 --> 00:46:12,987
"He is constantly being driven to do unreasonable things.
905
00:46:12,987 --> 00:46:16,490
"Some force impels him, and go he must,"
906
00:46:16,490 --> 00:46:19,023
H.G. Wells, author of The First Men in the Moon.
907
00:46:20,020 --> 00:46:22,600
Humans have always wanted this desire
908
00:46:22,600 --> 00:46:24,670
to conquest and explore new territories.
909
00:46:24,670 --> 00:46:26,280
This is why we do science, right?
910
00:46:26,280 --> 00:46:29,960
It is to understand the things we don't understand.
911
00:46:29,960 --> 00:46:32,820
I believe that this nation should commit itself,
912
00:46:32,820 --> 00:46:36,620
to achieving the goal, before this decade is out,
913
00:46:36,620 --> 00:46:38,120
of landing a man on the moon
914
00:46:38,120 --> 00:46:40,537
and returning him safely to the Earth.
915
00:46:41,590 --> 00:46:44,040
When Kennedy made his pledge to reach the moon,
916
00:46:44,040 --> 00:46:46,890
America was the underdog in the space race.
917
00:46:46,890 --> 00:46:50,730
They would recruit 400,000 scientists and technicians
918
00:46:50,730 --> 00:46:52,460
in an effort to be the first to reach
919
00:46:52,460 --> 00:46:56,330
this important milestone, work that culminated
920
00:46:56,330 --> 00:47:00,110
in the launch of Apollo 11 in 1969.
921
00:47:00,110 --> 00:47:01,423
The Apollo preparations
922
00:47:01,423 --> 00:47:02,766
have been the most comprehensive
923
00:47:02,766 --> 00:47:04,966
of any one enterprise in the history of man.
924
00:47:05,860 --> 00:47:08,390
The world watched as multi-stage Apollo 11
925
00:47:08,390 --> 00:47:11,803
launched from platform 39A at Cape Canaveral.
926
00:47:13,051 --> 00:47:16,876
Three, two, one, zero.
927
00:47:16,876 --> 00:47:17,709
Liftoff!
928
00:47:20,130 --> 00:47:22,350
What may be significant about the Apollo 11 moon landing
929
00:47:22,350 --> 00:47:24,690
is that it's an event that the world watched together.
930
00:47:24,690 --> 00:47:26,420
The international satellite system
931
00:47:26,420 --> 00:47:28,510
had been put into place just beforehand,
932
00:47:28,510 --> 00:47:30,783
and the whole world, wherever you were,
933
00:47:30,783 --> 00:47:32,920
as long as you had access to a television,
934
00:47:32,920 --> 00:47:35,160
could tune in and see this event happening
935
00:47:35,160 --> 00:47:36,433
all at the same time.
936
00:47:38,070 --> 00:47:39,680
Almost everyone who could
937
00:47:39,680 --> 00:47:42,160
gathered around television sets in schools,
938
00:47:42,160 --> 00:47:45,110
homes, workplaces, and public spaces
939
00:47:45,110 --> 00:47:47,416
to see Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin
940
00:47:47,416 --> 00:47:49,793
leave the Eagle lander to walk on the moon.
941
00:47:52,022 --> 00:47:52,855
Okay, Neil,
942
00:47:52,855 --> 00:47:55,340
we can see you coming down the ladder now.
943
00:47:55,340 --> 00:47:58,370
I think to think about the Apollo landing,
944
00:47:58,370 --> 00:48:00,530
you also have to think about the world at the time.
945
00:48:00,530 --> 00:48:03,160
You have the Cold War going on.
946
00:48:03,160 --> 00:48:05,890
In the U.S. you have civil rights movements.
947
00:48:05,890 --> 00:48:07,850
You have quite a bit of turmoil.
948
00:48:07,850 --> 00:48:11,930
And here the whole world paused and was saying
949
00:48:11,930 --> 00:48:14,640
this is something humanity has done.
950
00:48:14,640 --> 00:48:16,540
Armstrong and Aldrin were on the surface
951
00:48:16,540 --> 00:48:18,820
for about two hours, taking measurements
952
00:48:18,820 --> 00:48:20,293
and collecting samples.
953
00:48:21,250 --> 00:48:22,770
Hello Neil and Buzz.
954
00:48:22,770 --> 00:48:24,610
I'm talking to you by telephone
955
00:48:24,610 --> 00:48:27,130
from the Oval room at the White House.
956
00:48:27,130 --> 00:48:29,690
Because of what you have done,
957
00:48:29,690 --> 00:48:33,243
the heavens have become a part of man's world.
958
00:48:34,660 --> 00:48:36,810
Besides being an inspirational moment
959
00:48:36,810 --> 00:48:38,110
in landing humans on the moon,
960
00:48:38,110 --> 00:48:40,800
it did have actually profound scientific impacts.
961
00:48:40,800 --> 00:48:42,850
But we now know the moon is drifting away.
962
00:48:42,850 --> 00:48:44,460
We now know our days are getting longer.
963
00:48:44,460 --> 00:48:47,560
We have to fundamentally correct for this in our time.
964
00:48:47,560 --> 00:48:50,520
The understanding that the moon probably came from the Earth
965
00:48:50,520 --> 00:48:52,410
with an early collision between Mars
966
00:48:52,410 --> 00:48:53,840
or something like Mars and the Earth
967
00:48:53,840 --> 00:48:56,220
was because we had lunar rocks.
968
00:48:56,220 --> 00:48:58,070
The moon landing had given mankind
969
00:48:58,070 --> 00:49:01,063
the understanding it needed for future innovation.
970
00:49:03,240 --> 00:49:06,003
Many breakthroughs followed in the Apollo program.
971
00:49:07,600 --> 00:49:11,700
The technology involved, while the computer power
972
00:49:11,700 --> 00:49:14,480
is less than a modern-day iPhone,
973
00:49:14,480 --> 00:49:18,820
it was a distinct change in how we analyze data,
974
00:49:18,820 --> 00:49:20,050
communicated with space.
975
00:49:20,050 --> 00:49:23,000
So the knockoffs and the provocations
976
00:49:23,000 --> 00:49:25,440
of all of these scientific questions and discoveries,
977
00:49:25,440 --> 00:49:28,270
because we did something we never thought possible,
978
00:49:28,270 --> 00:49:29,860
opened up a new world,
979
00:49:29,860 --> 00:49:33,943
so it was a marvel of the 20th century.
980
00:49:37,890 --> 00:49:40,430
The science of Apollo is not merely concerned
981
00:49:40,430 --> 00:49:44,520
with samples from past milestones, yesterday's missions.
982
00:49:44,520 --> 00:49:48,060
In a special room in Houston, men sit at consoles
983
00:49:48,060 --> 00:49:50,570
and command instruments on the moon
984
00:49:50,570 --> 00:49:52,810
to send them today's data.
985
00:49:52,810 --> 00:49:54,720
One could argue that the real significance
986
00:49:54,720 --> 00:49:56,890
of space exploration is the perspective
987
00:49:56,890 --> 00:49:59,250
it's given us back on our own planet.
988
00:49:59,250 --> 00:50:01,670
It's the astronauts who travel to the moon,
989
00:50:01,670 --> 00:50:04,850
who take photographs of this small, fragile,
990
00:50:04,850 --> 00:50:06,680
rather beautiful-looking planet.
991
00:50:06,680 --> 00:50:09,030
And in some senses, it's that perspective
992
00:50:09,030 --> 00:50:11,370
that people are more attached to.
993
00:50:11,370 --> 00:50:13,180
The moon landing demonstrated
994
00:50:13,180 --> 00:50:15,580
momentous advances in science and engineering
995
00:50:16,430 --> 00:50:19,583
which continue to propel us into the 21st century.
996
00:50:20,610 --> 00:50:23,540
It was an unparalleled feat of human achievement
997
00:50:23,540 --> 00:50:25,140
that brought the world together.
998
00:50:27,270 --> 00:50:30,490
When people try and say, "Do you remember that moment?"
999
00:50:30,490 --> 00:50:34,020
they say it's like the Apollo 11 landing.
1000
00:50:34,020 --> 00:50:36,950
This is a moment that people use as a measuring stick.
1001
00:50:36,950 --> 00:50:39,200
I think that in itself is the answer of
1002
00:50:39,200 --> 00:50:41,813
to where we view this as, and it will be.
1003
00:50:43,210 --> 00:50:44,043
People are gonna be like,
1004
00:50:44,043 --> 00:50:46,260
"Oh, this is our generation's moon landing."
1005
00:50:46,260 --> 00:50:47,560
That's what someone's gonna say:
1006
00:50:47,560 --> 00:50:50,970
this is like what they experienced in 1969.
1007
00:50:50,970 --> 00:50:53,920
It is the measuring stick to all other events,
1008
00:50:53,920 --> 00:50:55,550
and that by itself has to say
1009
00:50:55,550 --> 00:50:58,893
it's one of the most influential events of the 20th century.
1010
00:51:01,400 --> 00:51:02,610
The moon landing changed
1011
00:51:02,610 --> 00:51:05,720
our sense of ourselves and of our planet,
1012
00:51:05,720 --> 00:51:10,510
who we are, where we are, and what we can do.
1013
00:51:10,510 --> 00:51:11,790
It was ...
1014
00:51:11,790 --> 00:51:14,447
as the first man famously observed ...
1015
00:51:14,447 --> 00:51:17,397
That's one small step for man,
1016
00:51:17,397 --> 00:51:19,990
one giant leap for mankind.
1017
00:51:20,830 --> 00:51:23,497
(rousing music)
79764
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