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These are the user uploaded subtitles that are being translated: 1 00:00:00,480 --> 00:00:02,060 The 20th century was a time 2 00:00:02,060 --> 00:00:04,122 of incredible change. 3 00:00:04,122 --> 00:00:05,760 (shouting in a foreign language) 4 00:00:05,760 --> 00:00:07,860 Unspeakable horrors. 5 00:00:07,860 --> 00:00:10,493 And amazing leaps of scientific discovery. 6 00:00:11,930 --> 00:00:13,970 It was a century marked by events 7 00:00:13,970 --> 00:00:17,020 that united and divided us, 8 00:00:17,020 --> 00:00:19,788 from great feats to great wars. 9 00:00:19,788 --> 00:00:21,270 (booming) 10 00:00:21,270 --> 00:00:24,030 With advancements and setbacks 11 00:00:24,920 --> 00:00:28,670 that showed us that power of many, the power of one. 12 00:00:28,670 --> 00:00:30,063 I have a dream. 13 00:00:30,063 --> 00:00:31,963 A century of revolutions, 14 00:00:33,570 --> 00:00:34,563 evolutions, 15 00:00:35,450 --> 00:00:36,882 and retributions. 16 00:00:36,882 --> 00:00:37,920 He's been shot! 17 00:00:37,920 --> 00:00:41,090 A century made by conflicts and crimes, 18 00:00:41,090 --> 00:00:43,023 inventions and entertainment, 19 00:00:44,530 --> 00:00:45,930 politics, 20 00:00:45,930 --> 00:00:47,410 protests, 21 00:00:47,410 --> 00:00:49,000 discoveries, 22 00:00:49,000 --> 00:00:49,967 and disasters. 23 00:00:49,967 --> 00:00:51,480 Oh the humanity! 24 00:00:51,480 --> 00:00:52,380 We will count down 25 00:00:52,380 --> 00:00:55,640 the 101 events of the 20th century. 26 00:00:55,640 --> 00:00:58,400 Their stories form the tapestries of our history 27 00:00:58,400 --> 00:01:00,897 and shape the world in which we live. 28 00:01:00,897 --> 00:01:03,647 (dramatic music) 29 00:01:06,030 --> 00:01:07,330 In this episode ... 30 00:01:07,330 --> 00:01:10,090 It's the first time, really, the whole of the population 31 00:01:10,090 --> 00:01:12,173 were drawn into the business of war. 32 00:01:13,076 --> 00:01:16,800 But it created also a broader accessibility to culture. 33 00:01:16,800 --> 00:01:20,543 It created an early form of our information society. 34 00:01:22,130 --> 00:01:25,880 It completely transformed our understanding 35 00:01:25,880 --> 00:01:28,493 and expectations of life and death. 36 00:01:31,612 --> 00:01:34,362 (delicate music) 37 00:01:37,120 --> 00:01:39,800 1960s America was a new Camelot, 38 00:01:39,800 --> 00:01:42,520 a time of regeneration and expansion, 39 00:01:42,520 --> 00:01:44,900 a nation looking with hope to the future, 40 00:01:44,900 --> 00:01:46,293 and out to the stars. 41 00:01:47,730 --> 00:01:49,480 But that dream will be shattered 42 00:01:49,480 --> 00:01:52,177 on a sunny afternoon in Dallas. 43 00:01:52,177 --> 00:01:54,344 (sobbing) 44 00:02:01,620 --> 00:02:03,703 My fellow citizens of the world, 45 00:02:05,018 --> 00:02:08,190 ask not what America will do for you 46 00:02:09,534 --> 00:02:13,002 but what together we can do for the freedom of man. 47 00:02:13,002 --> 00:02:15,919 (crowd applauding) 48 00:02:17,000 --> 00:02:19,880 John Fitzgerald Kennedy was young, smart, 49 00:02:19,880 --> 00:02:22,687 charming, and he had a young family of his own. 50 00:02:24,970 --> 00:02:26,770 He brought the American people a sense 51 00:02:26,770 --> 00:02:27,950 that they were being listened to 52 00:02:27,950 --> 00:02:31,130 and represented in his short presidential term. 53 00:02:31,130 --> 00:02:35,540 Firstly, of course, he is a very charismatic president. 54 00:02:35,540 --> 00:02:38,680 He succeeds Eisenhower, who was the oldest man 55 00:02:38,680 --> 00:02:41,780 to have held office at that time. 56 00:02:41,780 --> 00:02:45,300 And he himself is the youngest elected president. 57 00:02:45,300 --> 00:02:49,440 So it's a symbolic passing of the torch between generations. 58 00:02:49,440 --> 00:02:53,260 Kennedy promises a kind of new leadership. 59 00:02:53,260 --> 00:02:54,310 Everywhere he went, 60 00:02:54,310 --> 00:02:56,430 crowds gathered to see the man 61 00:02:56,430 --> 00:02:59,293 who held a world's weight lightly on young soldiers. 62 00:03:00,280 --> 00:03:03,810 The events on the 22nd of November, 1963 63 00:03:03,810 --> 00:03:06,460 left the American people reeling. 64 00:03:06,460 --> 00:03:09,283 They lost their president in a very public shooting. 65 00:03:12,650 --> 00:03:14,700 During a motorcade through Dallas, 66 00:03:14,700 --> 00:03:17,160 the local residents were filming the excitement 67 00:03:17,160 --> 00:03:20,253 as John and Jacqueline Kennedy drove through the streets. 68 00:03:22,060 --> 00:03:24,110 They caught the action on film. 69 00:03:24,110 --> 00:03:26,910 Its bumpy nature depicts the shocked reaction 70 00:03:26,910 --> 00:03:30,950 of the one holding the camera. (gun popping) 71 00:03:30,950 --> 00:03:33,920 Kennedy falls forward in the convertible. 72 00:03:33,920 --> 00:03:36,753 And his panicked wife tries to help her fallen husband. 73 00:03:38,030 --> 00:03:39,850 Taken to hospital, the president 74 00:03:39,850 --> 00:03:41,993 was pronounced dead 30 minutes later. 75 00:03:42,880 --> 00:03:45,090 A shocked nation weeps. 76 00:03:45,090 --> 00:03:47,380 Across the country, around the world, 77 00:03:47,380 --> 00:03:49,590 disbelief was the first reaction, 78 00:03:49,590 --> 00:03:53,183 then a great outpouring of grief, shock, and revulsion. 79 00:03:54,080 --> 00:03:56,030 90 minutes after the attack, 80 00:03:56,030 --> 00:03:58,870 in a movie theater a few blocks from the scene, 81 00:03:58,870 --> 00:04:00,850 Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested. 82 00:04:00,850 --> 00:04:02,410 Against the wall. 83 00:04:02,410 --> 00:04:04,250 These people have given me a hearing 84 00:04:04,250 --> 00:04:06,630 without legal representation or anything. 85 00:04:06,630 --> 00:04:07,463 Did you shoot the president? 86 00:04:07,463 --> 00:04:08,360 I didn't shoot anybody. 87 00:04:08,360 --> 00:04:09,193 No, sir. 88 00:04:10,210 --> 00:04:12,100 Oswald worked in the book depository 89 00:04:12,100 --> 00:04:14,863 on the cavalcade route from which the shot had come. 90 00:04:16,230 --> 00:04:19,750 Equally as fast, aboard the jet leaving Dallas, 91 00:04:19,750 --> 00:04:21,500 Vice President Lyndon Johnson, 92 00:04:21,500 --> 00:04:25,180 standing beside Jackie Kennedy, in her blood-stained dress, 93 00:04:25,180 --> 00:04:27,033 was sworn in as president. 94 00:04:28,060 --> 00:04:30,610 America was still in shock about the day's events 95 00:04:30,610 --> 00:04:33,966 when Oswald was shot dead on live television. 96 00:04:33,966 --> 00:04:35,631 (gun firing) 97 00:04:35,631 --> 00:04:36,862 He's been shot! 98 00:04:36,862 --> 00:04:38,170 He's been shot! 99 00:04:38,170 --> 00:04:40,910 Lee Oswald has been shot! 100 00:04:40,910 --> 00:04:42,130 48 hours and seven minutes 101 00:04:42,130 --> 00:04:46,850 after the president's death, his accused slayer is dead. 102 00:04:46,850 --> 00:04:49,550 The killer, a dance hall owner named Jack Ruby, 103 00:04:49,550 --> 00:04:53,433 was arrested, tried, sentenced to death, and died in prison. 104 00:04:55,020 --> 00:04:56,510 Americans stayed home to watch 105 00:04:56,510 --> 00:04:58,110 the blanket television coverage 106 00:04:58,110 --> 00:05:01,260 on a national day of mourning following the tragedy, 107 00:05:01,260 --> 00:05:03,830 feeling the death of their leader and the loss of hope 108 00:05:03,830 --> 00:05:06,375 he had represented for their nation. 109 00:05:06,375 --> 00:05:07,320 How 'bout you, sir? 110 00:05:07,320 --> 00:05:08,153 What is your reaction? 111 00:05:08,153 --> 00:05:09,700 He's the best man we ever had. 112 00:05:09,700 --> 00:05:10,533 Believe me. 113 00:05:10,533 --> 00:05:11,366 And I'm very sorry. 114 00:05:12,240 --> 00:05:13,073 What was your reaction? 115 00:05:13,073 --> 00:05:14,320 Well we were just completely shocked. 116 00:05:14,320 --> 00:05:15,680 I think that the American people 117 00:05:15,680 --> 00:05:17,400 have just suffered a great loss. 118 00:05:17,400 --> 00:05:19,100 It was just such a terrible thing. 119 00:05:20,190 --> 00:05:23,090 Their grieving was shared by much of the world. 120 00:05:23,090 --> 00:05:25,660 Less than three years after taking office, 121 00:05:25,660 --> 00:05:29,400 his body was brought back to Washington to lie in state, 122 00:05:29,400 --> 00:05:31,770 and the world mourned for a man 123 00:05:31,770 --> 00:05:33,503 who had given the world new hope. 124 00:05:34,910 --> 00:05:36,940 The confusion that swept over the nation 125 00:05:36,940 --> 00:05:38,690 as America tried to understand 126 00:05:38,690 --> 00:05:41,150 each piece of the news in this short period 127 00:05:41,150 --> 00:05:43,763 has fueled conspiracy theories ever since. 128 00:05:45,010 --> 00:05:46,540 This man, Mark Lane, 129 00:05:46,540 --> 00:05:49,130 has been asking for a fresh inquiry. 130 00:05:49,130 --> 00:05:51,670 He's always claimed that five bullets were fired, 131 00:05:51,670 --> 00:05:53,830 at least two of which came from the front, 132 00:05:53,830 --> 00:05:57,780 which means at least two gunmen, and therefore a conspiracy. 133 00:05:57,780 --> 00:06:00,990 The more we know now, the more likely it was 134 00:06:00,990 --> 00:06:03,850 that Lee Harvey Oswald acted alone. 135 00:06:03,850 --> 00:06:08,850 But 50 years of less than conclusive evidence 136 00:06:09,310 --> 00:06:13,020 breeds conspiracy ideas, and there are always books 137 00:06:13,020 --> 00:06:15,583 and films to be made on who killed JFK. 138 00:06:17,010 --> 00:06:19,320 Shock waves from the Kennedy assassination 139 00:06:19,320 --> 00:06:21,553 continued throughout the 20th century. 140 00:06:22,420 --> 00:06:24,970 The feeling that something was being hidden, 141 00:06:24,970 --> 00:06:27,120 the mystique of the Kennedy clan, 142 00:06:27,120 --> 00:06:29,673 the allure of Jackie all remain prominent. 143 00:06:31,300 --> 00:06:33,850 Whether John F. Kennedy, as a president, 144 00:06:33,850 --> 00:06:35,970 would have defined the age in which he lived 145 00:06:35,970 --> 00:06:37,690 will never be known. 146 00:06:37,690 --> 00:06:39,240 But his death is one of the great 147 00:06:39,240 --> 00:06:42,145 punctuation points of this century. 148 00:06:42,145 --> 00:06:44,395 (cheering) 149 00:06:45,758 --> 00:06:48,508 (dramatic music) 150 00:06:51,200 --> 00:06:55,003 On a June morning in 1914, a shot was fired. 151 00:06:56,775 --> 00:06:59,320 It will begin a chain of events that would lead 152 00:06:59,320 --> 00:07:02,567 to one of the bloodiest conflicts in human history. 153 00:07:02,567 --> 00:07:05,317 (dramatic music) 154 00:07:09,340 --> 00:07:12,670 At the start of 1914, much of the globe 155 00:07:12,670 --> 00:07:15,213 was divided into spheres of influence. 156 00:07:17,400 --> 00:07:20,390 In each sphere was one of the great empires 157 00:07:20,390 --> 00:07:23,093 supported by a complex system of alliances. 158 00:07:24,520 --> 00:07:27,020 On the morning of the 28th of June, 159 00:07:27,020 --> 00:07:30,300 Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne 160 00:07:30,300 --> 00:07:33,080 of the great Austro-Hungarian Empire, 161 00:07:33,080 --> 00:07:35,793 was visiting the Bosnian capital, Sarajevo. 162 00:07:37,290 --> 00:07:38,843 It was not a popular visit. 163 00:07:39,680 --> 00:07:42,290 A Serbian-backed Bosnian independence group, 164 00:07:42,290 --> 00:07:44,723 the Black Hand, planned an attack. 165 00:07:46,400 --> 00:07:48,810 When the Archduke's car paused to change gear 166 00:07:48,810 --> 00:07:53,810 outside a cafe, a Bosnian nationalist, Gavrilo Princip, 167 00:07:54,320 --> 00:07:56,550 stepped from the crowd and fired shots 168 00:07:56,550 --> 00:07:59,333 that killed the archduke and his wife Sophie. 169 00:08:00,430 --> 00:08:02,910 From a pistol shot at Sarajevo, 170 00:08:02,910 --> 00:08:05,733 the first of the great modern world wars exploded. 171 00:08:06,600 --> 00:08:09,530 The first thing that the assassination did, of course, 172 00:08:09,530 --> 00:08:14,020 is force Austria's hand; Austria needed to react. 173 00:08:14,020 --> 00:08:15,390 The intention is to punish Serbia. 174 00:08:15,390 --> 00:08:16,610 The question is how do you do it, 175 00:08:16,610 --> 00:08:19,360 and if you do it, there's a danger that Russia, 176 00:08:19,360 --> 00:08:22,390 who is allied to Serbia, will respond, 177 00:08:22,390 --> 00:08:24,530 and so they needed German support. 178 00:08:24,530 --> 00:08:25,497 The went to Germany and they said, 179 00:08:25,497 --> 00:08:27,777 "Look, we're planning to take action. 180 00:08:27,777 --> 00:08:29,120 "Will you support us?" 181 00:08:29,120 --> 00:08:31,130 German gave effectively a blank check, 182 00:08:31,130 --> 00:08:32,810 saying whatever happens, even if Russia 183 00:08:32,810 --> 00:08:35,823 goes to war with you as a result of this, we'll support you. 184 00:08:36,940 --> 00:08:39,340 Austria declared war on Serbia, 185 00:08:39,340 --> 00:08:40,970 who called on Russia's support, 186 00:08:40,970 --> 00:08:43,664 and the old system of alliances came to life. 187 00:08:43,664 --> 00:08:46,430 (dramatic music) 188 00:08:46,430 --> 00:08:49,170 Russia called on its ally, France. 189 00:08:49,170 --> 00:08:52,670 Germany, to confront France, invaded Belgium, 190 00:08:52,670 --> 00:08:55,570 whose neutrality had been pledged by Britain. 191 00:08:55,570 --> 00:08:58,270 And she and her empire entered the conflict 192 00:08:58,270 --> 00:08:59,170 on August the 4th. 193 00:09:01,000 --> 00:09:02,693 The world was at war. 194 00:09:03,950 --> 00:09:06,820 The Great War, the war to end all wars, 195 00:09:06,820 --> 00:09:09,960 unleashed a scale of conflict and devastation 196 00:09:09,960 --> 00:09:12,323 unprecedented in human history. 197 00:09:13,390 --> 00:09:14,400 War. 198 00:09:14,400 --> 00:09:15,900 It seemed as though the whole earth 199 00:09:15,900 --> 00:09:18,080 had gone mad with the spirit of blood-lust. 200 00:09:18,080 --> 00:09:21,109 Human life seemed as nothing, the cheapest thing 201 00:09:21,109 --> 00:09:23,170 with which to satisfy the insatiable hunger 202 00:09:23,170 --> 00:09:24,720 of the gods of war. 203 00:09:24,720 --> 00:09:26,820 It was also the first war that civilians 204 00:09:26,820 --> 00:09:30,280 were actually targeted behind the lines by bombers. 205 00:09:30,280 --> 00:09:32,980 This was the first war where you had airplanes. 206 00:09:32,980 --> 00:09:35,210 Cities were bombed in the UK. 207 00:09:35,210 --> 00:09:37,100 London was bombed by zeppelins. 208 00:09:37,100 --> 00:09:38,670 We bombed German cities. 209 00:09:38,670 --> 00:09:39,990 And so it was the first time, really, 210 00:09:39,990 --> 00:09:41,780 the whole of the population 211 00:09:41,780 --> 00:09:44,260 were drawn into the business of war. 212 00:09:44,260 --> 00:09:46,820 Or since history began, the gods of Mars 213 00:09:46,820 --> 00:09:49,070 had never given humans such incredible power. 214 00:09:49,070 --> 00:09:51,773 Never had war taken such a devastating toll. 215 00:09:54,256 --> 00:09:55,390 The war that had happened 216 00:09:55,390 --> 00:09:58,230 in such a sudden and seemingly careless way 217 00:09:58,230 --> 00:09:59,930 that a century later historians 218 00:09:59,930 --> 00:10:02,070 still argue about its causes, 219 00:10:02,070 --> 00:10:04,633 it did much more than change military tactics; 220 00:10:05,860 --> 00:10:09,003 it changed the map of the world and the balance of power. 221 00:10:10,406 --> 00:10:11,406 Permanently. 222 00:10:13,910 --> 00:10:17,533 In 1917, the United States of America entered the war. 223 00:10:19,320 --> 00:10:22,030 And when the war was over, it having impoverished 224 00:10:22,030 --> 00:10:25,350 the great states of Europe, the USA found itself 225 00:10:25,350 --> 00:10:28,513 the wealthiest and most powerful nation on Earth. 226 00:10:31,530 --> 00:10:34,280 Russia imploded after disastrous campaigns 227 00:10:34,280 --> 00:10:36,130 on the eastern front. 228 00:10:36,130 --> 00:10:37,350 The Romanovs, who had ruled 229 00:10:37,350 --> 00:10:39,000 for hundreds of years, were gone. 230 00:10:40,410 --> 00:10:41,730 The revolutionary government 231 00:10:41,730 --> 00:10:43,760 was overthrown by the Bolsheviks. 232 00:10:43,760 --> 00:10:45,630 And they made peace with Germany 233 00:10:45,630 --> 00:10:47,760 so they could focus on the civil war 234 00:10:47,760 --> 00:10:49,410 out of which would come the USSR. 235 00:10:51,910 --> 00:10:53,800 The Ottoman Empire fell. 236 00:10:53,800 --> 00:10:56,820 The Austro-Hungarian Empire was dismantled. 237 00:10:56,820 --> 00:10:58,593 And Germany was defeated. 238 00:11:01,730 --> 00:11:05,430 Kaiser Wilhelm abdicated, an armistice was signed, 239 00:11:05,430 --> 00:11:07,540 and the guns finally fell silent 240 00:11:07,540 --> 00:11:11,033 on the 11th hour of the 11th of November, 1918. 241 00:11:13,800 --> 00:11:16,790 German troops were still on foreign soil, 242 00:11:16,790 --> 00:11:18,770 and they were unwittingly setting the scene 243 00:11:18,770 --> 00:11:21,743 for the rise of the dictators barely a decade later. 244 00:11:25,610 --> 00:11:29,550 Could all that be because a teenager named Gavrilo Princip 245 00:11:29,550 --> 00:11:32,533 emptied his revolver on a Sarajevo side street? 246 00:11:33,830 --> 00:11:35,467 You could argue that the First World War 247 00:11:35,467 --> 00:11:39,890 and the conditions of peace in the 1920s and 1930s 248 00:11:39,890 --> 00:11:41,407 led directly to the Second World War, 249 00:11:41,407 --> 00:11:44,050 and that of course led to the Cold War, 250 00:11:44,050 --> 00:11:47,020 and ultimately, really, a lot of the situation, 251 00:11:47,020 --> 00:11:49,670 geopolitical situation we find in the world today 252 00:11:49,670 --> 00:11:52,350 you can trace all the way back to the First World War 253 00:11:52,350 --> 00:11:54,200 and the assassination that caused it. 254 00:11:55,119 --> 00:11:58,619 (upbeat electronic music) 255 00:12:00,030 --> 00:12:02,450 From a prototype built in a garage 256 00:12:02,450 --> 00:12:03,800 would come one of the greatest 257 00:12:03,800 --> 00:12:06,343 technological revolutions in human history. 258 00:12:07,630 --> 00:12:09,810 The rise of a device and a company 259 00:12:09,810 --> 00:12:12,823 that would forever change the way we communicate. 260 00:12:22,050 --> 00:12:25,540 The word "computer" was first used in the 17th century 261 00:12:25,540 --> 00:12:28,453 to refer to someone who performed calculations. 262 00:12:30,380 --> 00:12:33,490 By the Second World War, machines like Colossus 263 00:12:33,490 --> 00:12:35,500 were being used to break enemy code 264 00:12:35,500 --> 00:12:37,183 and read encrypted messages. 265 00:12:38,130 --> 00:12:40,250 2,000 electronic tubes, 266 00:12:40,250 --> 00:12:43,080 several thousand relays, 150 motors, 267 00:12:43,080 --> 00:12:45,090 and about 200 miles of wire 268 00:12:45,090 --> 00:12:48,940 are contained in this intricate apparatus. 269 00:12:48,940 --> 00:12:50,860 These were large, static machines 270 00:12:50,860 --> 00:12:54,563 that weighed tons and occupied entire rooms or buildings. 271 00:12:57,120 --> 00:12:59,430 First transistors, and then microchips 272 00:12:59,430 --> 00:13:00,950 saw the development of smaller, 273 00:13:00,950 --> 00:13:04,200 faster, more productive machines. 274 00:13:04,200 --> 00:13:06,120 In the '70s, the silicon chip 275 00:13:06,120 --> 00:13:10,230 became the basis of a new generation of computerized devices 276 00:13:10,230 --> 00:13:12,090 that looked sure to create a social 277 00:13:12,090 --> 00:13:14,680 and industrial revolution as profound 278 00:13:14,680 --> 00:13:18,373 as that of the first machine age nearly 200 years ago. 279 00:13:19,250 --> 00:13:21,350 Photocopier company Xerox 280 00:13:21,350 --> 00:13:24,043 created a prototype in 1973. 281 00:13:24,990 --> 00:13:27,710 An individual unit that had mouse control, 282 00:13:27,710 --> 00:13:31,680 a graphic user interface, and an ethernet connection. 283 00:13:31,680 --> 00:13:34,440 Xerox Alto, that's the computer that Steve Jobs 284 00:13:34,440 --> 00:13:37,650 and Bill Gates saw to get their idea, 285 00:13:37,650 --> 00:13:40,210 their visions for Apple and Microsoft. 286 00:13:40,210 --> 00:13:43,460 Just before the release of the Apple I, 287 00:13:43,460 --> 00:13:47,790 personal computing was essentially a hobby activity 288 00:13:47,790 --> 00:13:52,203 for a group of kind of dedicated electronic hobbyists. 289 00:13:53,330 --> 00:13:56,850 And the Apple I really changed 290 00:13:56,850 --> 00:13:59,540 that aspect of personal computing. 291 00:13:59,540 --> 00:14:02,710 First demonstrated in May 1976, 292 00:14:02,710 --> 00:14:07,013 the Apple company sold the Apple I for $666.66, 293 00:14:08,870 --> 00:14:12,400 before replacing it in 1977 with the more practical 294 00:14:12,400 --> 00:14:14,560 and user-friendly Apple II. 295 00:14:14,560 --> 00:14:15,900 And when you look at an Apple II, 296 00:14:15,900 --> 00:14:18,800 what you're seeing is a fully finished example 297 00:14:18,800 --> 00:14:20,700 of industrial design. 298 00:14:20,700 --> 00:14:23,850 It is a packaged, commercial product 299 00:14:23,850 --> 00:14:25,490 ready to go to the consumer. 300 00:14:25,490 --> 00:14:28,180 It's got a built-in interface, keyboard. 301 00:14:28,180 --> 00:14:31,040 It could be hooked up to a color monitor. 302 00:14:31,040 --> 00:14:34,380 And that actually became an industry standard then 303 00:14:34,380 --> 00:14:36,940 for a lot of business applications 304 00:14:36,940 --> 00:14:38,890 and really set the tone for personal 305 00:14:38,890 --> 00:14:42,063 and business computing afterwards. 306 00:14:43,100 --> 00:14:45,270 By the 1980s, computers 307 00:14:45,270 --> 00:14:47,690 were sophisticated enough to hid their complex 308 00:14:47,690 --> 00:14:50,963 technical aspects behind a user-friendly interface. 309 00:14:53,050 --> 00:14:56,260 Individuals could afford and understand computers, 310 00:14:56,260 --> 00:14:58,700 and the revolution was reaching every town, 311 00:14:58,700 --> 00:15:00,743 home, school, and workplace. 312 00:15:01,930 --> 00:15:04,110 Now, when I was a boy, an apple 313 00:15:04,110 --> 00:15:06,010 was something you brought the teacher. 314 00:15:06,910 --> 00:15:09,180 Today, you learn on an Apple. 315 00:15:09,180 --> 00:15:11,020 The computer essentially took 316 00:15:11,020 --> 00:15:15,290 all of the communications technologies and revolutions 317 00:15:15,290 --> 00:15:17,730 that had occurred in the 19th and 20th century, 318 00:15:17,730 --> 00:15:21,090 and bundled them together in one box. 319 00:15:21,090 --> 00:15:26,090 And I think it's really difficult to fully understand 320 00:15:26,370 --> 00:15:30,970 just what a great impact that's had on people's lives. 321 00:15:30,970 --> 00:15:33,960 But certainly in terms of the internet 322 00:15:33,960 --> 00:15:37,050 and the World Wide Web, that's had an enormous impact 323 00:15:37,050 --> 00:15:40,023 on society that we are still living today. 324 00:15:41,120 --> 00:15:42,910 The stage was set for computers 325 00:15:42,910 --> 00:15:46,313 and digital technology to become completely mobile. 326 00:15:48,540 --> 00:15:51,890 Work being conducted in the last few years of the 1990s 327 00:15:51,890 --> 00:15:56,400 at Apple created small, light devices with all the functions 328 00:15:56,400 --> 00:15:59,313 of the gigantic computers form the 1950s. 329 00:16:00,630 --> 00:16:03,410 We arrive at the age of the smart device. 330 00:16:03,410 --> 00:16:06,170 We see how a 20th century revolution 331 00:16:06,170 --> 00:16:09,480 set up the dominant image of the 21st century. 332 00:16:13,860 --> 00:16:17,400 (dramatic electronic music) 333 00:16:17,400 --> 00:16:20,680 Almost a century after the end of the Civil War, 334 00:16:20,680 --> 00:16:24,253 inequality and racial segregation persisted in America. 335 00:16:26,030 --> 00:16:28,650 The Civil Rights Movement needed a voice, 336 00:16:28,650 --> 00:16:31,718 one strong enough to make people listen. 337 00:16:31,718 --> 00:16:33,719 [Martin Luther King, Jr] I have a dream today! 338 00:16:33,719 --> 00:16:36,469 (crowd cheering) 339 00:16:38,890 --> 00:16:42,290 At the March on Washington in 1963, 340 00:16:42,290 --> 00:16:44,840 protesters from all over America came together 341 00:16:44,840 --> 00:16:47,523 against discrimination and segregation. 342 00:16:48,380 --> 00:16:49,370 They come by train. 343 00:16:49,370 --> 00:16:50,960 They come by bus and by air. 344 00:16:50,960 --> 00:16:54,170 They come from the north, the south, the east and west. 345 00:16:54,170 --> 00:16:55,660 Few realize that, in a sense, 346 00:16:55,660 --> 00:16:58,850 they are participants in an historical day. 347 00:16:58,850 --> 00:17:01,090 16 speakers address the crowd, 348 00:17:01,090 --> 00:17:03,200 but it was the words of the last to speak 349 00:17:03,200 --> 00:17:05,823 that would resonate then and through the years. 350 00:17:07,060 --> 00:17:10,320 He was Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. 351 00:17:10,320 --> 00:17:13,080 Well I think, first of all, that was his largest audience. 352 00:17:13,080 --> 00:17:17,060 I was among the people who were there, by the way, in 1963. 353 00:17:17,060 --> 00:17:19,610 So it was the biggest demonstration yet 354 00:17:19,610 --> 00:17:22,591 of the civil rights struggle. 355 00:17:22,591 --> 00:17:26,640 And Martin Luther King delivered the concluding speech. 356 00:17:26,640 --> 00:17:28,440 And the fact that he was selected for that role 357 00:17:28,440 --> 00:17:31,360 says something about his reputation as an orator. 358 00:17:31,360 --> 00:17:32,810 And there's a great swell of cheers 359 00:17:32,810 --> 00:17:35,180 to welcome Martin Luther King to the speaker's podium, 360 00:17:35,180 --> 00:17:38,793 a man who stands as a symbol of all they are fighting for. 361 00:17:40,980 --> 00:17:42,380 When he started to speak, 362 00:17:42,380 --> 00:17:44,350 King read from his notes. 363 00:17:44,350 --> 00:17:47,240 They were important words about the need for change. 364 00:17:47,240 --> 00:17:50,470 The prepared speech was really about the American ideals 365 00:17:50,470 --> 00:17:53,280 expressed in the Declaration of Independence: 366 00:17:53,280 --> 00:17:55,560 life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, 367 00:17:55,560 --> 00:17:58,620 that that should be the right of all people. 368 00:17:58,620 --> 00:18:02,290 His question, then, is have we lived up to that? 369 00:18:02,290 --> 00:18:03,800 Then something changed. 370 00:18:03,800 --> 00:18:06,780 King all but abandoned his notes. 371 00:18:06,780 --> 00:18:08,320 He started to preach. 372 00:18:08,320 --> 00:18:11,010 When he finished that prepared remarks, 373 00:18:11,010 --> 00:18:14,970 then I think he felt this needed to be something more, 374 00:18:14,970 --> 00:18:17,500 and that something more was, 375 00:18:17,500 --> 00:18:21,150 if we do live up to that promise, he envisioned a world 376 00:18:21,150 --> 00:18:24,550 that was quite different from the world in 1963. 377 00:18:24,550 --> 00:18:25,983 I have a dream ... 378 00:18:27,168 --> 00:18:28,097 that one day ... 379 00:18:29,460 --> 00:18:31,993 this nation will rise up ... 380 00:18:33,333 --> 00:18:35,533 and live out the true meaning of his creeds. 381 00:18:36,620 --> 00:18:39,147 We hold these truths to be self-evident, 382 00:18:39,990 --> 00:18:42,054 that all men are created equal. 383 00:18:42,054 --> 00:18:43,040 (cheering) 384 00:18:43,040 --> 00:18:46,710 King's intensity revitalized the sleepy crowd. 385 00:18:46,710 --> 00:18:49,590 His words infected them with his dream 386 00:18:49,590 --> 00:18:51,557 and brought new fervor to the cause. 387 00:18:51,557 --> 00:18:53,343 'Cause I have a dream ... 388 00:18:54,180 --> 00:18:56,213 my poor little children ... 389 00:18:57,870 --> 00:18:59,240 will one day live in a nation 390 00:18:59,240 --> 00:19:02,600 where they will not be judged by the color of their skin 391 00:19:02,600 --> 00:19:04,780 but by the content of their character. 392 00:19:04,780 --> 00:19:06,589 I have a dream today! 393 00:19:06,589 --> 00:19:08,330 (cheering and applauding) 394 00:19:08,330 --> 00:19:11,270 But I think what made the speech really special 395 00:19:11,270 --> 00:19:14,230 was that it, you needed to express a vision 396 00:19:14,230 --> 00:19:18,530 for what might happen if we did live up to those ideals 397 00:19:18,530 --> 00:19:22,880 and give that dream, that vision, 398 00:19:22,880 --> 00:19:27,100 substance by describing an America beyond race. 399 00:19:27,100 --> 00:19:28,520 Free at last, free at last! 400 00:19:29,964 --> 00:19:32,789 Thank God almighty we are free at last! 401 00:19:32,789 --> 00:19:35,039 (cheering) 402 00:19:38,340 --> 00:19:40,150 Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. 403 00:19:40,150 --> 00:19:43,710 was speaking of discrimination against African Americans, 404 00:19:43,710 --> 00:19:45,790 but the spirit of the speech endures 405 00:19:45,790 --> 00:19:48,490 because it can be used to defend human rights 406 00:19:48,490 --> 00:19:51,203 and the fight against any injustice anywhere. 407 00:19:52,850 --> 00:19:55,400 King's galvanizing speech influenced the passing 408 00:19:55,400 --> 00:19:58,700 of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 409 00:19:58,700 --> 00:20:01,743 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. 410 00:20:03,000 --> 00:20:04,820 Many of us who were there 411 00:20:04,820 --> 00:20:06,770 thought that the march was about getting 412 00:20:06,770 --> 00:20:10,580 the Kennedy civil rights bill through Congress. 413 00:20:10,580 --> 00:20:13,900 And he's saying, yeah, that's important, 414 00:20:13,900 --> 00:20:18,130 but what's really important is realizing 415 00:20:18,130 --> 00:20:21,203 the basic ideals on which this nation was based. 416 00:20:23,270 --> 00:20:27,510 And his last book, Where Do We Go From Here?, 417 00:20:27,510 --> 00:20:31,460 is written in 1967, so it's after the passage 418 00:20:31,460 --> 00:20:34,240 of major civil rights legislation, 419 00:20:34,240 --> 00:20:38,070 but he's still asking where do we go from here, 420 00:20:38,070 --> 00:20:40,740 and I think we still need to ask that question. 421 00:20:40,740 --> 00:20:42,113 Where do we go from here? 422 00:20:46,604 --> 00:20:49,354 (dramatic music) 423 00:20:51,500 --> 00:20:54,560 In the early 1900s, scientists and inventors 424 00:20:54,560 --> 00:20:56,930 were looking for faster ways of communicating 425 00:20:56,930 --> 00:20:58,333 across long distances. 426 00:21:00,060 --> 00:21:03,350 The result would usher in the age of broadcasting, 427 00:21:03,350 --> 00:21:05,630 bringing the world into people's homes, 428 00:21:05,630 --> 00:21:09,516 from sitcoms and soap operas to news on the hour. 429 00:21:09,516 --> 00:21:12,349 (radio crackling) 430 00:21:17,830 --> 00:21:22,350 Inventor Guglielmo Marconi was fascinated by invisible waves 431 00:21:22,350 --> 00:21:24,220 and how they could travel. 432 00:21:24,220 --> 00:21:28,050 Guglielmo Marconi was a founding father of radio. 433 00:21:28,050 --> 00:21:29,830 He was an Italian inventor. 434 00:21:29,830 --> 00:21:31,263 He didn't invent radio. 435 00:21:32,430 --> 00:21:35,880 You could say that James Clark Maxwell invented radio 436 00:21:35,880 --> 00:21:40,090 by postulating that there were electromagnetic waves 437 00:21:40,090 --> 00:21:41,990 that traveled at the speed of light, 438 00:21:41,990 --> 00:21:46,090 and it was Marconi and others who learnt how to put signals 439 00:21:46,090 --> 00:21:48,193 on those electromagnetic waves. 440 00:21:49,190 --> 00:21:51,240 He was soon able to broadcast the waves 441 00:21:51,240 --> 00:21:53,740 up to several hundred meters. 442 00:21:53,740 --> 00:21:56,950 In December 1901, his team in Cornwall 443 00:21:56,950 --> 00:22:00,850 transmitted an S in morse code hundreds of kilometers 444 00:22:00,850 --> 00:22:02,513 to the St. John's Signal Hill. 445 00:22:04,260 --> 00:22:07,020 Radio was born and quickly became a standard 446 00:22:07,020 --> 00:22:08,563 in seafaring vessels. 447 00:22:09,960 --> 00:22:12,930 It famously made news when a radio transmission 448 00:22:12,930 --> 00:22:15,760 alerted shipping to the fate of the Titanic, 449 00:22:15,760 --> 00:22:18,693 which meant saving 703 lives. 450 00:22:20,870 --> 00:22:24,180 Guglielmo Marconi, his famous signal CQD 451 00:22:24,180 --> 00:22:26,990 was the first used for distress calls. 452 00:22:26,990 --> 00:22:28,960 The Titanic was one of the earliest tragedies 453 00:22:28,960 --> 00:22:30,663 to be mitigated by his invention. 454 00:22:32,160 --> 00:22:33,800 As radio became established 455 00:22:33,800 --> 00:22:36,693 as in-home entertainment, audiences grew. 456 00:22:37,700 --> 00:22:40,910 Advertisers and more broadcasters followed. 457 00:22:40,910 --> 00:22:42,590 In the radio studios of America, 458 00:22:42,590 --> 00:22:45,620 the technicians, the entertainers, the commentators, 459 00:22:45,620 --> 00:22:48,950 the administrative personnel daily unite their efforts 460 00:22:48,950 --> 00:22:51,070 in the creation of programs to please 461 00:22:51,070 --> 00:22:53,320 and entertain a vast radio public. 462 00:22:53,320 --> 00:22:56,660 It was the first mass medium 463 00:22:56,660 --> 00:22:59,060 that came into people's homes. 464 00:22:59,060 --> 00:23:04,060 It allowed people to hear events with far quicker lead times 465 00:23:04,200 --> 00:23:06,140 than the old days of newspapers. 466 00:23:06,140 --> 00:23:08,390 The King arrives at broadcasting house, 467 00:23:08,390 --> 00:23:10,880 and alone in a small studio makes his pronouncement 468 00:23:10,880 --> 00:23:12,650 in these memorable words. 469 00:23:12,650 --> 00:23:15,590 As more broadcasters took up their microphones, 470 00:23:15,590 --> 00:23:17,403 frequencies had to be allocated. 471 00:23:18,550 --> 00:23:20,400 Interference decreased further 472 00:23:20,400 --> 00:23:22,823 as innovation modulated the airwaves. 473 00:23:24,380 --> 00:23:26,510 Scientific progression created 474 00:23:26,510 --> 00:23:30,060 a more user-friendly experience for the variety show, 475 00:23:30,060 --> 00:23:32,713 the discussion, and the radio play. 476 00:23:36,070 --> 00:23:38,440 Orson Welles and the Mercury Theater Company 477 00:23:38,440 --> 00:23:41,540 dramatized the classics, until their broadcast, 478 00:23:41,540 --> 00:23:44,433 the night before Halloween in 1938. 479 00:23:45,390 --> 00:23:49,010 The company performed an adaptation of War of the Worlds. 480 00:23:49,010 --> 00:23:51,600 The War of the Worlds broadcast became very famous 481 00:23:51,600 --> 00:23:55,020 because it created a sense of panic, 482 00:23:55,020 --> 00:23:59,310 allegedly, among large numbers of its radio audience. 483 00:23:59,310 --> 00:24:03,820 It was a radio enactment of H.G. Wells's famous book, 484 00:24:03,820 --> 00:24:07,665 done with voice and sound effect. 485 00:24:07,665 --> 00:24:11,021 (overlapping shouts) 486 00:24:11,021 --> 00:24:13,024 Ladies and gentlemen, this is the most terrifying thing 487 00:24:13,024 --> 00:24:14,691 I've ever witnessed. 488 00:24:15,683 --> 00:24:17,994 Eyes are black and they gleam like a serpent. 489 00:24:17,994 --> 00:24:19,840 The mouth is kind of V-shaped 490 00:24:19,840 --> 00:24:21,870 with saliva dripping from its limbless lips 491 00:24:21,870 --> 00:24:24,200 that seem to ooze, quiver, and pulsate, 492 00:24:24,200 --> 00:24:26,733 and the monster, or whatever it is, can hardly move! 493 00:24:28,090 --> 00:24:29,690 The probability is that reaction 494 00:24:29,690 --> 00:24:33,333 to the broadcast was grossly overstated by the newspapers. 495 00:24:34,750 --> 00:24:37,440 That indicates that the growing popularity of the radio 496 00:24:37,440 --> 00:24:39,760 was threatening the press, which hoped 497 00:24:39,760 --> 00:24:42,370 that publicizing such a sensation may provoke 498 00:24:42,370 --> 00:24:44,673 stricter government control of the airwaves. 499 00:24:46,500 --> 00:24:48,060 But it was too late. 500 00:24:48,060 --> 00:24:51,670 Radio was profitable, and it was here to stay. 501 00:24:51,670 --> 00:24:55,730 By 1925, you could buy ready-made sets. 502 00:24:55,730 --> 00:24:58,040 You just plugged them in or used batteries, 503 00:24:58,040 --> 00:25:00,100 switched the dial, put some earphones on 504 00:25:00,100 --> 00:25:02,700 or then a loudspeaker, and you could hear the radio. 505 00:25:03,730 --> 00:25:07,820 But it created also a broader accessibility to culture, 506 00:25:07,820 --> 00:25:11,210 to information, to news, to weather. 507 00:25:11,210 --> 00:25:15,093 It created an early form of our information society. 508 00:25:16,140 --> 00:25:18,620 Radio evolved over many years 509 00:25:18,620 --> 00:25:20,343 with the work of many inventors. 510 00:25:21,980 --> 00:25:24,720 From morse code to radio plays 511 00:25:24,720 --> 00:25:26,830 to presidential fireside chats 512 00:25:28,050 --> 00:25:30,630 to news broadcasts, Marconi's invention 513 00:25:30,630 --> 00:25:33,873 became an enormous influence on the 20th century. 514 00:25:35,303 --> 00:25:38,470 (lively string music) 515 00:25:39,550 --> 00:25:42,690 Bacteria was once the scourge of mankind. 516 00:25:42,690 --> 00:25:44,740 Left unchecked, ti would multiply 517 00:25:44,740 --> 00:25:47,343 until the human body could no longer fight back, 518 00:25:48,210 --> 00:25:50,910 until a fateful discovery in a messy lab 519 00:25:50,910 --> 00:25:52,833 changed the course of modern medicine. 520 00:25:59,120 --> 00:26:02,513 The beginning of the story of antibiotics is disputed. 521 00:26:03,370 --> 00:26:05,580 It can arguably attributed to the work 522 00:26:05,580 --> 00:26:08,050 of a man named Alexander Fleming, 523 00:26:08,050 --> 00:26:10,700 its discovery a result of his belief 524 00:26:10,700 --> 00:26:14,073 that lab cleanliness was a choice rather than a necessity. 525 00:26:16,000 --> 00:26:19,370 In 1928, Fleming's desk was a mess. 526 00:26:19,370 --> 00:26:21,420 Petri dishes spilled into each other, 527 00:26:21,420 --> 00:26:23,383 cross-contaminating their samples. 528 00:26:24,293 --> 00:26:25,800 He was working and looking at them, 529 00:26:25,800 --> 00:26:27,700 and he'd been sick that week 530 00:26:27,700 --> 00:26:30,280 and he sneezed into his Petri dish, 531 00:26:30,280 --> 00:26:31,980 and so that plate's ruined. 532 00:26:31,980 --> 00:26:35,160 He puts it to the side, and he went off on holiday. 533 00:26:35,160 --> 00:26:38,550 And he came back from holidays and looked at that plate, 534 00:26:38,550 --> 00:26:41,100 and it was growing a whole bunch of mold. 535 00:26:41,100 --> 00:26:44,010 But around some of those colonies of mold 536 00:26:44,010 --> 00:26:47,670 there was this blank space where no bacteria was growing, 537 00:26:47,670 --> 00:26:51,300 because that mold was killing the bacteria. 538 00:26:51,300 --> 00:26:52,670 Fleming published a paper 539 00:26:52,670 --> 00:26:55,243 about separating samples and moved on. 540 00:26:56,350 --> 00:26:59,150 Like many discoveries, what Fleming noted 541 00:26:59,150 --> 00:27:03,010 lay dormant for 10 years, until Howard Florey, 542 00:27:03,010 --> 00:27:06,490 with fellow scientist Ernst Chain and their team, 543 00:27:06,490 --> 00:27:08,560 worked to develop the miracle mold 544 00:27:08,560 --> 00:27:10,633 so that it could be put to medical use. 545 00:27:12,550 --> 00:27:15,160 What he knew was that he couldn't solve it alone, 546 00:27:15,160 --> 00:27:16,700 and so he did something that was really 547 00:27:16,700 --> 00:27:20,440 quite uncommon at the time: he pulled together 548 00:27:20,440 --> 00:27:24,780 people's expertise and information from this wide net 549 00:27:24,780 --> 00:27:27,973 of science and housed them under one roof. 550 00:27:29,810 --> 00:27:33,670 He had biologists, bacteriologists, pathologists, 551 00:27:33,670 --> 00:27:36,900 clinical doctors, all different styles of scientists 552 00:27:36,900 --> 00:27:39,970 working on the one problem and then coming together 553 00:27:39,970 --> 00:27:42,320 and discussing all of their different parts 554 00:27:42,320 --> 00:27:43,870 of that problem together. 555 00:27:43,870 --> 00:27:47,810 And it was that collaboration that really created 556 00:27:47,810 --> 00:27:50,483 this world-first antibiotic. 557 00:27:52,610 --> 00:27:54,780 Unfortunately, Britain was not equipped 558 00:27:54,780 --> 00:27:56,710 for the necessarily high yield, 559 00:27:56,710 --> 00:27:58,973 as their labs were tied up in the war effort. 560 00:27:59,980 --> 00:28:02,163 So Florey took it to the U.S. 561 00:28:03,020 --> 00:28:05,610 In June 1941, there was brought 562 00:28:05,610 --> 00:28:08,943 to the United States a tiny flask of the living mold. 563 00:28:10,340 --> 00:28:12,160 The altruistic men of science 564 00:28:12,160 --> 00:28:13,770 did not even patent their work 565 00:28:13,770 --> 00:28:15,593 before taking it across the sea. 566 00:28:17,340 --> 00:28:20,143 The Americans successfully improved its productivity. 567 00:28:21,280 --> 00:28:22,890 Through mass production methods, 568 00:28:22,890 --> 00:28:26,400 America is continually increasing its output of Penicillin, 569 00:28:26,400 --> 00:28:28,963 the new drug the affects almost miraculous cures. 570 00:28:30,400 --> 00:28:32,620 The first trial, on the infected cheek 571 00:28:32,620 --> 00:28:36,033 of Albert Alexander, was a partial success. 572 00:28:37,310 --> 00:28:40,100 But unfortunately, the limited supply ran out 573 00:28:40,100 --> 00:28:43,123 and the 43-year-old policeman died from his wounds. 574 00:28:45,150 --> 00:28:48,370 Supply was still growing, but the war restricted its use 575 00:28:48,370 --> 00:28:50,210 to the masses of injured soldiers 576 00:28:50,210 --> 00:28:52,383 and cases where the treatment had failed. 577 00:28:54,070 --> 00:28:58,410 By the war's end in 1945, supply vastly improved 578 00:28:58,410 --> 00:29:00,043 and restrictions were dropped. 579 00:29:01,510 --> 00:29:04,040 By the end of the century, the class of drugs 580 00:29:04,040 --> 00:29:06,610 had become so widespread that most people 581 00:29:06,610 --> 00:29:08,960 in the developed world will have been prescribed 582 00:29:08,960 --> 00:29:10,713 an antibiotic during childhood. 583 00:29:11,770 --> 00:29:14,700 Penicillin changed the world. 584 00:29:14,700 --> 00:29:18,760 It completely transformed our understanding 585 00:29:18,760 --> 00:29:21,520 and expectations of life and death. 586 00:29:21,520 --> 00:29:24,160 Women and children often died in childbirth. 587 00:29:24,160 --> 00:29:27,320 People who got pneumonia, a third of them would die. 588 00:29:27,320 --> 00:29:30,240 80% of common infections that people got 589 00:29:30,240 --> 00:29:32,700 from scratches in their day-to-day lives 590 00:29:32,700 --> 00:29:35,343 went to quite serious infections and often death. 591 00:29:36,360 --> 00:29:41,360 So, Penicillin, antibiotics, revolutionized the way 592 00:29:42,390 --> 00:29:45,140 that people dealt with their day-to-day lives 593 00:29:45,140 --> 00:29:48,150 and their relationship with infections. 594 00:29:48,150 --> 00:29:49,470 Other discoveries to come out 595 00:29:49,470 --> 00:29:52,400 of the original research had led to the development 596 00:29:52,400 --> 00:29:55,300 of more than 60 kinds of antibiotics, 597 00:29:55,300 --> 00:29:57,753 able to fight stronger strains of bacteria. 598 00:30:00,950 --> 00:30:03,960 As resistant strains evolve and mutate, 599 00:30:03,960 --> 00:30:06,620 the research continues in an unbroken line 600 00:30:06,620 --> 00:30:08,913 from Alexander Fleming's Petri dish. 601 00:30:13,302 --> 00:30:15,969 (curious music) 602 00:30:17,440 --> 00:30:20,653 A nation divided by the color of its citizens' skin. 603 00:30:22,320 --> 00:30:25,200 A blatant government policy of racial discrimination 604 00:30:25,200 --> 00:30:27,743 reviled and protested around the world. 605 00:30:29,050 --> 00:30:31,463 A change that many fought hard to achieve. 606 00:30:32,630 --> 00:30:34,440 One that was long overdue. 607 00:30:42,030 --> 00:30:44,960 South Africa's apartheid policy divided families, 608 00:30:44,960 --> 00:30:47,463 communities, and the country into fragments. 609 00:30:48,690 --> 00:30:52,403 The word "apartheid" means apartness. 610 00:30:53,450 --> 00:30:55,640 In the context of South Africa, 611 00:30:55,640 --> 00:30:58,490 it was fused with this ideology 612 00:30:58,490 --> 00:31:01,483 of white purity and supremacy. 613 00:31:02,700 --> 00:31:04,510 The apartheid laws had been set up 614 00:31:04,510 --> 00:31:07,863 on the 1948 program of racial registration. 615 00:31:09,810 --> 00:31:11,520 The African National Congress, 616 00:31:11,520 --> 00:31:14,600 and then the Pan Africanist Congress 617 00:31:14,600 --> 00:31:16,700 initially protested peacefully, 618 00:31:16,700 --> 00:31:19,313 but were met with rifle fire and imprisonment, 619 00:31:20,620 --> 00:31:24,883 notably in the infamous Sharpeville massacre of 1960. 620 00:31:26,350 --> 00:31:29,480 Apartheid remains rigidly enforced. 621 00:31:29,480 --> 00:31:31,440 There are over 12 million Africans 622 00:31:31,440 --> 00:31:33,390 to two-and-a-half million white people. 623 00:31:35,010 --> 00:31:36,370 The shooting at Sharpeville, 624 00:31:36,370 --> 00:31:40,020 in which many Africans died, shocked the world 625 00:31:40,020 --> 00:31:42,333 as evidence of the dangers of the situation. 626 00:31:43,490 --> 00:31:45,080 Soon, protestors became 627 00:31:45,080 --> 00:31:47,370 more active in their fight. 628 00:31:47,370 --> 00:31:50,700 Nelson Mandela led the armed wing Spear of the Nation 629 00:31:50,700 --> 00:31:53,027 at the African National Congress. 630 00:31:53,027 --> 00:31:56,168 There are many people who feel that it is useless 631 00:31:56,168 --> 00:31:58,990 and futile for us to continue talking peace 632 00:31:58,990 --> 00:32:01,500 and non-violence against a government 633 00:32:01,500 --> 00:32:05,170 whose reply is all these savage attacks 634 00:32:05,170 --> 00:32:07,790 on an unarmed and defenseless people. 635 00:32:07,790 --> 00:32:10,344 He was involved in every protest 636 00:32:10,344 --> 00:32:13,740 and was an outspoken critic, 637 00:32:13,740 --> 00:32:17,400 and for this reason was charged with high treason. 638 00:32:17,400 --> 00:32:20,460 Mandela would spend 27 years in prison, 639 00:32:20,460 --> 00:32:23,840 receiving worse treatment than the white inmates. 640 00:32:23,840 --> 00:32:26,150 His plight spurred the anti-apartheid feeling 641 00:32:26,150 --> 00:32:28,870 within the country and around the world, 642 00:32:28,870 --> 00:32:31,320 putting pressure on the South African government. 643 00:32:33,330 --> 00:32:36,350 Nelson Mandela in prison 644 00:32:36,350 --> 00:32:41,350 became a much more globally known figure ... 645 00:32:42,180 --> 00:32:45,430 than Nelson Mandela outside prison. 646 00:32:45,430 --> 00:32:50,430 And he was a very powerful contributing factor 647 00:32:50,430 --> 00:32:53,533 when it came to the downfall of apartheid. 648 00:32:55,230 --> 00:32:57,770 As the attitude of the rest of the world changed, 649 00:32:57,770 --> 00:33:00,160 policies toward South Africa hardened, 650 00:33:00,160 --> 00:33:02,840 both in trade and in sports. 651 00:33:02,840 --> 00:33:05,110 In Sydney, a force of 600 police 652 00:33:05,110 --> 00:33:07,700 prepare for a massive anti-apartheid demonstration 653 00:33:07,700 --> 00:33:09,900 at the South African Springboks rugby match. 654 00:33:11,280 --> 00:33:13,890 In 1989, the newly-elected leader 655 00:33:13,890 --> 00:33:18,040 of South Africa, F.W. de Klerk recognized that change 656 00:33:18,040 --> 00:33:20,763 was needed or the republic would collapse. 657 00:33:22,400 --> 00:33:25,710 De Klerk was saying, look, we can't carry on 658 00:33:25,710 --> 00:33:28,873 the way we are; otherwise, we will implode. 659 00:33:29,780 --> 00:33:31,770 His government negotiated with Mandela 660 00:33:31,770 --> 00:33:35,723 through house arrest to his eventual freedom in 1990. 661 00:33:37,820 --> 00:33:40,580 There's Mr. Mandela, Mr. Neslon Mandela, 662 00:33:40,580 --> 00:33:45,580 a free man, taking his first steps into a new South Africa. 663 00:33:47,750 --> 00:33:48,990 Mandela lost no time 664 00:33:48,990 --> 00:33:51,453 in renewing his efforts to end apartheid. 665 00:33:52,670 --> 00:33:55,820 By this time, the South African government recognized 666 00:33:55,820 --> 00:33:57,720 that its policy was no longer tenable 667 00:33:57,720 --> 00:33:59,170 in the international climate. 668 00:34:00,110 --> 00:34:03,950 De Klerk began repealing the laws behind apartheid. 669 00:34:03,950 --> 00:34:06,220 The South African statute book 670 00:34:06,220 --> 00:34:10,310 will be devoid within months of the remnants 671 00:34:10,310 --> 00:34:13,450 of the racially discriminatory legislation 672 00:34:13,450 --> 00:34:17,160 which have become known as the cornerstones of apartheid. 673 00:34:17,160 --> 00:34:20,000 The immediate impact of the end of apartheid 674 00:34:20,000 --> 00:34:22,130 was, I think, one of relief. 675 00:34:22,130 --> 00:34:23,967 The rest the the world went, "Phew! 676 00:34:25,477 --> 00:34:27,098 "That's the end of that." 677 00:34:27,098 --> 00:34:30,200 This is a country that has pockmarked 678 00:34:30,200 --> 00:34:32,600 the entire 20th century. 679 00:34:32,600 --> 00:34:35,980 It's flown in the face of global opinion 680 00:34:37,080 --> 00:34:39,700 and stuck to its guns with this vicious, 681 00:34:39,700 --> 00:34:43,200 oppressive, irrational system 682 00:34:43,200 --> 00:34:45,653 that is at odds with the rest of the world. 683 00:34:48,340 --> 00:34:49,400 The end of apartheid 684 00:34:49,400 --> 00:34:51,660 was also an end of a way of thinking 685 00:34:51,660 --> 00:34:54,453 synonymous with the empires of the past centuries. 686 00:34:56,030 --> 00:34:59,350 In July 1993, the nationalist government 687 00:34:59,350 --> 00:35:01,833 agreed to an election including all races. 688 00:35:02,940 --> 00:35:05,733 You hold the future in your hands. 689 00:35:08,150 --> 00:35:10,440 In 1994, the republic elected 690 00:35:10,440 --> 00:35:13,840 its first black president, Nelson Mandela. 691 00:35:13,840 --> 00:35:17,100 A new constitution came into effect in that year, 692 00:35:17,100 --> 00:35:19,873 finally ending the policy of apartheid. 693 00:35:21,630 --> 00:35:24,450 This is one of the most important moments 694 00:35:24,450 --> 00:35:26,193 in the life of our country. 695 00:35:27,960 --> 00:35:32,764 I stand before you filled with deep pride and joy. 696 00:35:32,764 --> 00:35:35,666 (cheering) 697 00:35:35,666 --> 00:35:38,249 (somber music) 698 00:35:39,216 --> 00:35:41,690 In 1917, two revolutions 699 00:35:41,690 --> 00:35:45,273 would bring down the Russian empire in a matter of months. 700 00:35:46,340 --> 00:35:49,680 In its wake would emerge a completely new political system 701 00:35:51,130 --> 00:35:53,003 and a new global superpower. 702 00:36:00,970 --> 00:36:03,220 Imperial Russia, the champion of Slavdom, 703 00:36:03,220 --> 00:36:06,624 had entered the First World War in 1914. 704 00:36:06,624 --> 00:36:08,010 (booming) 705 00:36:08,010 --> 00:36:10,070 Success in battle was short-lived, 706 00:36:10,070 --> 00:36:12,720 and military disasters were catastrophic 707 00:36:12,720 --> 00:36:14,143 and weakened the empire. 708 00:36:16,160 --> 00:36:19,250 By the start of 1917, Russia was gripped 709 00:36:19,250 --> 00:36:20,870 with severe shortages. 710 00:36:20,870 --> 00:36:23,370 If not teetering on the edge of starvation, 711 00:36:23,370 --> 00:36:26,200 so there was a loss of faith in the capacity 712 00:36:26,200 --> 00:36:30,230 of the tsarist government and the Tsar himself 713 00:36:30,230 --> 00:36:33,010 to actually continue prosecuting a war 714 00:36:33,010 --> 00:36:36,283 that was coming at such extraordinary social cost. 715 00:36:37,820 --> 00:36:39,030 On the 8th of March, 716 00:36:39,030 --> 00:36:42,910 female Petrograd factory workers finished their shift 717 00:36:42,910 --> 00:36:45,760 and were forced to queue for bread that wasn't available. 718 00:36:47,060 --> 00:36:49,710 Their street protest attracted others, 719 00:36:49,710 --> 00:36:53,270 and by the evening, 100,000 workers were protesting 720 00:36:53,270 --> 00:36:55,560 and declaring a strike of their labor. 721 00:36:55,560 --> 00:36:56,640 1917. 722 00:36:56,640 --> 00:36:58,940 A demonstration is St. Petersburg starts 723 00:36:58,940 --> 00:37:01,740 over a simple demand for a higher bread ration, 724 00:37:01,740 --> 00:37:04,440 gets out of hand, includes a new demand: 725 00:37:04,440 --> 00:37:07,670 transfer of power from the Tsar to an elected parliament. 726 00:37:07,670 --> 00:37:10,100 The Tsar reacts in customary fashion, 727 00:37:10,100 --> 00:37:12,320 turns his troops loose on the demonstrators. 728 00:37:12,320 --> 00:37:14,210 But something goes wrong. 729 00:37:14,210 --> 00:37:16,100 As the crisis escalated, 730 00:37:16,100 --> 00:37:18,243 Tsar Nicholas was forced to abdicate. 731 00:37:19,460 --> 00:37:23,600 The unexpected, accidental revolution created a vacuum, 732 00:37:23,600 --> 00:37:26,583 which an ill-prepared provisional government tried to fill. 733 00:37:27,430 --> 00:37:30,350 The inability of that provisional government 734 00:37:30,350 --> 00:37:33,360 to actually address the concerns that had brought about 735 00:37:33,360 --> 00:37:36,140 the fall of the autocracy in the first place 736 00:37:36,140 --> 00:37:41,140 actually sees the deepening radicalization ... 737 00:37:42,090 --> 00:37:46,313 of the ordinary people on the streets, in the countryside. 738 00:37:47,390 --> 00:37:48,300 Conditions were right 739 00:37:48,300 --> 00:37:50,850 for another political group to challenge for power. 740 00:37:51,870 --> 00:37:54,870 Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, observing events 741 00:37:54,870 --> 00:37:57,550 from exile in Switzerland, began to encourage 742 00:37:57,550 --> 00:38:00,693 his Bolshevik supporters to take advantage of the chaos. 743 00:38:02,960 --> 00:38:05,570 On the 7th of November, armed Bolsheviks stormed 744 00:38:05,570 --> 00:38:08,513 the Winter Palace, arresting the provisional government. 745 00:38:09,760 --> 00:38:13,843 They ousted it by virtually a bloodless insurrection. 746 00:38:14,970 --> 00:38:17,020 There's a very famous image, of course, and paintings 747 00:38:17,020 --> 00:38:19,420 and films about the taking of the Winter Palace, 748 00:38:19,420 --> 00:38:23,170 but in fact it wasn't quite as dramatic as all that. 749 00:38:23,170 --> 00:38:24,660 In fact, more people were killed 750 00:38:24,660 --> 00:38:28,163 during Sergei Eisenstein's filmed reenactment of the event. 751 00:38:30,270 --> 00:38:31,930 But it was an event that installed 752 00:38:31,930 --> 00:38:33,320 the new Bolshevik government, 753 00:38:33,320 --> 00:38:35,853 which began peace negotiations with Germany. 754 00:38:37,100 --> 00:38:39,050 Fearing the former Tsar and his family 755 00:38:39,050 --> 00:38:41,760 will be a rallying point for opposing factions, 756 00:38:41,760 --> 00:38:44,083 Lenin ordered the deaths of the royal family. 757 00:38:45,510 --> 00:38:48,640 By 1921, the Red Army had occupied 758 00:38:48,640 --> 00:38:52,083 all the independent republics of the defunct Russian empire. 759 00:38:53,840 --> 00:38:56,870 In 1922, Moscow proclaimed the creation 760 00:38:56,870 --> 00:38:59,623 of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, 761 00:39:00,920 --> 00:39:03,570 with the Russian communist party the center of power. 762 00:39:04,560 --> 00:39:08,660 I would say almost all of the major events 763 00:39:08,660 --> 00:39:12,500 in 20th century history have been, in one way or other, 764 00:39:12,500 --> 00:39:16,490 defined by what started out as a revolution 765 00:39:16,490 --> 00:39:18,470 in the city of Petrograd in 1917. 766 00:39:21,250 --> 00:39:22,980 Although Lenin had led his supporters 767 00:39:22,980 --> 00:39:26,280 to victory and created a new system of government, 768 00:39:26,280 --> 00:39:30,520 his growing incapacity from 1922 created an opportunity 769 00:39:30,520 --> 00:39:32,993 for someone to step up and assume the mantle. 770 00:39:33,900 --> 00:39:36,750 Not quite out of the shadows stepped Joseph Stalin, 771 00:39:36,750 --> 00:39:38,974 the one man Lenin had warned against. 772 00:39:38,974 --> 00:39:41,420 (clapping) 773 00:39:41,420 --> 00:39:43,433 Lenin died in 19124. 774 00:39:44,430 --> 00:39:47,600 Under Stalin, the USSR would be transformed 775 00:39:47,600 --> 00:39:49,930 into one of the world's superpowers, 776 00:39:49,930 --> 00:39:52,613 through the sacrifices of collectivization, 777 00:39:53,880 --> 00:39:56,920 the famines of the Great Leap Forward, 778 00:39:56,920 --> 00:39:59,720 and above all through the war against Hitler, 779 00:39:59,720 --> 00:40:03,093 in which Stalin led them from disaster to triumph. 780 00:40:06,915 --> 00:40:09,498 (somber music) 781 00:40:11,680 --> 00:40:15,033 The Second World War ended in Europe in May 1945. 782 00:40:16,840 --> 00:40:19,540 But it was still being waged on land and at sea 783 00:40:19,540 --> 00:40:21,030 in the Asia pacific. 784 00:40:21,030 --> 00:40:23,320 (booming) 785 00:40:23,320 --> 00:40:25,640 Until a weapon of unprecedented power 786 00:40:25,640 --> 00:40:28,640 would be used against a civilian population, 787 00:40:28,640 --> 00:40:31,293 bringing the war to an abrupt and shocking end. 788 00:40:40,160 --> 00:40:44,093 The Manhattan Project began in 1940 with a deadly purpose. 789 00:40:45,080 --> 00:40:47,110 The Allies were pooling their resources 790 00:40:47,110 --> 00:40:50,020 to unlock the destructive power of the atom. 791 00:40:50,020 --> 00:40:53,890 Nuclear fission as a process was discovered in 1938. 792 00:40:53,890 --> 00:40:55,860 And just around the time that war 793 00:40:55,860 --> 00:40:58,010 was starting to break out in Europe, 794 00:40:58,010 --> 00:41:00,220 Albert Einstein and others drew the attention 795 00:41:00,220 --> 00:41:04,510 of President Roosevelt to the idea that the fission process 796 00:41:04,510 --> 00:41:08,580 might be used to produce a highly destructive weapon. 797 00:41:08,580 --> 00:41:10,900 After feasibility studies studies had been conducted, 798 00:41:10,900 --> 00:41:13,740 in 1941 Roosevelt signed off on the idea 799 00:41:13,740 --> 00:41:15,923 of a program to develop an atomic bomb. 800 00:41:17,690 --> 00:41:19,490 As the Japanese fought on, 801 00:41:19,490 --> 00:41:21,830 it was estimated that an American invasion 802 00:41:21,830 --> 00:41:23,850 of the home islands would cost 803 00:41:23,850 --> 00:41:26,500 more than a million American lives. 804 00:41:26,500 --> 00:41:27,880 Now the war in the Far East 805 00:41:27,880 --> 00:41:30,110 is by now means an easy affair. 806 00:41:30,110 --> 00:41:32,593 The cost in human lives is appallingly heavy. 807 00:41:34,530 --> 00:41:35,960 So the order was given, 808 00:41:35,960 --> 00:41:39,430 and on August 6th, 1945 and atomic bomb 809 00:41:39,430 --> 00:41:42,610 was dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima. 810 00:41:42,610 --> 00:41:45,010 As they approach the target area, 811 00:41:45,010 --> 00:41:47,871 the weapon is checked for the last time. 812 00:41:47,871 --> 00:41:49,171 (dial clicking) 813 00:41:49,171 --> 00:41:51,421 (rumbling) 814 00:41:52,440 --> 00:41:54,540 The bomb, nicknamed Little Boy, 815 00:41:54,540 --> 00:41:57,410 missed its civilian target, the Aioi Bridge, 816 00:41:57,410 --> 00:41:59,103 by approximately 300 meters, 817 00:42:00,090 --> 00:42:04,370 but it wiped out approximately 80,000 people instantly 818 00:42:04,370 --> 00:42:05,920 and destroyed most of the city. 819 00:42:07,410 --> 00:42:11,230 The Japanese began the war from the air at Pearl Harbor. 820 00:42:11,230 --> 00:42:13,353 They have been repaid manyfold. 821 00:42:16,218 --> 00:42:18,230 With this bomb we have now added 822 00:42:18,230 --> 00:42:22,483 a new and revolutionary increase in destruction. 823 00:42:24,110 --> 00:42:25,410 Those close to the epicenter 824 00:42:25,410 --> 00:42:27,550 of the blast were obliterated. 825 00:42:27,550 --> 00:42:30,240 In some cases, all that was left was a shadow 826 00:42:30,240 --> 00:42:32,440 burned into the wall and ground behind them. 827 00:42:33,770 --> 00:42:35,740 In stone etched by heat 828 00:42:35,740 --> 00:42:37,920 which reached thousands of degrees, 829 00:42:37,920 --> 00:42:40,760 a monument recorded the passage of the blast, 830 00:42:40,760 --> 00:42:42,920 and burned into the pavement was the silhouette 831 00:42:42,920 --> 00:42:45,833 of one of the many who perished on that fateful day. 832 00:42:49,500 --> 00:42:51,070 The death toll included 90% 833 00:42:51,070 --> 00:42:53,870 of the city's doctors and nurses, 834 00:42:53,870 --> 00:42:56,343 limiting the medical response to this new weapon. 835 00:42:57,890 --> 00:43:00,500 Another 60,000 people would die within months 836 00:43:00,500 --> 00:43:02,523 from radiation-related diseases. 837 00:43:06,280 --> 00:43:09,400 Three days after Hiroshima, the Japanese government, 838 00:43:09,400 --> 00:43:12,580 having failed to offer unconditional surrender, 839 00:43:12,580 --> 00:43:15,410 a second plane flew past cloud-covered Kakara 840 00:43:15,410 --> 00:43:16,613 to a clearer target. 841 00:43:18,090 --> 00:43:20,520 A few days later, a second atomic terror 842 00:43:20,520 --> 00:43:22,130 was loosed on Nagasaki. 843 00:43:22,130 --> 00:43:24,420 Although the end of Japan's aggression 844 00:43:24,420 --> 00:43:26,670 was in sight before atomic bombings, 845 00:43:26,670 --> 00:43:28,040 it was this terrific force 846 00:43:28,040 --> 00:43:30,033 that finally signed her death warrant. 847 00:43:31,710 --> 00:43:34,650 Six days after the bombings, on August 15th, 848 00:43:34,650 --> 00:43:36,520 the emperor Hirohito announced 849 00:43:36,520 --> 00:43:38,593 Japan's unconditional surrender. 850 00:43:40,520 --> 00:43:42,370 Almost instantaneously people realized 851 00:43:42,370 --> 00:43:45,400 that this is a very, very different weapon, 852 00:43:45,400 --> 00:43:47,540 and there is a realization that, 853 00:43:47,540 --> 00:43:49,410 although people are of course happy 854 00:43:49,410 --> 00:43:51,600 that after the bomb has been dropped 855 00:43:51,600 --> 00:43:54,920 on Hiroshima and Nagasaki that the war is ended, 856 00:43:54,920 --> 00:43:56,970 there is also an understanding that, 857 00:43:56,970 --> 00:43:59,540 if the Japanese surrendered as a result of this weapon, 858 00:43:59,540 --> 00:44:02,233 it must have been a very terrible weapon. 859 00:44:03,760 --> 00:44:06,610 Though the atomic bomb ended the Pacific War, 860 00:44:06,610 --> 00:44:08,440 it also graphically demonstrated 861 00:44:08,440 --> 00:44:10,163 the power of this new weapon. 862 00:44:12,260 --> 00:44:15,370 The power of the atom bomb was not theoretical. 863 00:44:15,370 --> 00:44:17,410 What had been made visible contributed 864 00:44:17,410 --> 00:44:19,580 to the deterrent effect that kept the peace 865 00:44:19,580 --> 00:44:21,573 between the world's two superpowers. 866 00:44:24,580 --> 00:44:27,380 Many people think that the development of atomic weapons 867 00:44:27,380 --> 00:44:29,130 and subsequently nuclear weapons 868 00:44:29,130 --> 00:44:33,030 has had a effect of actually insuring against 869 00:44:33,030 --> 00:44:35,520 great power conflict or superpower conflict. 870 00:44:35,520 --> 00:44:38,360 It's certainly the case that Kennedy and Khrushchev, 871 00:44:38,360 --> 00:44:39,790 during the Cuban Missile Crisis, 872 00:44:39,790 --> 00:44:42,640 were led and influenced very much 873 00:44:42,640 --> 00:44:44,310 towards the idea that a solution 874 00:44:44,310 --> 00:44:45,460 would be better than warfare 875 00:44:45,460 --> 00:44:47,920 because they both had a quite strong impression 876 00:44:47,920 --> 00:44:51,140 of what nuclear warfare would be like. 877 00:44:51,140 --> 00:44:52,820 The leaders of the two superpowers 878 00:44:52,820 --> 00:44:56,743 came close to the brink in 1962's nuclear standoff. 879 00:44:57,630 --> 00:44:59,250 But they didn't want to push the button 880 00:44:59,250 --> 00:45:00,903 on missiles being deployed. 881 00:45:01,780 --> 00:45:03,880 The bomb was never meant to be used again. 882 00:45:05,350 --> 00:45:06,990 You only really get to be unlucky once. 883 00:45:06,990 --> 00:45:09,180 And as we know, an awful lot of damage 884 00:45:09,180 --> 00:45:11,760 can result from nuclear emissions 885 00:45:11,760 --> 00:45:13,180 of the sort that would see a result 886 00:45:13,180 --> 00:45:15,273 from the use of nuclear weapons. 887 00:45:16,350 --> 00:45:17,960 Fear remains of the deadly effect 888 00:45:17,960 --> 00:45:19,430 of the atomic bomb. 889 00:45:19,430 --> 00:45:22,960 Its capacity to unleash such devastation 890 00:45:22,960 --> 00:45:26,423 has created the idea of mutually assured destruction. 891 00:45:27,610 --> 00:45:31,210 With the spread of nuclear power to other volatile powers, 892 00:45:31,210 --> 00:45:33,383 that threat has not diminished. 893 00:45:38,638 --> 00:45:43,070 (dramatic electronic music) 894 00:45:43,070 --> 00:45:45,320 It began with a pledge that symbolized 895 00:45:45,320 --> 00:45:48,510 all the great hopes of the early 1960s, 896 00:45:48,510 --> 00:45:52,550 an idea that would take almost a decade to make reality, 897 00:45:52,550 --> 00:45:55,470 an achievement that would redefine our science, 898 00:45:55,470 --> 00:45:57,110 our technology, and our place 899 00:45:57,110 --> 00:45:58,449 in the universe. We have a liftoff! 900 00:45:58,449 --> 00:46:00,240 32 minutes past the hour. 901 00:46:00,240 --> 00:46:01,290 Liftoff on Apollo 11. 902 00:46:05,947 --> 00:46:06,997 "Man is not made 903 00:46:06,997 --> 00:46:09,627 "to go about safe and comfortable. 904 00:46:09,627 --> 00:46:12,987 "He is constantly being driven to do unreasonable things. 905 00:46:12,987 --> 00:46:16,490 "Some force impels him, and go he must," 906 00:46:16,490 --> 00:46:19,023 H.G. Wells, author of The First Men in the Moon. 907 00:46:20,020 --> 00:46:22,600 Humans have always wanted this desire 908 00:46:22,600 --> 00:46:24,670 to conquest and explore new territories. 909 00:46:24,670 --> 00:46:26,280 This is why we do science, right? 910 00:46:26,280 --> 00:46:29,960 It is to understand the things we don't understand. 911 00:46:29,960 --> 00:46:32,820 I believe that this nation should commit itself, 912 00:46:32,820 --> 00:46:36,620 to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, 913 00:46:36,620 --> 00:46:38,120 of landing a man on the moon 914 00:46:38,120 --> 00:46:40,537 and returning him safely to the Earth. 915 00:46:41,590 --> 00:46:44,040 When Kennedy made his pledge to reach the moon, 916 00:46:44,040 --> 00:46:46,890 America was the underdog in the space race. 917 00:46:46,890 --> 00:46:50,730 They would recruit 400,000 scientists and technicians 918 00:46:50,730 --> 00:46:52,460 in an effort to be the first to reach 919 00:46:52,460 --> 00:46:56,330 this important milestone, work that culminated 920 00:46:56,330 --> 00:47:00,110 in the launch of Apollo 11 in 1969. 921 00:47:00,110 --> 00:47:01,423 The Apollo preparations 922 00:47:01,423 --> 00:47:02,766 have been the most comprehensive 923 00:47:02,766 --> 00:47:04,966 of any one enterprise in the history of man. 924 00:47:05,860 --> 00:47:08,390 The world watched as multi-stage Apollo 11 925 00:47:08,390 --> 00:47:11,803 launched from platform 39A at Cape Canaveral. 926 00:47:13,051 --> 00:47:16,876 Three, two, one, zero. 927 00:47:16,876 --> 00:47:17,709 Liftoff! 928 00:47:20,130 --> 00:47:22,350 What may be significant about the Apollo 11 moon landing 929 00:47:22,350 --> 00:47:24,690 is that it's an event that the world watched together. 930 00:47:24,690 --> 00:47:26,420 The international satellite system 931 00:47:26,420 --> 00:47:28,510 had been put into place just beforehand, 932 00:47:28,510 --> 00:47:30,783 and the whole world, wherever you were, 933 00:47:30,783 --> 00:47:32,920 as long as you had access to a television, 934 00:47:32,920 --> 00:47:35,160 could tune in and see this event happening 935 00:47:35,160 --> 00:47:36,433 all at the same time. 936 00:47:38,070 --> 00:47:39,680 Almost everyone who could 937 00:47:39,680 --> 00:47:42,160 gathered around television sets in schools, 938 00:47:42,160 --> 00:47:45,110 homes, workplaces, and public spaces 939 00:47:45,110 --> 00:47:47,416 to see Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin 940 00:47:47,416 --> 00:47:49,793 leave the Eagle lander to walk on the moon. 941 00:47:52,022 --> 00:47:52,855 Okay, Neil, 942 00:47:52,855 --> 00:47:55,340 we can see you coming down the ladder now. 943 00:47:55,340 --> 00:47:58,370 I think to think about the Apollo landing, 944 00:47:58,370 --> 00:48:00,530 you also have to think about the world at the time. 945 00:48:00,530 --> 00:48:03,160 You have the Cold War going on. 946 00:48:03,160 --> 00:48:05,890 In the U.S. you have civil rights movements. 947 00:48:05,890 --> 00:48:07,850 You have quite a bit of turmoil. 948 00:48:07,850 --> 00:48:11,930 And here the whole world paused and was saying 949 00:48:11,930 --> 00:48:14,640 this is something humanity has done. 950 00:48:14,640 --> 00:48:16,540 Armstrong and Aldrin were on the surface 951 00:48:16,540 --> 00:48:18,820 for about two hours, taking measurements 952 00:48:18,820 --> 00:48:20,293 and collecting samples. 953 00:48:21,250 --> 00:48:22,770 Hello Neil and Buzz. 954 00:48:22,770 --> 00:48:24,610 I'm talking to you by telephone 955 00:48:24,610 --> 00:48:27,130 from the Oval room at the White House. 956 00:48:27,130 --> 00:48:29,690 Because of what you have done, 957 00:48:29,690 --> 00:48:33,243 the heavens have become a part of man's world. 958 00:48:34,660 --> 00:48:36,810 Besides being an inspirational moment 959 00:48:36,810 --> 00:48:38,110 in landing humans on the moon, 960 00:48:38,110 --> 00:48:40,800 it did have actually profound scientific impacts. 961 00:48:40,800 --> 00:48:42,850 But we now know the moon is drifting away. 962 00:48:42,850 --> 00:48:44,460 We now know our days are getting longer. 963 00:48:44,460 --> 00:48:47,560 We have to fundamentally correct for this in our time. 964 00:48:47,560 --> 00:48:50,520 The understanding that the moon probably came from the Earth 965 00:48:50,520 --> 00:48:52,410 with an early collision between Mars 966 00:48:52,410 --> 00:48:53,840 or something like Mars and the Earth 967 00:48:53,840 --> 00:48:56,220 was because we had lunar rocks. 968 00:48:56,220 --> 00:48:58,070 The moon landing had given mankind 969 00:48:58,070 --> 00:49:01,063 the understanding it needed for future innovation. 970 00:49:03,240 --> 00:49:06,003 Many breakthroughs followed in the Apollo program. 971 00:49:07,600 --> 00:49:11,700 The technology involved, while the computer power 972 00:49:11,700 --> 00:49:14,480 is less than a modern-day iPhone, 973 00:49:14,480 --> 00:49:18,820 it was a distinct change in how we analyze data, 974 00:49:18,820 --> 00:49:20,050 communicated with space. 975 00:49:20,050 --> 00:49:23,000 So the knockoffs and the provocations 976 00:49:23,000 --> 00:49:25,440 of all of these scientific questions and discoveries, 977 00:49:25,440 --> 00:49:28,270 because we did something we never thought possible, 978 00:49:28,270 --> 00:49:29,860 opened up a new world, 979 00:49:29,860 --> 00:49:33,943 so it was a marvel of the 20th century. 980 00:49:37,890 --> 00:49:40,430 The science of Apollo is not merely concerned 981 00:49:40,430 --> 00:49:44,520 with samples from past milestones, yesterday's missions. 982 00:49:44,520 --> 00:49:48,060 In a special room in Houston, men sit at consoles 983 00:49:48,060 --> 00:49:50,570 and command instruments on the moon 984 00:49:50,570 --> 00:49:52,810 to send them today's data. 985 00:49:52,810 --> 00:49:54,720 One could argue that the real significance 986 00:49:54,720 --> 00:49:56,890 of space exploration is the perspective 987 00:49:56,890 --> 00:49:59,250 it's given us back on our own planet. 988 00:49:59,250 --> 00:50:01,670 It's the astronauts who travel to the moon, 989 00:50:01,670 --> 00:50:04,850 who take photographs of this small, fragile, 990 00:50:04,850 --> 00:50:06,680 rather beautiful-looking planet. 991 00:50:06,680 --> 00:50:09,030 And in some senses, it's that perspective 992 00:50:09,030 --> 00:50:11,370 that people are more attached to. 993 00:50:11,370 --> 00:50:13,180 The moon landing demonstrated 994 00:50:13,180 --> 00:50:15,580 momentous advances in science and engineering 995 00:50:16,430 --> 00:50:19,583 which continue to propel us into the 21st century. 996 00:50:20,610 --> 00:50:23,540 It was an unparalleled feat of human achievement 997 00:50:23,540 --> 00:50:25,140 that brought the world together. 998 00:50:27,270 --> 00:50:30,490 When people try and say, "Do you remember that moment?" 999 00:50:30,490 --> 00:50:34,020 they say it's like the Apollo 11 landing. 1000 00:50:34,020 --> 00:50:36,950 This is a moment that people use as a measuring stick. 1001 00:50:36,950 --> 00:50:39,200 I think that in itself is the answer of 1002 00:50:39,200 --> 00:50:41,813 to where we view this as, and it will be. 1003 00:50:43,210 --> 00:50:44,043 People are gonna be like, 1004 00:50:44,043 --> 00:50:46,260 "Oh, this is our generation's moon landing." 1005 00:50:46,260 --> 00:50:47,560 That's what someone's gonna say: 1006 00:50:47,560 --> 00:50:50,970 this is like what they experienced in 1969. 1007 00:50:50,970 --> 00:50:53,920 It is the measuring stick to all other events, 1008 00:50:53,920 --> 00:50:55,550 and that by itself has to say 1009 00:50:55,550 --> 00:50:58,893 it's one of the most influential events of the 20th century. 1010 00:51:01,400 --> 00:51:02,610 The moon landing changed 1011 00:51:02,610 --> 00:51:05,720 our sense of ourselves and of our planet, 1012 00:51:05,720 --> 00:51:10,510 who we are, where we are, and what we can do. 1013 00:51:10,510 --> 00:51:11,790 It was ... 1014 00:51:11,790 --> 00:51:14,447 as the first man famously observed ... 1015 00:51:14,447 --> 00:51:17,397 That's one small step for man, 1016 00:51:17,397 --> 00:51:19,990 one giant leap for mankind. 1017 00:51:20,830 --> 00:51:23,497 (rousing music) 79764

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