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These are the user uploaded subtitles that are being translated: 1 00:00:00,480 --> 00:00:01,480 The 20th century 2 00:00:01,480 --> 00:00:03,513 was a time of incredible change. 3 00:00:05,750 --> 00:00:07,860 Unspeakable horrors, 4 00:00:07,860 --> 00:00:10,493 and amazing leaps of scientific discovery. 5 00:00:11,920 --> 00:00:13,960 It was a century marked by events 6 00:00:13,960 --> 00:00:17,010 that united, and divided us. 7 00:00:17,010 --> 00:00:19,033 From great feats to great wars, 8 00:00:21,421 --> 00:00:23,030 with advancements, 9 00:00:23,030 --> 00:00:24,910 and set backs, 10 00:00:24,910 --> 00:00:26,733 that showed us the power of many, 11 00:00:27,748 --> 00:00:28,670 the power of one. 12 00:00:28,670 --> 00:00:30,063 I have a dream. 13 00:00:30,063 --> 00:00:31,973 A century of revolutions, 14 00:00:33,560 --> 00:00:34,583 evolutions, 15 00:00:35,440 --> 00:00:36,917 and retributions. 16 00:00:37,910 --> 00:00:41,090 A century made by conflicts and crimes, 17 00:00:41,090 --> 00:00:42,833 inventions and entertainment, 18 00:00:44,530 --> 00:00:47,410 politics, protests, 19 00:00:47,410 --> 00:00:49,945 discoveries and disasters. 20 00:00:49,945 --> 00:00:51,490 Oh the humanity! 21 00:00:51,490 --> 00:00:52,323 We will count down 22 00:00:52,323 --> 00:00:55,640 the 101 events of the 20th century. 23 00:00:55,640 --> 00:00:58,410 Their stories form the tapestry of our history, 24 00:00:58,410 --> 00:01:00,483 and shape the world in which we live. 25 00:01:07,070 --> 00:01:10,360 The tension lay not in the fear of Castro coming, 26 00:01:10,360 --> 00:01:13,090 the tension lay in what human costs 27 00:01:13,090 --> 00:01:16,290 would have to be paid for him to finally get there. 28 00:01:16,290 --> 00:01:20,080 What was initially a small-scale event, 29 00:01:20,080 --> 00:01:23,600 secluded, and shut out from prying eyes, 30 00:01:23,600 --> 00:01:27,123 turned into a global media exhibition of police brutality. 31 00:01:28,334 --> 00:01:29,570 The transistor in many ways 32 00:01:29,570 --> 00:01:32,630 is one of those really pivotal inventions, 33 00:01:32,630 --> 00:01:34,933 an invention which became an innovation. 34 00:01:40,090 --> 00:01:41,970 At the end of the Second World War, 35 00:01:41,970 --> 00:01:43,820 Europe lay devastated, 36 00:01:43,820 --> 00:01:47,000 but a new threat loomed for allied countries, 37 00:01:47,000 --> 00:01:50,490 one posed by their old ally, the Soviet Union. 38 00:01:50,490 --> 00:01:53,693 A threat that would need an unprecedented response. 39 00:02:00,060 --> 00:02:02,410 As the power of the Soviet Union rose, 40 00:02:02,410 --> 00:02:04,160 the western countries decided 41 00:02:04,160 --> 00:02:06,980 they needed to build their own new power block, 42 00:02:06,980 --> 00:02:09,120 one that would hold Soviet expansion, 43 00:02:09,120 --> 00:02:11,470 prevent the rise of nationalist sentiment, 44 00:02:11,470 --> 00:02:14,080 and encourage a stable European continent. 45 00:02:14,080 --> 00:02:16,930 The common enemy of the Soviet Union 46 00:02:18,070 --> 00:02:21,080 helped empower those seeking more 47 00:02:21,080 --> 00:02:23,160 liberal, internationalist, 48 00:02:23,160 --> 00:02:25,970 global role for the United States so, 49 00:02:25,970 --> 00:02:29,350 in that context that NATO's gotta be seen 50 00:02:29,350 --> 00:02:31,280 for providing collective security 51 00:02:31,280 --> 00:02:34,150 for what would become the foundation stone 52 00:02:34,150 --> 00:02:35,290 of the western alliance, 53 00:02:35,290 --> 00:02:37,990 but then you could say the global, capitalist order 54 00:02:37,990 --> 00:02:40,143 under the stewardship of the United States. 55 00:02:42,220 --> 00:02:44,970 On the 4th of April, 1949, 56 00:02:44,970 --> 00:02:47,100 12 states from both sides of the ocean 57 00:02:47,100 --> 00:02:49,670 formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, 58 00:02:49,670 --> 00:02:52,083 NATO, in Washington, DC. 59 00:02:53,770 --> 00:02:55,930 The new allies agreed to defend each other 60 00:02:55,930 --> 00:02:57,800 against armed aggression. 61 00:02:57,800 --> 00:03:00,120 Our peoples do not want war, 62 00:03:00,120 --> 00:03:02,797 and do not glorify war, 63 00:03:02,797 --> 00:03:05,220 but they will not shrink from it, 64 00:03:05,220 --> 00:03:06,833 if aggression is threatened. 65 00:03:08,640 --> 00:03:11,870 Article Five is key, 66 00:03:11,870 --> 00:03:14,570 and essentially what it says, 67 00:03:14,570 --> 00:03:19,100 is that signatories to the North Atlantic Treaty 68 00:03:19,100 --> 00:03:23,280 committed themselves to viewing an attack 69 00:03:23,280 --> 00:03:24,510 on one member state, 70 00:03:24,510 --> 00:03:27,470 as an attack on all member states. 71 00:03:27,470 --> 00:03:30,910 So essentially, in a kind of a broad, 72 00:03:30,910 --> 00:03:33,350 universalistic way, what it does, 73 00:03:33,350 --> 00:03:36,680 is tie the political and military fate 74 00:03:36,680 --> 00:03:40,230 of the members of NATO together, 75 00:03:40,230 --> 00:03:44,660 and in so doing, firmly entrenches US power 76 00:03:44,660 --> 00:03:46,613 on the European side of the Atlantic. 77 00:03:47,660 --> 00:03:50,140 NATO states agreed to a command structure, 78 00:03:50,140 --> 00:03:53,520 with military headquarters near Versailles in France. 79 00:03:53,520 --> 00:03:56,110 US General Dwight Eisenhower, 80 00:03:56,110 --> 00:03:59,470 named first Supreme Commander of NATO in 1950, 81 00:03:59,470 --> 00:04:01,930 embarked on a tour of the allied capitals, 82 00:04:01,930 --> 00:04:05,390 to convince them of the need to increase their defenses. 83 00:04:05,390 --> 00:04:09,050 His contribution towards saving the peace, 84 00:04:09,050 --> 00:04:11,331 will be acclaimed as being 85 00:04:11,331 --> 00:04:13,540 not less praiseworthy 86 00:04:13,540 --> 00:04:16,310 as in the contribution he made 87 00:04:16,310 --> 00:04:18,280 towards winning the war. 88 00:04:18,280 --> 00:04:19,460 With benefit of aid, 89 00:04:19,460 --> 00:04:21,470 and the security umbrella, 90 00:04:21,470 --> 00:04:24,870 political stability was established in western Europe, 91 00:04:24,870 --> 00:04:26,593 and economies started to grow. 92 00:04:28,960 --> 00:04:32,270 The Soviet Union reacted to the formation of NATO, 93 00:04:32,270 --> 00:04:35,080 and particularly to West Germany's membership, 94 00:04:35,080 --> 00:04:38,673 by forming the Warsaw Pact in May, 1955. 95 00:04:40,130 --> 00:04:41,420 Tensions across Europe 96 00:04:41,420 --> 00:04:43,910 as the two power blocks faced each other, 97 00:04:43,910 --> 00:04:46,123 has become known as the Cold War. 98 00:04:47,450 --> 00:04:50,980 But both sides recognize the destructive power of the other, 99 00:04:50,980 --> 00:04:53,840 and there were no direct military engagements. 100 00:04:53,840 --> 00:04:55,860 Relations began to thaw after the fall 101 00:04:55,860 --> 00:04:58,460 of the Berlin Wall in 1989, 102 00:04:58,460 --> 00:05:00,770 first with the signing of the non-aggression pact 103 00:05:00,770 --> 00:05:02,940 between NATO and the Warsaw Pact, 104 00:05:02,940 --> 00:05:05,840 and then through a partnership for peace. 105 00:05:05,840 --> 00:05:09,980 If I was to say what is the one big legacy of NATO, 106 00:05:09,980 --> 00:05:14,380 I think it's the entrenchment of US power 107 00:05:14,380 --> 00:05:16,460 on a global scale. 108 00:05:16,460 --> 00:05:20,800 It kept communist and socialist influence at bay 109 00:05:20,800 --> 00:05:22,180 in western Europe, 110 00:05:22,180 --> 00:05:25,290 and overall it contributed 111 00:05:25,290 --> 00:05:29,793 to the United States' position as the global hegemon. 112 00:05:36,880 --> 00:05:38,020 Despite the achievements 113 00:05:38,020 --> 00:05:40,250 of the civil rights movement in America, 114 00:05:40,250 --> 00:05:43,653 racism remained the terrible underbelly of their society. 115 00:05:44,660 --> 00:05:47,300 Los Angeles in the 1980's was a crucible 116 00:05:47,300 --> 00:05:50,703 of racial tensions and violence against African-Americans. 117 00:05:51,780 --> 00:05:53,820 Tensions that could easily boil over. 118 00:05:59,953 --> 00:06:02,620 (siren blaring) 119 00:06:04,636 --> 00:06:06,810 On March 3rd, 1991, 120 00:06:06,810 --> 00:06:09,920 Rodney King was pulled over by the police. 121 00:06:09,920 --> 00:06:14,190 Rodney King was on parole at that point. 122 00:06:14,190 --> 00:06:15,150 He'd had a drink, 123 00:06:15,150 --> 00:06:16,910 and he was driving home, 124 00:06:16,910 --> 00:06:21,110 and apparently had been spotted by a helicopter speeding. 125 00:06:21,110 --> 00:06:24,710 He then realized that he was being observed, 126 00:06:24,710 --> 00:06:26,160 then looked in his rear view mirror, 127 00:06:26,160 --> 00:06:29,000 realized maybe he was in trouble here, 128 00:06:29,000 --> 00:06:31,423 put his foot on the accelerator and sped away. 129 00:06:32,330 --> 00:06:35,220 King eventually stopped at Lakeview Terrace. 130 00:06:35,220 --> 00:06:36,980 He was beaten by several officers 131 00:06:36,980 --> 00:06:38,640 in view of the apartments, 132 00:06:38,640 --> 00:06:40,490 where a resident was filming their actions. 133 00:06:40,490 --> 00:06:42,160 In a scene caught on amateur video, 134 00:06:42,160 --> 00:06:44,350 sparks an outcry in the United States. 135 00:06:44,350 --> 00:06:46,380 What they didn't know at the time 136 00:06:46,380 --> 00:06:49,630 was that an amateur cameraman had what was then 137 00:06:49,630 --> 00:06:52,920 quite a new piece of technology, a video camera, 138 00:06:52,920 --> 00:06:57,110 and so what was initially 139 00:06:57,110 --> 00:07:00,170 a small-scale event, secluded, 140 00:07:00,170 --> 00:07:03,000 and shut out from prying eyes, 141 00:07:03,000 --> 00:07:06,923 turned into a global media exhibition of police brutality. 142 00:07:08,020 --> 00:07:09,645 Four men were indicted, 143 00:07:09,645 --> 00:07:11,030 three of whom walked free 144 00:07:11,030 --> 00:07:13,460 on the afternoon of April the 29th. 145 00:07:13,460 --> 00:07:14,960 Completely in fear for my life, 146 00:07:14,960 --> 00:07:17,840 scared to death that if this guy got back up, 147 00:07:17,840 --> 00:07:20,100 he was gonna take my gun away from me, 148 00:07:20,100 --> 00:07:22,250 or there was gonna be a shooting. 149 00:07:22,250 --> 00:07:23,590 No one quite expected 150 00:07:23,590 --> 00:07:25,440 three of them to get off scot free, 151 00:07:25,440 --> 00:07:27,570 and of course there was national outrage, 152 00:07:27,570 --> 00:07:30,933 as a result of what was considered white justice. 153 00:07:31,920 --> 00:07:33,690 This event was one of the catalysts 154 00:07:33,690 --> 00:07:35,123 for several days of rioting. 155 00:07:36,180 --> 00:07:38,940 Hundreds protested at the courthouse, 156 00:07:38,940 --> 00:07:41,030 then brought violence to the streets, 157 00:07:41,030 --> 00:07:42,520 pulling people out of their cars 158 00:07:42,520 --> 00:07:44,330 and beating them with tire irons, 159 00:07:44,330 --> 00:07:45,950 bricks, fire extinguishers, 160 00:07:45,950 --> 00:07:47,750 and their fists. 161 00:07:47,750 --> 00:07:49,500 People started damaging property, 162 00:07:49,500 --> 00:07:50,860 and then damaging cars, 163 00:07:50,860 --> 00:07:53,360 and eventually of course it got terrifically violent, 164 00:07:53,360 --> 00:07:56,350 as the police decided enough is enough. 165 00:07:56,350 --> 00:07:58,560 This is no longer legitimate protest, 166 00:07:58,560 --> 00:08:00,050 this is public disorder, 167 00:08:00,050 --> 00:08:03,310 and that's when the spark really started flying, 168 00:08:03,310 --> 00:08:06,903 and America was ablaze for several days. 169 00:08:08,390 --> 00:08:11,130 A state of emergency was declared. 170 00:08:11,130 --> 00:08:14,850 A combination of 10,000 National Guard and federal troops 171 00:08:14,850 --> 00:08:17,410 were brought in to bring order back to the city. 172 00:08:17,410 --> 00:08:19,560 During the riots, Los Angeles suffered 173 00:08:19,560 --> 00:08:21,790 one billion dollars' worth of damage, 174 00:08:21,790 --> 00:08:24,320 and more than 50 people were killed. 175 00:08:24,320 --> 00:08:26,880 Many of their murders remain unsolved. 176 00:08:26,880 --> 00:08:29,480 The chaotic reaction to King's beating, 177 00:08:29,480 --> 00:08:31,220 and the initial court response, 178 00:08:31,220 --> 00:08:33,570 had a lasting effect on the judicial system. 179 00:08:33,570 --> 00:08:34,403 If they're convicted, 180 00:08:34,403 --> 00:08:37,200 the officers face up to eight years in jail. 181 00:08:37,200 --> 00:08:40,000 If they're acquitted, there'll be an outcry. 182 00:08:40,000 --> 00:08:42,890 Either way, the legacy of their actions that night 183 00:08:42,890 --> 00:08:47,260 is a lasting fear and mistrust of the law in LA. 184 00:08:47,260 --> 00:08:48,950 Under a new scrutiny, 185 00:08:48,950 --> 00:08:51,340 claims of brutality were investigated 186 00:08:51,340 --> 00:08:54,890 under the Law Enforcement Act of 1994. 187 00:08:54,890 --> 00:08:56,300 One of the most important things 188 00:08:56,300 --> 00:08:57,920 that the Rodney King incident, 189 00:08:57,920 --> 00:08:59,760 and the following riots proved, 190 00:08:59,760 --> 00:09:03,350 was that America could not ignore the race problem, 191 00:09:03,350 --> 00:09:05,440 and assume it would go away. 192 00:09:05,440 --> 00:09:06,880 There's a widespread assumption 193 00:09:06,880 --> 00:09:09,770 that the end of the century would really effectively mean 194 00:09:09,770 --> 00:09:12,410 that there would be a post-racial society, 195 00:09:12,410 --> 00:09:15,470 and a colorblind society was not far away. 196 00:09:15,470 --> 00:09:18,660 Rodney King absolutely, 197 00:09:18,660 --> 00:09:21,250 not just reminded people but proved to them, 198 00:09:21,250 --> 00:09:23,853 that it was a long, long way away. 199 00:09:31,520 --> 00:09:34,430 In the 1930's, airships were celebrated 200 00:09:34,430 --> 00:09:36,620 as the future of luxury travel, 201 00:09:36,620 --> 00:09:39,730 until one terrible, and very public disaster, 202 00:09:39,730 --> 00:09:41,893 would see them disappear from the skies. 203 00:09:44,036 --> 00:09:46,497 It burst into flames. (muffled) 204 00:09:46,497 --> 00:09:48,285 There's fire at its flank. 205 00:09:48,285 --> 00:09:50,250 This crash is terrible. 206 00:09:50,250 --> 00:09:51,420 The Germans were building 207 00:09:51,420 --> 00:09:53,140 a huge passenger airship, 208 00:09:53,140 --> 00:09:55,500 to be captain by Hugo von Eckener. 209 00:09:55,500 --> 00:09:58,623 Accommodations are provided for 50 passengers. 210 00:09:59,940 --> 00:10:02,740 In 1937, the Hindenburg set off 211 00:10:02,740 --> 00:10:04,883 on its first transatlantic round trip. 212 00:10:07,350 --> 00:10:09,670 The passengers were accommodated in style, 213 00:10:09,670 --> 00:10:12,140 traveling between Europe and the USA, 214 00:10:12,140 --> 00:10:16,330 at a cruising speed of 125 kilometers an hour, 215 00:10:16,330 --> 00:10:18,343 twice as fast an ocean liner. 216 00:10:20,770 --> 00:10:23,880 The ill-fated flight was a mixture of bad luck, 217 00:10:23,880 --> 00:10:24,903 and poor planning. 218 00:10:26,230 --> 00:10:27,850 The luxury airliner was designed 219 00:10:27,850 --> 00:10:30,480 to have helium filling its massive volume, 220 00:10:30,480 --> 00:10:33,680 but the United States, the only source of the gas, 221 00:10:33,680 --> 00:10:36,100 restricted helium sales to Germany, 222 00:10:36,100 --> 00:10:38,313 fearing its use for military purposes. 223 00:10:39,500 --> 00:10:41,320 As an alternative, 224 00:10:41,320 --> 00:10:44,770 the airship was filled with highly flammable hydrogen. 225 00:10:44,770 --> 00:10:47,290 As a precaution, a stewardess was posted 226 00:10:47,290 --> 00:10:49,350 at the door of the smoking lounge, 227 00:10:49,350 --> 00:10:50,940 to guard the ship against flames 228 00:10:50,940 --> 00:10:52,523 leaving the pressurized room. 229 00:10:53,650 --> 00:10:55,983 Tragedy struck at the end of the journey. 230 00:10:57,700 --> 00:10:59,200 The weather was terrible, 231 00:10:59,200 --> 00:11:00,750 and the ship was 12 hours late. 232 00:11:01,900 --> 00:11:05,230 The landing crew was forced to attempt a high landing, 233 00:11:05,230 --> 00:11:07,573 tying the vessel to its mooring with rope. 234 00:11:08,600 --> 00:11:10,390 Struggling against the storm, 235 00:11:10,390 --> 00:11:12,270 the crew pushed the throttle. 236 00:11:12,270 --> 00:11:14,660 Static electricity sparks, with hydrogen 237 00:11:14,660 --> 00:11:17,260 from a leak in one of the tanks, 238 00:11:17,260 --> 00:11:19,370 lighting the ship from the middle to the back end 239 00:11:19,370 --> 00:11:21,683 in approximately 34 seconds. 240 00:11:22,680 --> 00:11:25,150 The covering burned off the metal skeleton, 241 00:11:25,150 --> 00:11:27,180 which crashed to the ground. 242 00:11:27,180 --> 00:11:28,217 It's a terrific crash 243 00:11:28,217 --> 00:11:29,215 ladies and gentlemen. 244 00:11:29,215 --> 00:11:30,810 The smoke and the flames now, 245 00:11:30,810 --> 00:11:33,260 and the frame is crashing to the ground, 246 00:11:33,260 --> 00:11:35,380 not quite to the mooring mast. 247 00:11:35,380 --> 00:11:38,183 Oh the humanity, and all the passengers (muffled). 248 00:11:39,920 --> 00:11:40,753 Some of the ground crew 249 00:11:40,753 --> 00:11:42,190 survived the rolling heat, 250 00:11:42,190 --> 00:11:44,690 because they were drenched by the rain. 251 00:11:44,690 --> 00:11:47,910 They reported that as the ran from the burning airship, 252 00:11:47,910 --> 00:11:50,860 they could feel the hairs on the back of their necks singe. 253 00:11:52,840 --> 00:11:54,450 The Hindenburg was the greatest 254 00:11:54,450 --> 00:11:56,320 of the Zeppelin class airships. 255 00:11:56,320 --> 00:11:59,263 And the tragedy hurried the demise of Zeppelin travel. 256 00:12:00,340 --> 00:12:02,770 There had been other airship crashes. 257 00:12:02,770 --> 00:12:05,520 However, Hindenburg was the first major 258 00:12:05,520 --> 00:12:07,563 transport disaster caught on film. 259 00:12:09,540 --> 00:12:11,950 Airships have continued in use, 260 00:12:11,950 --> 00:12:14,550 as blimps that serve as camera platforms, 261 00:12:14,550 --> 00:12:17,400 for military and scientific purposes. 262 00:12:17,400 --> 00:12:19,680 But their potential as a form of transport, 263 00:12:19,680 --> 00:12:23,053 was destroyed that day, at Lakehurst, New Jersey. 264 00:12:29,950 --> 00:12:32,470 1950's Cuba was under the control 265 00:12:32,470 --> 00:12:35,553 of American-backed dictator, Fulgencio Batista. 266 00:12:37,380 --> 00:12:40,430 His was a corrupt and oppressive regime. 267 00:12:40,430 --> 00:12:42,443 The people were ready for revolution. 268 00:12:47,800 --> 00:12:49,440 Revolution was reached. 269 00:12:49,440 --> 00:12:52,353 Anyone suspected of supporting the Batista regime. 270 00:12:55,390 --> 00:12:58,430 Fidel Castro, a young lawyer in his 20's, 271 00:12:58,430 --> 00:13:01,190 had tried to enter politics in 1952, 272 00:13:01,190 --> 00:13:03,610 but had been blocked by Batista's power grab, 273 00:13:03,610 --> 00:13:05,643 and the brutal repression that followed. 274 00:13:07,550 --> 00:13:09,850 Batista embezzled money, 275 00:13:09,850 --> 00:13:11,200 rigged elections, 276 00:13:11,200 --> 00:13:15,200 and in many ways made Castro's revolution inevitable. 277 00:13:15,200 --> 00:13:17,730 In 1956, with few rifles, 278 00:13:17,730 --> 00:13:20,263 and a loosely bonded network of rebel groups, 279 00:13:21,290 --> 00:13:23,860 the revolution repelled Batista's soldiers, 280 00:13:23,860 --> 00:13:26,363 whilst carrying out hit and run attacks in Havana. 281 00:13:28,250 --> 00:13:29,170 The Castro rebels 282 00:13:29,170 --> 00:13:31,330 plant bombs on buses, on railroad trains. 283 00:13:31,330 --> 00:13:33,703 They set fire to cars and trucks, 284 00:13:33,703 --> 00:13:35,700 oil plants and factories. 285 00:13:35,700 --> 00:13:39,820 I was in Havana, I was going to a nuns school. 286 00:13:39,820 --> 00:13:41,860 I had for the last two years 287 00:13:41,860 --> 00:13:43,330 prior to the revolution, 288 00:13:43,330 --> 00:13:46,410 maybe once every couple of weeks, 289 00:13:46,410 --> 00:13:48,700 I would be called to the principal's office 290 00:13:48,700 --> 00:13:50,090 and asked to go home, 291 00:13:50,090 --> 00:13:52,840 because there had been some kind of ambush, 292 00:13:52,840 --> 00:13:55,820 or major terrorist situation in Havana. 293 00:13:55,820 --> 00:13:57,323 So it was very tense. 294 00:13:58,440 --> 00:14:01,730 The tension lay not in the fear of Castro coming, 295 00:14:01,730 --> 00:14:06,480 the tension lay in what human costs would have to be paid 296 00:14:06,480 --> 00:14:08,223 for him to finally get there. 297 00:14:09,230 --> 00:14:11,130 Batista concentrated his forces 298 00:14:11,130 --> 00:14:12,830 against the insurrection. 299 00:14:12,830 --> 00:14:15,800 But Castro's men were skilled at ambushing small groups 300 00:14:15,800 --> 00:14:17,613 of the rural guard patrol. 301 00:14:20,460 --> 00:14:23,550 As the momentum of the revolution grew, 302 00:14:23,550 --> 00:14:26,030 even the nuns in my school, 303 00:14:26,030 --> 00:14:28,920 were praying for the moment that the barburos, 304 00:14:28,920 --> 00:14:31,270 the bearded ones, come down from the mountains. 305 00:14:32,970 --> 00:14:34,500 After years of fighting, 306 00:14:34,500 --> 00:14:37,550 Castro's revolution had mustered its strength. 307 00:14:37,550 --> 00:14:39,480 It began to capture small towns, 308 00:14:39,480 --> 00:14:41,980 making its way towards the capital. 309 00:14:41,980 --> 00:14:45,540 He took control of Havana, early in 1959. 310 00:14:45,540 --> 00:14:49,770 The level of support for Fidel Castro in Cuba 311 00:14:49,770 --> 00:14:52,920 when they came, was unbelievable, 312 00:14:52,920 --> 00:14:53,903 unbelievable. 313 00:14:55,000 --> 00:14:55,833 Time and again 314 00:14:55,833 --> 00:14:57,600 he was held up by the crowds. 315 00:14:57,600 --> 00:14:59,130 He spoke to them of the new regime 316 00:14:59,130 --> 00:15:00,610 now being inaugurated, 317 00:15:00,610 --> 00:15:04,200 a regime by the way now formally recognized by Britain. 318 00:15:04,200 --> 00:15:06,430 Once in power, Castro's focus 319 00:15:06,430 --> 00:15:09,380 was on improving the lives of ordinary people. 320 00:15:09,380 --> 00:15:11,910 One of the major impacts of Fidel Castro 321 00:15:11,910 --> 00:15:14,060 to the Cuban population, 322 00:15:14,060 --> 00:15:18,270 is that from maybe 60-65% literacy range. 323 00:15:18,270 --> 00:15:21,480 He brought it to about 96% within three years, 324 00:15:21,480 --> 00:15:23,400 the same with the healthcare system, 325 00:15:23,400 --> 00:15:25,380 it's a universal healthcare system, 326 00:15:25,380 --> 00:15:27,323 is one of the models of the world. 327 00:15:28,170 --> 00:15:30,330 Putting members of the old regime on trial, 328 00:15:30,330 --> 00:15:32,850 was also part of the revolution, 329 00:15:32,850 --> 00:15:34,743 and hundreds were executed. 330 00:15:36,290 --> 00:15:39,000 When the government started seizing property, 331 00:15:39,000 --> 00:15:40,600 Castro's communist principles 332 00:15:40,600 --> 00:15:42,763 behind the revolution became clear. 333 00:15:45,240 --> 00:15:47,700 The US grew suspicious of the communist slant 334 00:15:47,700 --> 00:15:49,810 of Castro's ideals, 335 00:15:49,810 --> 00:15:52,010 and responded by cutting off trade, 336 00:15:52,010 --> 00:15:55,300 and orchestrating several attempts to assassinate him, 337 00:15:55,300 --> 00:15:58,253 including spiking his cigars with Botox. 338 00:16:00,160 --> 00:16:03,610 Soon after he rose and turns to the USSR, 339 00:16:03,610 --> 00:16:06,460 when he realizes, just the rhetoric alone 340 00:16:06,460 --> 00:16:07,700 isn't gonna get me anywhere, 341 00:16:07,700 --> 00:16:10,160 I need to do something to protect Cuba 342 00:16:10,160 --> 00:16:11,960 and the revolution in the long term. 343 00:16:13,140 --> 00:16:14,720 Castro's legacy in Cuba, 344 00:16:14,720 --> 00:16:17,143 can be defined by two extreme outcomes. 345 00:16:18,160 --> 00:16:21,110 Power had been seized from a corrupt regime, 346 00:16:21,110 --> 00:16:22,940 and much-needed improvements were made 347 00:16:22,940 --> 00:16:25,550 to the lives of ordinary Cubans. 348 00:16:25,550 --> 00:16:28,260 But Castro also mismanaged the economy, 349 00:16:28,260 --> 00:16:30,450 and restricted political freedom, 350 00:16:30,450 --> 00:16:32,410 subjecting the people again to rule 351 00:16:32,410 --> 00:16:34,290 by the whim of a dictator. 352 00:16:34,290 --> 00:16:36,530 The fight against Castro must go on, 353 00:16:36,530 --> 00:16:37,863 and it is going on. 354 00:16:40,468 --> 00:16:44,051 (light instrumental music) 355 00:16:45,890 --> 00:16:47,460 Early air travel was difficult, 356 00:16:47,460 --> 00:16:48,503 and treacherous. 357 00:16:49,750 --> 00:16:51,880 In a field dominated by men, 358 00:16:51,880 --> 00:16:53,090 no one could even imagine 359 00:16:53,090 --> 00:16:55,240 what a woman would be capable of achieving. 360 00:17:03,830 --> 00:17:06,560 Amelia Earhart was a keen flyer. 361 00:17:06,560 --> 00:17:08,520 She knew the task was difficult, 362 00:17:08,520 --> 00:17:12,230 and opportunities for women to fly were hard to come by. 363 00:17:12,230 --> 00:17:15,130 But she was determined to make a trip across the Atlantic. 364 00:17:15,980 --> 00:17:18,830 You had to be, for a woman, independently wealthy, 365 00:17:18,830 --> 00:17:20,980 to afford the lessons and to buy your plane, 366 00:17:20,980 --> 00:17:22,350 and to maintain it. 367 00:17:22,350 --> 00:17:24,870 So, Amelia worked at lots and lots of jobs, 368 00:17:24,870 --> 00:17:27,630 she was very versatile, very creative, 369 00:17:27,630 --> 00:17:29,370 and extremely adventurous, 370 00:17:29,370 --> 00:17:30,560 and was determined that this was 371 00:17:30,560 --> 00:17:32,360 what she wanted to do with her life. 372 00:17:33,620 --> 00:17:34,970 Earhart had the obstacle 373 00:17:34,970 --> 00:17:37,340 of public opinion to overcome. 374 00:17:37,340 --> 00:17:40,950 She was only the 16th woman to earn her piloting license, 375 00:17:40,950 --> 00:17:43,143 and she bought her own plane, second hand. 376 00:17:44,310 --> 00:17:46,680 She slept in her bomber jacket for three days, 377 00:17:46,680 --> 00:17:48,593 to make it look worn, like the men's. 378 00:17:50,640 --> 00:17:52,510 Early in 1932, 379 00:17:52,510 --> 00:17:55,250 Earhart was set to make the trip. 380 00:17:55,250 --> 00:17:57,720 She had made it once before in 1928, 381 00:17:57,720 --> 00:17:59,083 with two male copilots, 382 00:18:00,215 --> 00:18:03,210 but this time she was going on her own. 383 00:18:03,210 --> 00:18:04,750 She left on the 20th of May, 384 00:18:04,750 --> 00:18:06,500 from Harbour Grace in Newfoundland. 385 00:18:07,620 --> 00:18:09,820 The plane was state of the art for the time, 386 00:18:09,820 --> 00:18:13,280 but it had no radio, obviously no GPS, no weather, 387 00:18:13,280 --> 00:18:16,770 no radar, it was really, really pioneer flying, 388 00:18:16,770 --> 00:18:19,160 and she was pioneering these event flights 389 00:18:19,160 --> 00:18:21,590 in that period of intense aviation development 390 00:18:21,590 --> 00:18:22,900 around the world. 391 00:18:22,900 --> 00:18:24,360 She set off quietly, 392 00:18:24,360 --> 00:18:27,210 fearing that if the publicity machine got rolling, 393 00:18:27,210 --> 00:18:28,280 and there was some heat, 394 00:18:28,280 --> 00:18:30,960 she didn't want to have to deal with it. 395 00:18:30,960 --> 00:18:32,410 It was a difficult flight. 396 00:18:32,410 --> 00:18:35,470 She flew through thick clouds and icy temperatures 397 00:18:35,470 --> 00:18:37,393 and battled mechanical difficulties. 398 00:18:38,260 --> 00:18:40,460 She was most dismayed to find that 399 00:18:40,460 --> 00:18:42,230 not only her altimeter wasn't working, 400 00:18:42,230 --> 00:18:45,180 but the exhaust manifold on her plane 401 00:18:45,180 --> 00:18:47,860 was starting to catch on fire, 402 00:18:47,860 --> 00:18:51,020 and this in itself was pretty bad, 403 00:18:51,020 --> 00:18:54,630 and then later on it started vibrating very intensely, 404 00:18:54,630 --> 00:18:56,980 so she thought, I've gotta just land this plane 405 00:18:56,980 --> 00:18:58,510 as quickly as I could. 406 00:18:58,510 --> 00:19:02,040 I curved inland until I found a suitable pasture. 407 00:19:02,040 --> 00:19:03,510 I landed there after fighting 408 00:19:03,510 --> 00:19:05,170 all the cows in the neighborhood, 409 00:19:05,170 --> 00:19:07,423 and rolled up to a farmer's front door. 410 00:19:09,870 --> 00:19:11,450 Despite not landing in Paris, 411 00:19:11,450 --> 00:19:13,050 as she had planned, 412 00:19:13,050 --> 00:19:15,000 Amelia earned even more fame, 413 00:19:15,000 --> 00:19:17,350 as she became the first woman to fly solo 414 00:19:17,350 --> 00:19:21,270 for 2,500 miles across the Atlantic, 415 00:19:21,270 --> 00:19:24,120 earning the distinguished Flying Cross. 416 00:19:24,120 --> 00:19:26,330 But she would not finish there. 417 00:19:26,330 --> 00:19:28,560 She set seven women's aviation records 418 00:19:28,560 --> 00:19:30,183 in speed and distance. 419 00:19:32,920 --> 00:19:36,960 It was in 1937 from one of these record-breaking flights, 420 00:19:36,960 --> 00:19:38,283 that she never returned. 421 00:19:39,130 --> 00:19:42,900 Flying with copilot, Frederick J Noonan around the world, 422 00:19:42,900 --> 00:19:45,563 their plane was lost somewhere in the Pacific Ocean. 423 00:19:47,222 --> 00:19:49,334 Amelia Earhart, US heroine of the air, 424 00:19:49,334 --> 00:19:50,836 in desperate plight. 425 00:19:50,836 --> 00:19:52,734 On the last lap of an around-the-world flight, 426 00:19:52,734 --> 00:19:54,240 her plane comes down in the Pacific. 427 00:19:54,240 --> 00:19:56,440 May a rescuer reach her in time. 428 00:19:56,440 --> 00:19:59,690 She was pronounced dead in 1939, 429 00:19:59,690 --> 00:20:01,590 but her name lived on. 430 00:20:01,590 --> 00:20:03,150 Amelia Earhart was probably the most 431 00:20:03,150 --> 00:20:05,060 inspirational woman for pilots, 432 00:20:05,060 --> 00:20:07,010 and for women to try aviation. 433 00:20:07,010 --> 00:20:08,120 And not only aviation, 434 00:20:08,120 --> 00:20:09,750 but to try subjects and fields 435 00:20:09,750 --> 00:20:11,310 that had often been the domain of men. 436 00:20:11,310 --> 00:20:12,710 Little girls can be encouraged 437 00:20:12,710 --> 00:20:15,230 to play with mechano and construction toys, 438 00:20:15,230 --> 00:20:17,240 and equally boys can be encouraged to cook. 439 00:20:17,240 --> 00:20:19,060 So that was her philosophy. 440 00:20:19,060 --> 00:20:19,940 She deserves the welcome she gets. 441 00:20:19,940 --> 00:20:22,280 And no other woman, and no man, 442 00:20:22,280 --> 00:20:24,580 had flown both the Pacific and Atlantic, solo. 443 00:20:30,573 --> 00:20:32,830 The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, 444 00:20:32,830 --> 00:20:35,610 the USSR, was one of the two superpowers 445 00:20:35,610 --> 00:20:38,393 that dominated the second half of the 20th century. 446 00:20:40,760 --> 00:20:42,270 But its strength could not overcome 447 00:20:42,270 --> 00:20:43,960 growing economic frailties, 448 00:20:43,960 --> 00:20:45,423 and a clamor for reform. 449 00:20:53,823 --> 00:20:55,160 The last of the Romanoffs 450 00:20:55,160 --> 00:20:57,830 is driven from his throne, and later killed. 451 00:20:57,830 --> 00:21:00,480 Since the 1917 revolution, 452 00:21:00,480 --> 00:21:02,340 the Soviet state had exercised 453 00:21:02,340 --> 00:21:05,320 totalitarian control over the economy, 454 00:21:05,320 --> 00:21:07,680 overseeing all industrial activity, 455 00:21:07,680 --> 00:21:11,113 and managing every aspect of political and social life. 456 00:21:11,980 --> 00:21:14,840 In 1985, a new leader appeared, 457 00:21:14,840 --> 00:21:17,750 whose more open approach was a realistic response 458 00:21:17,750 --> 00:21:20,300 to the problems the USSR faced. 459 00:21:20,300 --> 00:21:22,523 His name was Mikhail Gorbachev. 460 00:21:24,060 --> 00:21:25,560 It's really important to understand 461 00:21:25,560 --> 00:21:28,180 that at the beginning, in 1985, 462 00:21:28,180 --> 00:21:30,398 when Gorbachev became General Secretary 463 00:21:30,398 --> 00:21:33,370 of the communist party of the Soviet Union that 464 00:21:33,370 --> 00:21:35,240 a lot of hopes were raised 465 00:21:35,240 --> 00:21:38,290 that this could be the beginning of a new era, 466 00:21:38,290 --> 00:21:39,773 for the Soviet Union. 467 00:21:40,630 --> 00:21:43,640 This new era would be led by two reforms, 468 00:21:43,640 --> 00:21:45,713 perestroika and glasnost. 469 00:21:47,300 --> 00:21:50,010 The first meant economic reform. 470 00:21:50,010 --> 00:21:51,060 Recent opinion polls 471 00:21:51,060 --> 00:21:52,185 are the first of their kind 472 00:21:52,185 --> 00:21:54,860 to suggest that only one in eight Soviets 473 00:21:54,860 --> 00:21:57,830 believe perestroika is a workable solution. 474 00:21:57,830 --> 00:22:00,560 The second, an easing of restrictions, 475 00:22:00,560 --> 00:22:02,540 offering greater freedoms of speech, 476 00:22:02,540 --> 00:22:04,163 religion and the press. 477 00:22:05,960 --> 00:22:09,540 Gorbachev was applauded for these reforms in the west, 478 00:22:09,540 --> 00:22:12,234 but at home, economic reform is slow, 479 00:22:12,234 --> 00:22:15,170 and personal freedom meant dissatisfaction 480 00:22:15,170 --> 00:22:16,793 could be openly expressed. 481 00:22:17,680 --> 00:22:19,190 Bread lines and empty shelves 482 00:22:19,190 --> 00:22:20,993 were still a part of everyday life. 483 00:22:22,540 --> 00:22:25,590 Everything from meat to matches was scarce, 484 00:22:25,590 --> 00:22:27,200 while billions were being pored 485 00:22:27,200 --> 00:22:29,543 into maintaining the superpower posture. 486 00:22:30,940 --> 00:22:35,060 And the more that the economic system began to stall, 487 00:22:35,060 --> 00:22:37,120 the more that the political system 488 00:22:37,120 --> 00:22:41,790 proved incapable of addressing underlying economic problems, 489 00:22:41,790 --> 00:22:43,830 underlying social problems, 490 00:22:43,830 --> 00:22:45,370 the greater the strength of these 491 00:22:45,370 --> 00:22:47,640 centrifugal national forces 492 00:22:47,640 --> 00:22:51,435 that ultimately were to tear 493 00:22:51,435 --> 00:22:54,363 the former Soviet Union apart. 494 00:22:55,440 --> 00:22:57,490 Adding to Gorbachev's problems, 495 00:22:57,490 --> 00:22:59,530 was the fall of the communist regimes 496 00:22:59,530 --> 00:23:01,513 in central and eastern Europe. 497 00:23:02,970 --> 00:23:05,160 In East Germany, public pressure 498 00:23:05,160 --> 00:23:08,120 tore down the most concrete symbol of the Cold War, 499 00:23:08,120 --> 00:23:09,093 the Berlin Wall. 500 00:23:10,130 --> 00:23:12,180 Gorbachev withdrew Red Army troops 501 00:23:12,180 --> 00:23:13,730 from both East Germany, 502 00:23:13,730 --> 00:23:17,000 and from a decades-long war in Afghanistan. 503 00:23:17,000 --> 00:23:19,510 Both moves made him popular in the west, 504 00:23:19,510 --> 00:23:21,520 but in Russia he was subjected 505 00:23:21,520 --> 00:23:23,243 to criticism for being weak. 506 00:23:24,120 --> 00:23:26,300 The most critical factor towards the end I think 507 00:23:26,300 --> 00:23:29,160 was the loss of confidence on the part 508 00:23:29,160 --> 00:23:32,140 of the political elite in the Soviet Union, 509 00:23:32,140 --> 00:23:34,700 including Gorbachev himself. 510 00:23:34,700 --> 00:23:36,710 While Gorbachev's star waned, 511 00:23:36,710 --> 00:23:38,720 another's was on the rise. 512 00:23:38,720 --> 00:23:41,750 Boris Yeltsin, initially close to Gorbachev 513 00:23:41,750 --> 00:23:44,830 criticized the slow pace of perestroika. 514 00:23:44,830 --> 00:23:47,070 Tensions increased between the two, 515 00:23:47,070 --> 00:23:49,250 when Yeltsin won Russia's first popular 516 00:23:49,250 --> 00:23:52,283 presidential election in June, 1991. 517 00:23:53,140 --> 00:23:54,790 Boris Yeltsin, Russian president, 518 00:23:54,790 --> 00:23:57,960 and former Soviet government member sacked by Gorbachev 519 00:23:57,960 --> 00:24:00,043 had come to symbolize resistance to coup. 520 00:24:01,150 --> 00:24:03,030 In early December, Yelstin, 521 00:24:03,030 --> 00:24:04,460 speaking for Russia 522 00:24:04,460 --> 00:24:06,663 and the leaders of the Ukraine and Belarus, 523 00:24:07,610 --> 00:24:12,070 formally declared the USSR was no longer in existence. 524 00:24:12,070 --> 00:24:15,080 On the 25th of December, 1991, 525 00:24:15,080 --> 00:24:16,910 the Soviet Hammer and Sickle flag 526 00:24:16,910 --> 00:24:19,630 flew over the Kremlin for the last time. 527 00:24:19,630 --> 00:24:21,450 The United States of America 528 00:24:21,450 --> 00:24:24,600 was now the world's sole global superpower. 529 00:24:24,600 --> 00:24:26,650 I think the net effect of that has been 530 00:24:26,650 --> 00:24:29,900 a destabilization of the international system. 531 00:24:29,900 --> 00:24:32,490 For better or worse, to one degree or another, 532 00:24:32,490 --> 00:24:35,370 the Cold War especially in Europe, 533 00:24:35,370 --> 00:24:37,569 it did at least provide some degree 534 00:24:37,569 --> 00:24:40,640 of stability in the international system, 535 00:24:40,640 --> 00:24:42,510 in such a way that the United States 536 00:24:42,510 --> 00:24:46,970 in particular could wage wars almost with impunity, 537 00:24:46,970 --> 00:24:48,210 to decide, for example, 538 00:24:48,210 --> 00:24:50,040 it would determine the shape of events 539 00:24:50,040 --> 00:24:51,440 in the Middle East, 540 00:24:51,440 --> 00:24:55,203 where once the Soviet Union had considerable influence. 541 00:25:03,080 --> 00:25:04,610 It began in the early hours 542 00:25:04,610 --> 00:25:07,103 of a June morning in 1972. 543 00:25:08,800 --> 00:25:11,750 What followed would bring down an American president, 544 00:25:11,750 --> 00:25:14,830 a scandal that so captivated the public consciousness, 545 00:25:14,830 --> 00:25:17,110 it is now synonymous with abuse of power, 546 00:25:17,110 --> 00:25:18,713 and obstruction of justice. 547 00:25:23,280 --> 00:25:26,070 Richard Nixon was nearing the end of his first term, 548 00:25:26,070 --> 00:25:27,780 when the Washington Post reported 549 00:25:27,780 --> 00:25:30,030 on a series of crimes that would lead 550 00:25:30,030 --> 00:25:32,570 all the way back to the White House. 551 00:25:32,570 --> 00:25:34,850 With the threat of impeachment looming, 552 00:25:34,850 --> 00:25:37,100 Nixon would be forced to resign. 553 00:25:37,100 --> 00:25:40,290 Those crimes have become known as the Watergate scandal, 554 00:25:40,290 --> 00:25:42,420 after the building where it all began. 555 00:25:42,420 --> 00:25:44,080 Well the Watergate office complex 556 00:25:44,080 --> 00:25:47,770 is a building in Washington which houses a hotel, 557 00:25:47,770 --> 00:25:49,270 and offices. 558 00:25:49,270 --> 00:25:52,460 Now what happened on the night of the famous burglary, 559 00:25:52,460 --> 00:25:56,580 it was a second attempt by a group of operatives 560 00:25:56,580 --> 00:25:58,630 loosely connected to the White House, 561 00:25:58,630 --> 00:26:02,670 to break into the Democratic National Headquarters, 562 00:26:02,670 --> 00:26:05,790 and see what political information they had. 563 00:26:05,790 --> 00:26:07,910 It was political espionage. 564 00:26:07,910 --> 00:26:09,210 The clandestine operation 565 00:26:09,210 --> 00:26:10,970 was part of a greater plan 566 00:26:10,970 --> 00:26:13,500 to make sure Nixon was reelected. 567 00:26:13,500 --> 00:26:17,050 Nixon was going to win the election without difficulty. 568 00:26:17,050 --> 00:26:20,380 He didn't specifically instruct the break-in, 569 00:26:20,380 --> 00:26:24,640 but he created an atmosphere of paranoia in the White House 570 00:26:24,640 --> 00:26:26,480 where these kinds of things, 571 00:26:26,480 --> 00:26:29,903 very dodgy political operations, became the norm. 572 00:26:30,920 --> 00:26:33,020 Nixon began his second term in office 573 00:26:33,020 --> 00:26:37,020 after a landslide victory in November, 1972. 574 00:26:37,020 --> 00:26:39,900 However, he couldn't shake the scandal. 575 00:26:39,900 --> 00:26:41,840 Seven White House aides were indicted 576 00:26:41,840 --> 00:26:43,373 for the Watergate crimes. 577 00:26:44,270 --> 00:26:46,340 That I welcome this kind of examination, 578 00:26:46,340 --> 00:26:47,930 because people have gotta know 579 00:26:47,930 --> 00:26:50,280 whether or not their president is a crook. 580 00:26:50,280 --> 00:26:52,100 Well I'm not a crook. 581 00:26:52,100 --> 00:26:53,650 In the heat of the trials, 582 00:26:53,650 --> 00:26:56,960 it was revealed that the president himself was involved, 583 00:26:56,960 --> 00:26:58,420 and that an aide had tapes 584 00:26:58,420 --> 00:27:00,910 of conversations implicating him. 585 00:27:00,910 --> 00:27:02,240 I believed I was doing something 586 00:27:02,240 --> 00:27:04,160 for the President of the United States. 587 00:27:04,160 --> 00:27:05,930 When the tapes were turned over, 588 00:27:05,930 --> 00:27:07,963 18 and a half minutes were missing. 589 00:27:09,660 --> 00:27:11,040 Nixon had done all he could 590 00:27:11,040 --> 00:27:13,800 to keep his name out of the operation, 591 00:27:13,800 --> 00:27:17,073 but by 1974, he could no longer pretend. 592 00:27:18,090 --> 00:27:21,390 I must put the interests of America first. 593 00:27:21,390 --> 00:27:24,807 Therefore, I shall resign the presidency 594 00:27:24,807 --> 00:27:26,363 effective at noon tomorrow. 595 00:27:27,220 --> 00:27:29,200 He resigned on August the 8th, 596 00:27:29,200 --> 00:27:31,530 three days after handing over the missing tape, 597 00:27:31,530 --> 00:27:34,910 that held no doubt of the extent of his involvement. 598 00:27:34,910 --> 00:27:36,780 Though he'd surrendered the evidence, 599 00:27:36,780 --> 00:27:39,720 the former president never admitted his guilt. 600 00:27:39,720 --> 00:27:41,840 Well the legacy of Watergate was 601 00:27:41,840 --> 00:27:43,680 for a short time at least, 602 00:27:43,680 --> 00:27:45,720 it created a reaction against 603 00:27:45,720 --> 00:27:48,250 what is called the imperial presidency. 604 00:27:48,250 --> 00:27:50,320 The imperial presidency was a term coined 605 00:27:50,320 --> 00:27:51,990 at the height of the Watergate crisis, 606 00:27:51,990 --> 00:27:53,820 to suggest that the presidency 607 00:27:53,820 --> 00:27:56,920 was routinely flouting the Constitution, 608 00:27:56,920 --> 00:27:58,650 going beyond the law. 609 00:27:58,650 --> 00:28:01,593 The second it creates a popular distrust in government 610 00:28:01,593 --> 00:28:04,480 on a level not seen really since 611 00:28:04,480 --> 00:28:06,770 the beginnings of the Great Depression. 612 00:28:06,770 --> 00:28:08,890 And the third one was, 613 00:28:08,890 --> 00:28:12,940 now that a president had been driven from office, 614 00:28:12,940 --> 00:28:15,270 Nixon, by the threat of impeachment, 615 00:28:15,270 --> 00:28:17,830 there was an increasing tendency 616 00:28:17,830 --> 00:28:19,430 by both political parties, 617 00:28:19,430 --> 00:28:22,323 to look for malpractice in government. 618 00:28:23,620 --> 00:28:25,930 Nixon was pardoned of all charges, 619 00:28:25,930 --> 00:28:28,790 as Gerald Ford's first act after he was sworn in 620 00:28:28,790 --> 00:28:30,503 as the succeeding president. 621 00:28:31,390 --> 00:28:34,580 However, the hearings were being nationally televised, 622 00:28:34,580 --> 00:28:35,953 and the damage was done. 623 00:28:37,281 --> 00:28:39,544 I don't trust the man. 624 00:28:39,544 --> 00:28:41,143 He isn't above the law. 625 00:28:41,143 --> 00:28:43,040 The stain of an individual's greed 626 00:28:43,040 --> 00:28:44,990 would color American politics 627 00:28:44,990 --> 00:28:46,700 for decades to come. 628 00:28:46,700 --> 00:28:49,290 In all the decisions I have made in my public life, 629 00:28:49,290 --> 00:28:53,023 I have always tried to do what was best for the nation. 630 00:29:00,310 --> 00:29:03,310 Cambodia, an ancient wooded society, 631 00:29:03,310 --> 00:29:07,530 was the scene of one of the 20th century's worst genocides, 632 00:29:07,530 --> 00:29:10,200 perpetrated not by an invading force, 633 00:29:10,200 --> 00:29:11,433 but by its own leader. 634 00:29:21,160 --> 00:29:23,290 Through the 1960's and 70's, 635 00:29:23,290 --> 00:29:25,690 civil war between the ruling Prince Sihanouk, 636 00:29:25,690 --> 00:29:28,743 and country's military, tore Cambodia apart. 637 00:29:30,210 --> 00:29:33,350 Finally, General Lon Nol, deposed the monarchy, 638 00:29:33,350 --> 00:29:37,023 and become President of the newly declared Khmer Republic. 639 00:29:38,420 --> 00:29:39,570 At the same time, 640 00:29:39,570 --> 00:29:42,730 the country was affected by the conflict on its borders, 641 00:29:42,730 --> 00:29:45,963 where North Vietnamese and US-led forces were at war. 642 00:29:47,370 --> 00:29:49,810 More than 750,000 Cambodians 643 00:29:49,810 --> 00:29:51,890 were killed by American bombing, 644 00:29:51,890 --> 00:29:52,870 that aimed at destroying 645 00:29:52,870 --> 00:29:55,623 North Vietnamese supply lines, and communities. 646 00:29:56,950 --> 00:29:58,210 So big strategic issues, 647 00:29:58,210 --> 00:30:01,740 the Cambodian people were just caught in the middle, 648 00:30:01,740 --> 00:30:04,573 were never considered as a crucial factor by anybody. 649 00:30:05,480 --> 00:30:07,250 They suffered enormously. 650 00:30:07,250 --> 00:30:09,730 Such a violent, volatile climate 651 00:30:09,730 --> 00:30:13,170 created an opportunity for the communist Khmer Rouge, 652 00:30:13,170 --> 00:30:15,543 led by the French-educated Pol Pot. 653 00:30:16,430 --> 00:30:18,040 He took power when the Khmer Rouge 654 00:30:18,040 --> 00:30:21,220 gained control of Cambodia's capital, Phnom Penh, 655 00:30:21,220 --> 00:30:23,983 on the 17th of April, 1975. 656 00:30:25,020 --> 00:30:26,930 Although hundreds of thousands have died 657 00:30:26,930 --> 00:30:28,870 during Cambodia's civil war, 658 00:30:28,870 --> 00:30:31,763 the new regime would take a far higher toll. 659 00:30:32,790 --> 00:30:34,930 Mass executions rid Pol Pot 660 00:30:34,930 --> 00:30:36,770 of all his opponents. 661 00:30:36,770 --> 00:30:38,810 The middle class was wiped out. 662 00:30:38,810 --> 00:30:40,580 Every time you have a revolution, 663 00:30:40,580 --> 00:30:41,510 the people who have been kicked around, 664 00:30:41,510 --> 00:30:43,140 start to kick around when they take power. 665 00:30:43,140 --> 00:30:45,703 This is just, they don't go for an equal society. 666 00:30:45,703 --> 00:30:48,650 They're non-forgiving and non-compromising. 667 00:30:48,650 --> 00:30:51,770 The country's name was changed, to Kampuchea, 668 00:30:51,770 --> 00:30:54,530 and all civil rights and liberties were abolished. 669 00:30:54,530 --> 00:30:58,093 Hospitals, colleges, and factories, were all shut down. 670 00:30:58,950 --> 00:31:00,120 I mean what they were trying to achieve 671 00:31:00,120 --> 00:31:01,100 was the impossible. 672 00:31:01,100 --> 00:31:03,150 We could have the fastest, strongest, 673 00:31:03,150 --> 00:31:05,850 most purist revolution in the world. 674 00:31:05,850 --> 00:31:07,640 So therefore everybody's gonna get to work 675 00:31:07,640 --> 00:31:10,180 for the elites rather than (muffled) to work, 676 00:31:10,180 --> 00:31:12,410 growing rice, which is what they did. 677 00:31:12,410 --> 00:31:13,658 In the process of course, 678 00:31:13,658 --> 00:31:15,410 there was enormous central damage. 679 00:31:15,410 --> 00:31:16,710 The people were (muffled). 680 00:31:17,620 --> 00:31:19,150 Khmer Rouge regime 681 00:31:19,150 --> 00:31:21,440 drove millions into the country. 682 00:31:21,440 --> 00:31:24,143 Millions more who objected, were slaughtered. 683 00:31:25,330 --> 00:31:27,060 People who were too slow to move, 684 00:31:27,060 --> 00:31:30,320 or refused to leave, were killed on the spot. 685 00:31:30,320 --> 00:31:32,780 Executions were not always necessary, 686 00:31:32,780 --> 00:31:35,823 as starvation accounted for many enemies of the state. 687 00:31:37,680 --> 00:31:41,210 As more and more people were accused of far-fetched crimes, 688 00:31:41,210 --> 00:31:44,960 the Khmer Rouge turned to a system of killing fields, 689 00:31:44,960 --> 00:31:47,453 establishing hundreds all over Cambodia. 690 00:31:48,580 --> 00:31:51,310 Anyone with an education, doctors, teachers, 691 00:31:51,310 --> 00:31:54,240 monks, journalists, and artists, 692 00:31:54,240 --> 00:31:56,220 were singled out. 693 00:31:56,220 --> 00:31:57,870 No one was immune. 694 00:31:57,870 --> 00:31:59,710 Children and babies whose parents 695 00:31:59,710 --> 00:32:02,330 had been executed were murdered, 696 00:32:02,330 --> 00:32:04,590 because according to Pol Pot, 697 00:32:04,590 --> 00:32:07,593 to stop the weeds you must also pull up their roots. 698 00:32:08,960 --> 00:32:11,940 In just four years, millions of lives were lost 699 00:32:11,940 --> 00:32:14,530 from mass killings and starvation. 700 00:32:14,530 --> 00:32:17,480 On the 7th of January, 1979, 701 00:32:17,480 --> 00:32:19,580 Vietnam invaded Cambodia, 702 00:32:19,580 --> 00:32:22,683 overthrowing the Khmer Rouge, who fled to the jungles. 703 00:32:24,310 --> 00:32:26,100 From his jungle headquarters, 704 00:32:26,100 --> 00:32:28,670 Pol Pot continued to lead the Khmer Rouge, 705 00:32:28,670 --> 00:32:31,373 until he was arrested in 1997. 706 00:32:32,230 --> 00:32:36,250 A United Nations war crimes tribunal was established, 707 00:32:36,250 --> 00:32:39,780 but Pol Pot died of natural causes in 1998, 708 00:32:39,780 --> 00:32:42,690 without any charges being laid against him. 709 00:32:42,690 --> 00:32:46,210 Following the suffering inflicted by the Khmer Rouge, 710 00:32:46,210 --> 00:32:49,110 Cambodia's recovery would not be easy. 711 00:32:49,110 --> 00:32:51,140 One in five of its citizens is believed 712 00:32:51,140 --> 00:32:53,340 to have died in the genocide. 713 00:32:53,340 --> 00:32:56,890 Millions of landmines remain buried around the countryside, 714 00:32:56,890 --> 00:33:00,220 the tragic legacy of both the Vietnam conflict, 715 00:33:00,220 --> 00:33:03,763 and American bombing, and the madness of Pol Pot. 716 00:33:06,401 --> 00:33:09,818 (light orchestral music) 717 00:33:11,890 --> 00:33:14,100 In the final years of the 20th century, 718 00:33:14,100 --> 00:33:15,900 one incredible medical achievement 719 00:33:15,900 --> 00:33:18,530 will be cause for celebration, and uncertainty, 720 00:33:18,530 --> 00:33:20,110 raising polarizing questions 721 00:33:20,110 --> 00:33:22,333 about the ethical boundaries of science. 722 00:33:30,020 --> 00:33:31,810 Dolly the sheep was born seven months 723 00:33:31,810 --> 00:33:34,710 before the rest of the world would learn about her, 724 00:33:34,710 --> 00:33:37,973 giving her makers enough time to patent her creation. 725 00:33:39,510 --> 00:33:41,840 She was a clone of an adult sheep, 726 00:33:41,840 --> 00:33:43,330 and groundbreaking, 727 00:33:43,330 --> 00:33:47,230 because scientists didn't think adult cells could be cloned. 728 00:33:47,230 --> 00:33:48,470 But the general conclusion 729 00:33:48,470 --> 00:33:50,640 that most scientists arrived at, 730 00:33:50,640 --> 00:33:52,260 was that whilst it was possible 731 00:33:52,260 --> 00:33:56,290 to produce cloned offspring using embryonic cells, 732 00:33:56,290 --> 00:33:59,190 cells that were more advanced, more specialized, 733 00:33:59,190 --> 00:34:00,860 more differentiated, 734 00:34:00,860 --> 00:34:03,170 they didn't give rise to viable pregnancies, 735 00:34:03,170 --> 00:34:07,708 and to offspring, and so really by the mid-1980's, 736 00:34:07,708 --> 00:34:09,546 the conclusion was that cloning, 737 00:34:09,546 --> 00:34:11,270 in the sort of way that Dolly was created, 738 00:34:11,270 --> 00:34:12,273 was not possible. 739 00:34:14,130 --> 00:34:15,230 Dolly's life began 740 00:34:15,230 --> 00:34:17,150 when a cell from the mammary gland 741 00:34:17,150 --> 00:34:20,440 of a deceased adult ewe was electrically pulsed, 742 00:34:20,440 --> 00:34:22,480 encouraging it to bond with an egg cell, 743 00:34:22,480 --> 00:34:24,200 without a nucleus. 744 00:34:24,200 --> 00:34:27,180 The new method of cloning combined two cells, 745 00:34:27,180 --> 00:34:30,630 and then plants them into the uterus of the living ewe. 746 00:34:30,630 --> 00:34:34,760 The team at Roslin, in Edinburgh, in the 1990's, 747 00:34:34,760 --> 00:34:37,187 they brought together a group of people, 748 00:34:37,187 --> 00:34:40,300 and one of the key individuals was Keith Campbell. 749 00:34:40,300 --> 00:34:42,770 And he realized it was important 750 00:34:42,770 --> 00:34:45,350 that a cell cycle of the donor egg, 751 00:34:45,350 --> 00:34:49,740 needed to be similar to that of the recipient egg. 752 00:34:49,740 --> 00:34:51,320 The team's creation of Dolly 753 00:34:51,320 --> 00:34:53,180 was an amazing feat. 754 00:34:53,180 --> 00:34:57,120 She was the only one of her 277 fellow embryos 755 00:34:57,120 --> 00:34:58,413 to survive to term. 756 00:34:59,700 --> 00:35:02,120 Dolly's name is a tribute to Dolly Parton, 757 00:35:02,120 --> 00:35:04,873 and the sheep's origin as an adult breast cell. 758 00:35:05,790 --> 00:35:08,130 The cell had come from a six-year-old sheep, 759 00:35:08,130 --> 00:35:11,060 which was approximately the length of Dolly's own life, 760 00:35:11,060 --> 00:35:12,903 half the average age for her breed. 761 00:35:14,690 --> 00:35:16,560 When the world found out about Dolly, 762 00:35:16,560 --> 00:35:18,510 they wanted to know whether this technique 763 00:35:18,510 --> 00:35:20,143 could extend to human cloning. 764 00:35:21,600 --> 00:35:22,860 Creating a child in this way, 765 00:35:22,860 --> 00:35:26,880 simply would be unacceptably risky for the child. 766 00:35:26,880 --> 00:35:29,630 Though the possibility is not discounted, 767 00:35:29,630 --> 00:35:33,470 the potential for defects in the resulting child is high, 768 00:35:33,470 --> 00:35:34,910 and in tests with mammals, 769 00:35:34,910 --> 00:35:38,540 the technique only worked up to 10% of the time. 770 00:35:38,540 --> 00:35:40,820 The reason why the team at Roslin 771 00:35:40,820 --> 00:35:43,100 were primarily interested in cloning, 772 00:35:43,100 --> 00:35:45,570 wasn't to produce identical offspring, 773 00:35:45,570 --> 00:35:47,730 it was really to derive, or try to derive 774 00:35:47,730 --> 00:35:51,570 stem cells or an alternative way of generating stem cells, 775 00:35:51,570 --> 00:35:53,740 which can be used for research purposes, 776 00:35:53,740 --> 00:35:56,070 but also for therapeutic purposes. 777 00:35:56,070 --> 00:35:57,700 I think if you have the idea 778 00:35:57,700 --> 00:35:59,890 of using the cloning technique, 779 00:35:59,890 --> 00:36:02,930 to create tissue or cartilage or whatever, 780 00:36:02,930 --> 00:36:05,320 that might be put to use in helping 781 00:36:05,320 --> 00:36:08,220 real live, but ill human beings to get better, 782 00:36:08,220 --> 00:36:10,750 then that is probably quite sensible, 783 00:36:10,750 --> 00:36:12,800 but if you're thinking of human reproductive cloning, 784 00:36:12,800 --> 00:36:15,090 where you create a person to carry organs, 785 00:36:15,090 --> 00:36:17,660 that is absolutely repugnant, and will not be allowed, 786 00:36:17,660 --> 00:36:19,280 will not happen. 787 00:36:19,280 --> 00:36:21,890 Though Dolly barely saw the 21st century, 788 00:36:21,890 --> 00:36:24,200 she left a lasting legacy. 789 00:36:24,200 --> 00:36:26,500 And the legacy of cloning was stimulate research 790 00:36:26,500 --> 00:36:29,500 into the creation of very important stem cells, 791 00:36:29,500 --> 00:36:32,370 and there are great therapeutic applications 792 00:36:32,370 --> 00:36:34,603 for the treatment of various diseases. 793 00:36:35,480 --> 00:36:38,370 Dolly opened the way for experimentation. 794 00:36:38,370 --> 00:36:41,490 Her short life showed the successful cloning technique, 795 00:36:41,490 --> 00:36:43,230 that has led to further innovation 796 00:36:43,230 --> 00:36:44,863 in the scientific community. 797 00:36:51,820 --> 00:36:54,440 He was a member of the biggest band in the world, 798 00:36:54,440 --> 00:36:58,093 but also a solo musician, father, and peace activist. 799 00:36:59,340 --> 00:37:01,580 Ultimately his fame and success 800 00:37:01,580 --> 00:37:04,713 would lead him to a violent end that shocked the world. 801 00:37:12,510 --> 00:37:14,270 Beatlemania has ceased to be a phenomenon, 802 00:37:14,270 --> 00:37:16,510 and seems to have become a way of life. 803 00:37:16,510 --> 00:37:18,780 The Beatles were a breakout English band, 804 00:37:18,780 --> 00:37:20,350 who produced hit after hit, 805 00:37:20,350 --> 00:37:23,810 that connected with millions of fans around the world. 806 00:37:23,810 --> 00:37:26,960 A group was formed by John Lennon in the late 50's. 807 00:37:26,960 --> 00:37:29,160 It went through a few reincarnations, 808 00:37:29,160 --> 00:37:32,130 and by 1962, the band was made up 809 00:37:32,130 --> 00:37:35,100 of Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison, 810 00:37:35,100 --> 00:37:36,790 and Ringo Starr. 811 00:37:36,790 --> 00:37:39,200 The Beatles' fame had been epic. 812 00:37:39,200 --> 00:37:40,760 Country after country succumbed 813 00:37:40,760 --> 00:37:42,770 to the charms of this young band, 814 00:37:42,770 --> 00:37:45,583 with an uncanny emotional connection to their audience. 815 00:37:47,610 --> 00:37:50,420 Even after their breakup in 1970, 816 00:37:50,420 --> 00:37:53,290 the Beatles carried their fame for years. 817 00:37:53,290 --> 00:37:54,910 And in the 1980's, 818 00:37:54,910 --> 00:37:58,203 Lennon would lose his life over his status as a celebrity. 819 00:37:59,490 --> 00:38:01,960 On December the 8th, 1980, 820 00:38:01,960 --> 00:38:04,473 John Lennon was shot outside his apartment block. 821 00:38:05,480 --> 00:38:06,740 Eyewitnesses said the assassin 822 00:38:06,740 --> 00:38:08,280 made no attempt to run away, 823 00:38:08,280 --> 00:38:10,620 and was smiling as police arrested him. 824 00:38:10,620 --> 00:38:12,690 Cradled in the arms of his wife, Yoko, 825 00:38:12,690 --> 00:38:15,140 the former Beatle was rushed to Roosevelt Hospital 826 00:38:15,140 --> 00:38:18,370 a few blocks away, where extensive resuscitation efforts 827 00:38:18,370 --> 00:38:20,000 failed to revive him. 828 00:38:20,000 --> 00:38:23,200 The assassin's name was Mark David Chapman. 829 00:38:23,200 --> 00:38:27,340 The motive behind Chapman's assassination, 830 00:38:27,340 --> 00:38:29,950 even to this day, are unclear. 831 00:38:29,950 --> 00:38:34,630 It has been known that some fans become so obsessed 832 00:38:34,630 --> 00:38:36,920 with their idols, 833 00:38:36,920 --> 00:38:41,670 that their love spills into, not exactly hatred, 834 00:38:41,670 --> 00:38:43,230 but a kind of a sense that 835 00:38:43,230 --> 00:38:45,480 they want to destroy the thing that they love, 836 00:38:45,480 --> 00:38:47,880 the idol that they love and worship. 837 00:38:47,880 --> 00:38:51,530 Years later a much more straightforward, 838 00:38:51,530 --> 00:38:54,900 and much more intelligible explanation 839 00:38:54,900 --> 00:38:57,080 came out of an interview with Chapman, 840 00:38:57,080 --> 00:38:57,917 when he just said, 841 00:38:57,917 --> 00:39:00,490 "I wanted to be instantly a somebody." 842 00:39:00,490 --> 00:39:02,503 I thought by killing him, 843 00:39:03,840 --> 00:39:06,080 I would acquire his fame. 844 00:39:06,080 --> 00:39:09,210 And that in a way is more sinister. 845 00:39:09,210 --> 00:39:11,160 I wasn't killing a real person. 846 00:39:11,160 --> 00:39:14,593 I killed an image, I killed an album cover. 847 00:39:15,480 --> 00:39:18,170 I don't expect them to forgive me. 848 00:39:18,170 --> 00:39:19,003 By mid-morning 849 00:39:19,003 --> 00:39:21,300 the gates of John Lennon's luxury apartment block 850 00:39:21,300 --> 00:39:22,700 had become a shrine. 851 00:39:22,700 --> 00:39:24,500 Lennon's fans were shocked. 852 00:39:24,500 --> 00:39:28,310 They held a candlelight vigil for him on December 14th. 853 00:39:28,310 --> 00:39:31,600 The problem was that people couldn't compute, 854 00:39:31,600 --> 00:39:36,220 was that someone had actually killed Lennon deliberately, 855 00:39:36,220 --> 00:39:39,630 cold-bloodedly, and mercilessly. 856 00:39:39,630 --> 00:39:42,930 Chapman's actions elevated Lennon's fame, 857 00:39:42,930 --> 00:39:45,400 contributing to an intensity that increased 858 00:39:45,400 --> 00:39:48,063 over the 20th century, and into the next. 859 00:39:50,290 --> 00:39:52,660 After his death, John Lennon's music 860 00:39:52,660 --> 00:39:55,160 would remain immortal in the hearts of the public. 861 00:39:56,910 --> 00:39:58,470 I imagine in years to come, 862 00:39:58,470 --> 00:40:01,820 we will regard the Beatles' catalog 863 00:40:01,820 --> 00:40:04,670 in the same way that we regard Shakespeare's plays today. 864 00:40:15,310 --> 00:40:17,870 The First World War ended in 1918, 865 00:40:17,870 --> 00:40:21,380 not with surrender, but with an armistice. 866 00:40:21,380 --> 00:40:23,800 The German army went back over the frontiers 867 00:40:23,800 --> 00:40:26,180 it had crossed in 1914, 868 00:40:26,180 --> 00:40:28,380 and the process of settling the peace began. 869 00:40:37,740 --> 00:40:39,520 The leaders of the big four, 870 00:40:39,520 --> 00:40:40,970 the winners of the war, 871 00:40:40,970 --> 00:40:44,150 Britain, France, the USA, and Italy, 872 00:40:44,150 --> 00:40:46,270 met along with a number of minor countries 873 00:40:46,270 --> 00:40:48,023 at the start of 1919. 874 00:40:50,920 --> 00:40:54,400 Soviet Russia, though the successor to a country 875 00:40:54,400 --> 00:40:56,740 that had been in alliance with the victors, 876 00:40:56,740 --> 00:40:58,350 was not invited, 877 00:40:58,350 --> 00:40:59,933 and neither were the losers. 878 00:41:00,800 --> 00:41:04,130 The four major powers on the Anton side, 879 00:41:04,130 --> 00:41:06,540 the so-called allies, 880 00:41:06,540 --> 00:41:08,010 discussed among themselves 881 00:41:08,010 --> 00:41:09,680 during the Paris peace conference, 882 00:41:09,680 --> 00:41:12,040 the terms that they would impose 883 00:41:12,040 --> 00:41:13,840 upon the beaten central powers. 884 00:41:13,840 --> 00:41:15,800 So there was never a question of negotiation, 885 00:41:15,800 --> 00:41:18,780 and of course within this one-sided arrangement, 886 00:41:18,780 --> 00:41:22,113 lay the seeds of much of the distrust of the treaty. 887 00:41:23,350 --> 00:41:25,490 After six months of negotiations, 888 00:41:25,490 --> 00:41:27,770 the delegates to the Paris Peace Conference 889 00:41:27,770 --> 00:41:29,830 reached a series of compromises, 890 00:41:29,830 --> 00:41:32,003 fashioned into a series of treaties. 891 00:41:34,690 --> 00:41:36,700 At Versailles, the victorious allies 892 00:41:36,700 --> 00:41:38,070 planned their peace, 893 00:41:38,070 --> 00:41:40,030 but not one of France's making, 894 00:41:40,030 --> 00:41:41,950 though she stood to lose most, 895 00:41:41,950 --> 00:41:44,033 should a militant Germany rise again. 896 00:41:45,590 --> 00:41:47,140 Well the key points of the treaty 897 00:41:47,140 --> 00:41:49,440 insofar as they related to Germany, 898 00:41:49,440 --> 00:41:51,130 were really three elements. 899 00:41:51,130 --> 00:41:53,980 First of all, Germany would be disarmed, 900 00:41:53,980 --> 00:41:55,510 she would lose all her navy, 901 00:41:55,510 --> 00:41:58,130 she would be reduced to a rump army 902 00:41:58,130 --> 00:41:59,630 of about a hundred thousand. 903 00:41:59,630 --> 00:42:02,220 Secondly, she was gonna lose a certain amount of territory. 904 00:42:02,220 --> 00:42:05,170 The major territory lost was on the eastern border, 905 00:42:05,170 --> 00:42:07,880 particularly in Poland, Czechoslovakia. 906 00:42:07,880 --> 00:42:11,900 And the third element of the terms imposed upon Germany, 907 00:42:11,900 --> 00:42:13,620 were financial, the reparations, 908 00:42:13,620 --> 00:42:15,850 the insistence that Germany 909 00:42:15,850 --> 00:42:18,310 had to take responsibility for causing the war, 910 00:42:18,310 --> 00:42:20,320 and if that was the case, they then had to pay for it, 911 00:42:20,320 --> 00:42:22,410 and these were astronomical sums, 912 00:42:22,410 --> 00:42:24,340 about six billion pounds at the time, 913 00:42:24,340 --> 00:42:27,123 which is about 300 billion pounds today. 914 00:42:29,230 --> 00:42:30,810 The treaty was formally signed 915 00:42:30,810 --> 00:42:33,860 in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles, 916 00:42:33,860 --> 00:42:36,700 on June 28th, 1919, 917 00:42:36,700 --> 00:42:39,630 five years to the day after the assassination 918 00:42:39,630 --> 00:42:41,640 of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, 919 00:42:41,640 --> 00:42:45,083 which had initiated the cascade of events that led to war. 920 00:42:46,630 --> 00:42:47,970 The War Guilt Clause, 921 00:42:47,970 --> 00:42:50,400 the fact that the treaty was imposed on Germany, 922 00:42:50,400 --> 00:42:52,550 rather than negotiated, 923 00:42:52,550 --> 00:42:54,790 and the enormous financial penalty, 924 00:42:54,790 --> 00:42:56,190 all seen with hindsight 925 00:42:56,190 --> 00:42:59,430 to have been designed to ensure instability. 926 00:42:59,430 --> 00:43:00,570 Why was Germany, 927 00:43:00,570 --> 00:43:03,260 in his judgment an undefeated Germany, 928 00:43:03,260 --> 00:43:05,690 accepting the penalties of defeat? 929 00:43:05,690 --> 00:43:07,520 There was a feeling among many Germans 930 00:43:07,520 --> 00:43:10,880 that the treaty was something that sooner or later 931 00:43:10,880 --> 00:43:12,900 they needed to overturn. 932 00:43:12,900 --> 00:43:14,280 There was also a sense that 933 00:43:14,280 --> 00:43:17,130 the financial instability of the 1920's, 934 00:43:17,130 --> 00:43:18,230 in Germany in particular, 935 00:43:18,230 --> 00:43:20,810 was as a direct result of that treaty. 936 00:43:20,810 --> 00:43:22,700 How Schmidt never blamed the men 937 00:43:22,700 --> 00:43:24,503 who had caused the war, 938 00:43:24,503 --> 00:43:27,313 instead he blamed the men who had signed the peace. 939 00:43:28,290 --> 00:43:29,850 With an unstable government, 940 00:43:29,850 --> 00:43:32,510 and an economic crisis in full swing, 941 00:43:32,510 --> 00:43:34,770 extreme parties started to emerge, 942 00:43:34,770 --> 00:43:37,723 on both the left and the right of the political landscape. 943 00:43:38,750 --> 00:43:40,230 You could say the long-term effects 944 00:43:40,230 --> 00:43:42,580 of the Versailles settlement was creating 945 00:43:42,580 --> 00:43:45,950 such a feeling of disgruntlement in Germany, 946 00:43:45,950 --> 00:43:48,730 that at some point they would want redress from this, 947 00:43:48,730 --> 00:43:51,170 they would want redress particularly 948 00:43:51,170 --> 00:43:53,460 in terms of the territory that was taken from Germany, 949 00:43:53,460 --> 00:43:55,280 and I think it is fair to say, 950 00:43:55,280 --> 00:43:57,760 that the determination among Germans generally 951 00:43:57,760 --> 00:44:00,520 to gain revenge for Versailles, 952 00:44:00,520 --> 00:44:02,660 laid the seeds for the rise of Hitler, 953 00:44:02,660 --> 00:44:04,730 and the demand of the return of all the territory 954 00:44:04,730 --> 00:44:06,930 that ultimately caused the Second World War. 955 00:44:14,270 --> 00:44:16,960 Change revolutionized how we communicated, 956 00:44:16,960 --> 00:44:20,600 conducted business, and accessed entertainment, 957 00:44:20,600 --> 00:44:24,013 all made possible by the invention of a single device. 958 00:44:32,060 --> 00:44:33,990 For the first half of the century, 959 00:44:33,990 --> 00:44:35,760 electronic devices were controlled 960 00:44:35,760 --> 00:44:40,270 by vacuum tube triodes, invented in 1906. 961 00:44:40,270 --> 00:44:41,950 The three-terminal connection, 962 00:44:41,950 --> 00:44:45,650 acted as both an on and off switch in a device, 963 00:44:45,650 --> 00:44:47,950 as well as an amplifier of sound. 964 00:44:47,950 --> 00:44:50,240 Now one of the problems as I say with valves is 965 00:44:50,240 --> 00:44:52,020 they've got lots of things going wrong with them. 966 00:44:52,020 --> 00:44:55,313 There's cumbersome, hot, unreliable, and so on. 967 00:44:56,250 --> 00:44:58,010 A new improved conductor would come 968 00:44:58,010 --> 00:45:00,800 from the combined talents of three minds. 969 00:45:00,800 --> 00:45:05,080 The three culprits who directly invented the transistor 970 00:45:05,080 --> 00:45:07,130 was a man called William Shockley, 971 00:45:07,130 --> 00:45:09,510 and two people who worked with him in his lab, 972 00:45:09,510 --> 00:45:13,060 Walter Brattain, and Jack Bardeen. 973 00:45:13,060 --> 00:45:15,680 And they were working together for Bell Labs. 974 00:45:15,680 --> 00:45:19,560 Bell Labs very much interested in electronics, 975 00:45:19,560 --> 00:45:21,740 and all the sorts of things you can do with it. 976 00:45:21,740 --> 00:45:23,230 Bardeen and Brattain 977 00:45:23,230 --> 00:45:25,690 experimented with two gold-point contacts, 978 00:45:25,690 --> 00:45:27,890 applied to a germanium crystal, 979 00:45:27,890 --> 00:45:29,730 and observed the signal being produced 980 00:45:29,730 --> 00:45:32,400 with the output power greater than the input. 981 00:45:32,400 --> 00:45:34,400 So you have to imagine beavering away, 982 00:45:34,400 --> 00:45:37,740 when what you're trying to do is on a very small scale, 983 00:45:37,740 --> 00:45:40,110 put three wires into something, 984 00:45:40,110 --> 00:45:42,090 a piece of silicon or germanium, 985 00:45:42,090 --> 00:45:46,030 to make it work in this interesting way like a valve would. 986 00:45:46,030 --> 00:45:49,870 And eventually, just before Christmas on 1947, 987 00:45:49,870 --> 00:45:51,883 Bardeen and Brattain managed it. 988 00:45:53,060 --> 00:45:54,460 A few months later, 989 00:45:54,460 --> 00:45:57,240 Shockley invented a more robust type of device, 990 00:45:57,240 --> 00:45:59,163 with a layered, sandwich structure. 991 00:46:00,290 --> 00:46:02,710 The Bell Company unveiled the group's invention 992 00:46:02,710 --> 00:46:05,790 called a transistor, in 1947, 993 00:46:05,790 --> 00:46:09,690 winning them the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics. 994 00:46:09,690 --> 00:46:12,070 This smaller, easier to make amplifier, 995 00:46:12,070 --> 00:46:14,810 has been made possible by developing the transistor. 996 00:46:14,810 --> 00:46:18,020 Very quickly Bell Labs realized this was big. 997 00:46:18,020 --> 00:46:19,730 They opened a factory in 1950, 998 00:46:19,730 --> 00:46:21,690 to start making this in volume, 999 00:46:21,690 --> 00:46:23,570 and pretty soon after that, 1000 00:46:23,570 --> 00:46:26,960 we started to get applications of the transistor. 1001 00:46:26,960 --> 00:46:29,860 And in 1954, the transistor radio 1002 00:46:29,860 --> 00:46:31,340 was available for sale, 1003 00:46:31,340 --> 00:46:33,373 making radios truly portable. 1004 00:46:34,310 --> 00:46:38,050 In 1958, Jack Kilby from Texas Instruments 1005 00:46:38,050 --> 00:46:40,710 found a way to make smaller transistors, 1006 00:46:40,710 --> 00:46:44,180 by making all the parts out of the same block of material, 1007 00:46:44,180 --> 00:46:46,520 and adding the metal needed to connect them 1008 00:46:46,520 --> 00:46:47,933 as a layer on top of it. 1009 00:46:51,580 --> 00:46:53,320 Kilby's integrated circuit, 1010 00:46:53,320 --> 00:46:56,363 now led technological change in leaps and bounds. 1011 00:46:57,640 --> 00:47:00,280 Transistor technology infiltrated military 1012 00:47:00,280 --> 00:47:02,023 and computer applications. 1013 00:47:03,410 --> 00:47:04,540 At Manchester University, 1014 00:47:04,540 --> 00:47:07,530 the world's first transistor-based computer 1015 00:47:07,530 --> 00:47:08,690 was put together. 1016 00:47:08,690 --> 00:47:10,610 By today's standards, really rather stupid, 1017 00:47:10,610 --> 00:47:12,810 but at the time this was a big breakthrough. 1018 00:47:13,730 --> 00:47:15,540 Space was a new frontier 1019 00:47:15,540 --> 00:47:16,830 that could only be reached 1020 00:47:16,830 --> 00:47:18,970 because of the technological advancements 1021 00:47:18,970 --> 00:47:20,393 transistors opened up. 1022 00:47:21,360 --> 00:47:23,330 By the end of the 20th century, 1023 00:47:23,330 --> 00:47:25,330 the most advanced circuits contained 1024 00:47:25,330 --> 00:47:27,500 several hundred millions of components, 1025 00:47:27,500 --> 00:47:30,610 on an area no larger than a fingernail. 1026 00:47:30,610 --> 00:47:32,060 The transistor, in many ways, 1027 00:47:32,060 --> 00:47:35,090 is one of those really pivotal inventions, 1028 00:47:35,090 --> 00:47:37,700 an invention which became an innovation. 1029 00:47:37,700 --> 00:47:39,320 My definition of innovation is, 1030 00:47:39,320 --> 00:47:40,870 ideas that create value. 1031 00:47:40,870 --> 00:47:43,580 Without question, the transistor has done that, 1032 00:47:43,580 --> 00:47:45,100 commercial and social value, 1033 00:47:45,100 --> 00:47:46,250 it's changed the world. 1034 00:47:53,250 --> 00:47:55,750 When Korea gained its independence from Japan 1035 00:47:55,750 --> 00:47:57,380 at the end of World War II, 1036 00:47:57,380 --> 00:48:00,220 it was a divided and uncertain nation. 1037 00:48:00,220 --> 00:48:02,760 The North was now controlled by Soviets. 1038 00:48:02,760 --> 00:48:04,493 The South by the Americans. 1039 00:48:06,800 --> 00:48:10,170 A physical divide that reflected an ideological one, 1040 00:48:10,170 --> 00:48:12,363 between communism and democracy. 1041 00:48:23,008 --> 00:48:23,841 The partition of Korea, 1042 00:48:23,841 --> 00:48:27,320 the casualty of the quick end of the Second World War, 1043 00:48:27,320 --> 00:48:28,210 in the Far East. 1044 00:48:28,210 --> 00:48:30,620 The Americans had suggested, very rapidly 1045 00:48:30,620 --> 00:48:32,100 after the atomic bombs were dropped, 1046 00:48:32,100 --> 00:48:33,510 and the Soviets invaded, 1047 00:48:33,510 --> 00:48:34,930 the Red Army invaded the northern part 1048 00:48:34,930 --> 00:48:36,201 of the Korean Peninsula. 1049 00:48:36,201 --> 00:48:38,060 They had to suggest an arbitrary line, 1050 00:48:38,060 --> 00:48:41,020 so that the Americans could occupy most of Japan 1051 00:48:41,020 --> 00:48:42,380 and part of the Korean Peninsula. 1052 00:48:42,380 --> 00:48:44,800 So they suggested the 38th Parallel. 1053 00:48:44,800 --> 00:48:46,200 Rounding up and mopping up, 1054 00:48:46,200 --> 00:48:47,033 that's been the recent task 1055 00:48:47,033 --> 00:48:49,493 of the United Nations land forces in Korea. 1056 00:48:50,330 --> 00:48:53,180 Between 1945 and 1950, 1057 00:48:53,180 --> 00:48:55,900 rival groups in North and South Korea, 1058 00:48:55,900 --> 00:48:58,570 maintained their volatile truce. 1059 00:48:58,570 --> 00:49:01,350 In the South, the American-backed regime 1060 00:49:01,350 --> 00:49:05,350 moved towards a declaration of an independent republic, 1061 00:49:05,350 --> 00:49:07,200 while the Soviet-sponsored North 1062 00:49:07,200 --> 00:49:09,910 mobilized not under the banner of invasion, 1063 00:49:09,910 --> 00:49:11,163 but of unification. 1064 00:49:12,570 --> 00:49:15,430 By 1948, both North and South 1065 00:49:15,430 --> 00:49:18,360 had declared themselves to be independent nations, 1066 00:49:18,360 --> 00:49:19,773 as they remain today. 1067 00:49:20,710 --> 00:49:23,220 The North, backed by the Soviet Union, 1068 00:49:23,220 --> 00:49:25,930 prepared its army, and in 1950, 1069 00:49:25,930 --> 00:49:27,743 invaded across the 38th parallel. 1070 00:49:29,424 --> 00:49:32,180 Taking the capital, they expected a quick surrender, 1071 00:49:32,180 --> 00:49:35,620 and unification of the country on their terms. 1072 00:49:35,620 --> 00:49:37,030 The peaceful southern democracy 1073 00:49:37,030 --> 00:49:38,010 was taken by surprise 1074 00:49:38,010 --> 00:49:39,667 by this communist Blitzkrieg. 1075 00:49:39,667 --> 00:49:41,250 The but South pushed back 1076 00:49:41,250 --> 00:49:44,290 when the United Nations, under American leadership, 1077 00:49:44,290 --> 00:49:45,660 came to its aid. 1078 00:49:45,660 --> 00:49:48,210 Is the goal merely to protect South Korea? 1079 00:49:48,210 --> 00:49:50,900 Or is the goal to overturn and roll back 1080 00:49:50,900 --> 00:49:52,910 the communist revolution in the North? 1081 00:49:52,910 --> 00:49:55,800 Do we believe that this is a completely illegitimate, 1082 00:49:55,800 --> 00:49:57,520 and fundamentally aggressive regime, 1083 00:49:57,520 --> 00:50:01,537 that has no right in the parlance of today, 1084 00:50:01,537 --> 00:50:03,210 they've lost the responsibility to protect 1085 00:50:03,210 --> 00:50:04,520 their own population? 1086 00:50:04,520 --> 00:50:05,970 The war was waged on the ground 1087 00:50:05,970 --> 00:50:08,323 by both regular Army and guerrilla units. 1088 00:50:09,250 --> 00:50:10,083 Red soldiers 1089 00:50:10,083 --> 00:50:12,573 who probably don't even know what the war's about anyway, 1090 00:50:12,573 --> 00:50:15,430 are interrogated by an American intelligence officer. 1091 00:50:15,430 --> 00:50:16,380 And in the air, 1092 00:50:16,380 --> 00:50:19,330 where it became the first conflict to involve jet fighters, 1093 00:50:19,330 --> 00:50:21,540 in significant numbers. 1094 00:50:21,540 --> 00:50:23,350 With international support for the South 1095 00:50:23,350 --> 00:50:25,580 threatening to overwhelm the North, 1096 00:50:25,580 --> 00:50:28,003 China entered the war in 1950. 1097 00:50:29,630 --> 00:50:32,870 For three years, a savage war, in often frigid conditions 1098 00:50:32,870 --> 00:50:35,683 was fought without any clear advantage being gained, 1099 00:50:37,350 --> 00:50:39,563 and at a cost of millions of lives. 1100 00:50:42,310 --> 00:50:46,180 Fighting ended in 1953 with an armistice. 1101 00:50:46,180 --> 00:50:49,120 But the war has never officially stopped. 1102 00:50:49,120 --> 00:50:51,590 With the friction, suspicion, and danger 1103 00:50:51,590 --> 00:50:53,070 in the Korean Peninsula, 1104 00:50:53,070 --> 00:50:56,113 that occupies newspaper headlines to this day. 1105 00:50:57,140 --> 00:50:58,560 Well the legacy very much remains 1106 00:50:58,560 --> 00:51:00,400 in the form of Korean division, 1107 00:51:00,400 --> 00:51:02,220 the North for the South Koreans, 1108 00:51:02,220 --> 00:51:03,800 is kind of a lost limb. 1109 00:51:03,800 --> 00:51:05,107 They're waiting to kind of get it back 1110 00:51:05,107 --> 00:51:07,700 and to refill those provinces 1111 00:51:07,700 --> 00:51:09,080 and to bring economic development 1112 00:51:09,080 --> 00:51:12,170 in their new South Korean model, to the North. 1113 00:51:12,170 --> 00:51:13,650 From the North Korean perspective, 1114 00:51:13,650 --> 00:51:14,680 the war never ended. 1115 00:51:14,680 --> 00:51:17,573 It's a very very palpable present conflict still. 1116 00:51:21,435 --> 00:51:24,935 (light orchestral music) 85464

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