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These are the user uploaded subtitles that are being translated: 1 00:00:21,328 --> 00:00:24,752 In 1979, a robotic spacecraft 2 00:00:24,753 --> 00:00:27,003 flew by the Planet Jupiter. 3 00:00:36,085 --> 00:00:39,903 Completely unexpectedly, it found a mysterious object 4 00:00:39,904 --> 00:00:41,654 the size of our Moon. 5 00:00:46,255 --> 00:00:50,422 The craft had observed something almost unbelievable. 6 00:01:58,658 --> 00:02:01,241 We live on a remarkable planet. 7 00:02:05,229 --> 00:02:07,312 The rock itself is alive. 8 00:02:16,882 --> 00:02:20,882 The Earth spits out hot lava, creating new land. 9 00:02:27,714 --> 00:02:30,964 It is a sight we can only watch in awe. 10 00:02:36,039 --> 00:02:37,965 Well, I find it absolutely overwhelming to look 11 00:02:37,966 --> 00:02:40,925 inside a volcano like this and see the hot lava oozing out. 12 00:02:40,926 --> 00:02:42,249 You can see that the Earth is active. 13 00:02:42,250 --> 00:02:45,674 It's like the lifeblood of the planet. 14 00:02:45,675 --> 00:02:48,147 For a geologist, like Jim Head, 15 00:02:48,148 --> 00:02:52,315 the Earth is an inspiration to look into other worlds. 16 00:02:55,416 --> 00:02:57,191 How does all this play out on the other planets? 17 00:02:57,192 --> 00:02:59,118 What does it look like there? 18 00:02:59,119 --> 00:03:01,649 Would there be hot lava like this, volcanoes? 19 00:03:01,650 --> 00:03:04,157 Would we see things like ocean basins? 20 00:03:04,158 --> 00:03:06,408 We have absolutely no clue. 21 00:03:17,080 --> 00:03:20,903 The history of this planet is written in its rocks. 22 00:03:22,966 --> 00:03:25,229 Over hundreds of millions of years, 23 00:03:25,230 --> 00:03:28,526 mountain ranges have risen up, 24 00:03:28,527 --> 00:03:31,610 entire continents have drifted apart. 25 00:03:33,369 --> 00:03:36,202 Is this how other worlds would be? 26 00:03:39,243 --> 00:03:43,410 Earth's satellite, the Moon, could hardly be more different. 27 00:03:45,977 --> 00:03:48,821 Nothing has happened on this dusty world 28 00:03:48,822 --> 00:03:50,806 for billions of years. 29 00:03:50,807 --> 00:03:52,989 Its surface shows only the scars 30 00:03:52,990 --> 00:03:55,823 of countless impacts by asteroids. 31 00:04:02,475 --> 00:04:04,355 The surfaces of the other planets 32 00:04:04,356 --> 00:04:07,652 must also reveal clues about their past. 33 00:04:07,653 --> 00:04:09,463 But they are so far away, 34 00:04:09,464 --> 00:04:13,214 they appear just as dots of light in the sky. 35 00:04:14,805 --> 00:04:17,486 Astronomers gazed at those dots; 36 00:04:17,487 --> 00:04:19,979 but only on one of them could they make out anything 37 00:04:19,980 --> 00:04:23,880 that looked remotely like the landforms of the Earth. 38 00:04:23,881 --> 00:04:26,381 It was the Red Planet of Mars. 39 00:04:31,006 --> 00:04:34,012 Over a century ago, an Italian astronomer, 40 00:04:34,013 --> 00:04:36,648 Giovanni Schiaparelli, began to chart 41 00:04:36,649 --> 00:04:39,388 the dark and light regions of Mars. 42 00:04:39,389 --> 00:04:43,556 His maps were the best we had until space probes came along. 43 00:04:57,941 --> 00:05:00,691 In 1964, NASA launched Mariner 4. 44 00:05:02,341 --> 00:05:04,651 Its mission was to fly past Mars 45 00:05:04,652 --> 00:05:07,450 and try to send back closeup pictures. 46 00:05:10,735 --> 00:05:13,216 The mission was a technical success. 47 00:05:13,217 --> 00:05:15,805 But the fuzzy images showed nothing particularly 48 00:05:15,806 --> 00:05:19,973 interesting, just craters, like those on the Moon. 49 00:05:22,551 --> 00:05:24,234 But astronomers were convinced 50 00:05:24,235 --> 00:05:28,660 that the probe had looked in the wrong place. 51 00:05:37,744 --> 00:05:41,981 Brad Smith had spent years gazing at the Red Planet. 52 00:05:41,982 --> 00:05:46,149 He thought he knew where the next probe should look. 53 00:05:47,137 --> 00:05:50,970 For the next mission, NASA asked him for help. 54 00:05:53,464 --> 00:05:56,343 I have been observing Mars for quite some time 55 00:05:56,344 --> 00:05:58,409 with ground-based telescopes, and we had noticed 56 00:05:58,410 --> 00:05:59,640 that there were certain regions 57 00:05:59,641 --> 00:06:01,877 that were very changeable, 58 00:06:01,878 --> 00:06:03,189 they change with the seasons, 59 00:06:03,190 --> 00:06:04,826 they seem to have colors to them. 60 00:06:04,827 --> 00:06:06,684 And we thought that those would be particularly interesting, 61 00:06:06,685 --> 00:06:10,768 so I set up the targeting so that Mariner 6 and 7 62 00:06:12,130 --> 00:06:16,434 would look at these particular areas during the approach. 63 00:06:21,612 --> 00:06:24,700 As Mariner 6 and 7 raced towards Mars, 64 00:06:24,701 --> 00:06:26,975 they saw what appeared to be mountains, 65 00:06:26,976 --> 00:06:29,143 dark plains, deep canyons. 66 00:06:38,006 --> 00:06:39,944 But when the closeups came back, 67 00:06:39,945 --> 00:06:43,528 Brad and NASA were once again disappointed. 68 00:06:44,786 --> 00:06:47,348 Unfortunately the surface was 69 00:06:47,349 --> 00:06:48,950 very heavily-cratered. 70 00:06:48,951 --> 00:06:51,330 There were dark and light areas, to be sure, 71 00:06:51,331 --> 00:06:55,812 but it was still a lot like looking at the Moon. 72 00:07:06,226 --> 00:07:08,118 Convinced that there had to be more 73 00:07:08,119 --> 00:07:12,100 than just craters on Mars, NASA went back again. 74 00:07:12,101 --> 00:07:16,268 This time, they planned to give the probe longer to search. 75 00:07:18,533 --> 00:07:21,574 Mariner 9 was not a quick flyby; 76 00:07:21,575 --> 00:07:24,407 it was designed to go into orbit around Mars 77 00:07:24,408 --> 00:07:28,609 and photograph every square foot of the Planet. 78 00:07:28,610 --> 00:07:31,733 But as the probe closed in, disaster. 79 00:07:31,734 --> 00:07:34,914 A large dust storm began to stir. 80 00:07:34,915 --> 00:07:36,934 I was watching the Planet, hoping that it wouldn't 81 00:07:36,935 --> 00:07:40,591 be a bad one, but within just a matter of days 82 00:07:40,592 --> 00:07:42,971 a brilliant brilliant yellow cloud developed 83 00:07:42,972 --> 00:07:45,351 and we knew it was a bad dust storm, 84 00:07:45,352 --> 00:07:47,627 and it spread out over the entire Planet, 85 00:07:47,628 --> 00:07:49,545 covering up everything. 86 00:07:51,981 --> 00:07:54,244 But Mariner sat out the storm, 87 00:07:54,245 --> 00:07:57,170 and then, miraculously, saw something poking up 88 00:07:57,171 --> 00:07:59,271 through the dust. 89 00:07:59,272 --> 00:08:02,476 We saw these four dark spots 90 00:08:02,477 --> 00:08:05,727 and we weren't really quite sure what they were. 91 00:08:05,728 --> 00:08:08,490 And one of our team members had pointed out 92 00:08:08,491 --> 00:08:10,707 that there were things that looked like 93 00:08:10,708 --> 00:08:13,714 the tops of volcanoes; and he suggested that in fact 94 00:08:13,715 --> 00:08:16,385 these were volcanoes that were so high 95 00:08:16,386 --> 00:08:21,063 that they were actually poking up through the dust. 96 00:08:21,064 --> 00:08:23,327 As the dust began to recede, 97 00:08:23,328 --> 00:08:26,067 the four spots showed themselves. 98 00:08:32,610 --> 00:08:34,277 They were volcanoes, 99 00:08:35,605 --> 00:08:36,605 giant ones. 100 00:08:40,505 --> 00:08:43,882 The biggest of them was christened Olympus Mons. 101 00:08:43,883 --> 00:08:45,633 It was 15 miles high, 102 00:08:46,809 --> 00:08:49,279 three times the size of Everest. 103 00:08:58,637 --> 00:09:01,225 Mars was not just another Moon; 104 00:09:01,226 --> 00:09:03,117 it was a real world; 105 00:09:03,118 --> 00:09:07,285 and geologists were eager to compare it with the Earth. 106 00:09:12,139 --> 00:09:15,760 Jim Head went straight to the biggest volcanoes he knew 107 00:09:15,761 --> 00:09:17,761 on the Island of Hawaii. 108 00:09:19,174 --> 00:09:21,481 I remember when Olympus Mons first came out of the clouds 109 00:09:21,482 --> 00:09:23,246 on Mariner 9; it was absolutely spectacular, 110 00:09:23,247 --> 00:09:24,938 this gigantic volcano. 111 00:09:24,939 --> 00:09:27,411 And I couldn't wait to get back here to Hawaii 112 00:09:27,412 --> 00:09:29,675 to get some sense of the perspective and scale 113 00:09:29,676 --> 00:09:31,277 from something that I knew about. 114 00:09:31,278 --> 00:09:33,134 And here we are on the edge of this volcano, 115 00:09:33,135 --> 00:09:34,736 this incredibly large volcano, 116 00:09:34,737 --> 00:09:36,165 one of the largest on the Earth, 117 00:09:36,166 --> 00:09:40,251 and in fact it's like tiny compared to Olympus Mons. 118 00:09:40,252 --> 00:09:42,178 To travel right across the crater 119 00:09:42,179 --> 00:09:47,124 of Olympus Mons would mean a journey of 600 miles, 120 00:09:47,125 --> 00:09:49,375 an area the size of France. 121 00:09:50,991 --> 00:09:54,074 It's covered with crumbling red lava. 122 00:09:55,856 --> 00:09:59,512 The volcanoes were just the start. 123 00:09:59,513 --> 00:10:02,554 As the dust withdrew, Mariner 9's cameras 124 00:10:02,555 --> 00:10:04,980 snapped thousands more pictures. 125 00:10:04,981 --> 00:10:07,898 A whole new world was taking shape. 126 00:10:13,314 --> 00:10:17,342 NASA called in scientists with a new expertise: 127 00:10:17,343 --> 00:10:19,677 planetary geologists. 128 00:10:28,869 --> 00:10:31,039 When this thing began to shape up 129 00:10:31,040 --> 00:10:33,089 and we began to see all these features, that was the first 130 00:10:33,090 --> 00:10:35,798 time that this whole Planet Mars 131 00:10:35,799 --> 00:10:39,165 had ever really begun to take shape in the sense 132 00:10:39,166 --> 00:10:41,928 of knowing what the physical features were, the geology. 133 00:10:41,929 --> 00:10:45,098 None of that stuff had ever been seen before. 134 00:10:45,099 --> 00:10:47,570 It was a historical moment, 135 00:10:47,571 --> 00:10:51,238 when you finally start, like with an orange, 136 00:10:52,343 --> 00:10:56,673 peeling the peel off and exposing a planet for what it is. 137 00:10:56,674 --> 00:10:58,809 As Mariner's cameras tracked across 138 00:10:58,810 --> 00:11:02,524 the Red Planet, a giant crevice appeared. 139 00:11:02,525 --> 00:11:06,518 Each day we'd get a new set of images, 140 00:11:06,519 --> 00:11:09,151 and as they mosaic, then we say: "My god, look at that! 141 00:11:09,152 --> 00:11:10,623 "Where's it going?" 142 00:11:10,624 --> 00:11:14,791 And stretch clear across roughly an eighth of the Planet. 143 00:11:16,719 --> 00:11:20,053 They had discovered the biggest canyon ever seen. 144 00:11:24,030 --> 00:11:28,035 Valles Marineris is 4,000 miles across 145 00:11:28,036 --> 00:11:30,752 and maybe 100 miles at its widest 146 00:11:30,753 --> 00:11:33,253 and as much as six miles deep. 147 00:11:34,503 --> 00:11:36,649 Scale of the United States is something like that. 148 00:11:36,650 --> 00:11:38,217 The scale of the United States I think is, 149 00:11:38,218 --> 00:11:40,794 over there would be San Francisco 150 00:11:40,795 --> 00:11:43,592 and over here would be New York, something like that. 151 00:11:43,593 --> 00:11:46,259 So it would span the United States. 152 00:11:46,260 --> 00:11:48,384 And this little canyon right here 153 00:11:48,385 --> 00:11:51,052 is the size of the Grand Canyon. 154 00:11:55,119 --> 00:11:57,951 The Valles Marineris probably cracked open 155 00:11:57,952 --> 00:12:01,782 when the four giant volcanoes to its north pushed up, 156 00:12:01,783 --> 00:12:05,776 breaking open the surface of the Planet. 157 00:12:05,777 --> 00:12:07,958 Martian geology is written on a scale 158 00:12:07,959 --> 00:12:10,130 that dwarfs the Earth's. 159 00:12:10,131 --> 00:12:14,042 Giant features, like Valles Marineris and Olympus Mons, 160 00:12:14,043 --> 00:12:16,434 have been steadily growing in the same place 161 00:12:16,435 --> 00:12:18,268 for billions of years. 162 00:12:21,009 --> 00:12:24,466 This suggested that the surface of the Planet did not move, 163 00:12:24,467 --> 00:12:28,134 unlike the drifting continents of the Earth. 164 00:12:31,584 --> 00:12:35,241 Mariner 9 had gone in search of geological life 165 00:12:35,242 --> 00:12:36,659 and had found it. 166 00:12:39,862 --> 00:12:41,336 So it was a very active Planet; 167 00:12:41,337 --> 00:12:44,830 it was a planet that had real geology, active geology 168 00:12:44,831 --> 00:12:48,248 going on even in modern geologic history. 169 00:12:50,149 --> 00:12:52,249 But was it all history? 170 00:12:52,250 --> 00:12:56,150 Was Mars a graveyard of geology from the distant past? 171 00:12:56,151 --> 00:12:58,984 Or were the volcanoes still alive? 172 00:13:02,003 --> 00:13:06,170 To find out, a probe needed to land on the Planet's surface. 173 00:13:08,423 --> 00:13:12,497 Jerry Soffurn was the mission's scientist. 174 00:13:12,498 --> 00:13:15,132 The whole point of Viking is to be the first time 175 00:13:15,133 --> 00:13:17,385 you really explored the surface of the Planet. 176 00:13:17,386 --> 00:13:20,728 The Mariners had actually orbited, or flown by, the Planet, 177 00:13:20,729 --> 00:13:23,283 but the idea of actually getting a lander on the surface 178 00:13:23,284 --> 00:13:27,367 of Mars, it was as important as Columbus' voyage. 179 00:13:41,256 --> 00:13:43,307 I was absolutely terrified that we wouldn't 180 00:13:43,308 --> 00:13:46,941 land successfully because I had spent so much of my life 181 00:13:46,942 --> 00:13:49,260 aimed at this great moment in history. 182 00:13:49,261 --> 00:13:50,343 14,000 feet. 183 00:13:50,344 --> 00:13:52,261 15,480 feet per second. 184 00:13:53,148 --> 00:13:54,148 3,000 feet. 185 00:13:55,911 --> 00:13:59,254 On July the 20th, 1976, 186 00:13:59,255 --> 00:14:02,214 Viking dropped into Mars' upper atmosphere 187 00:14:02,215 --> 00:14:03,558 and began its descent. 188 00:14:03,559 --> 00:14:05,485 8.4 Gs. 189 00:14:05,486 --> 00:14:08,214 ATS is green, 1.5 degrees per second max. 190 00:14:08,215 --> 00:14:09,235 0.2 Gs. 191 00:14:09,236 --> 00:14:10,675 Eight feet per second. 192 00:14:10,676 --> 00:14:12,440 When the landing took place, 193 00:14:12,441 --> 00:14:15,358 it was like it was two minutes ago. 194 00:14:16,934 --> 00:14:20,845 I can see every single face and the expectation. 195 00:14:20,846 --> 00:14:23,318 The signals from Viking took 18 minutes 196 00:14:23,319 --> 00:14:25,988 to travel back to Mission Control. 197 00:14:25,989 --> 00:14:29,406 The scientists could do nothing but wait. 198 00:14:30,320 --> 00:14:34,558 And when the touchdown came, I just exploded inside. 199 00:14:34,559 --> 00:14:36,017 Touchdown! We have touchdown! 200 00:14:36,858 --> 00:14:37,858 Yeah! 201 00:14:39,174 --> 00:14:41,904 We have touchdown. 202 00:14:41,905 --> 00:14:43,000 We're looking good. 203 00:14:43,001 --> 00:14:45,586 That is a treat. 204 00:14:45,587 --> 00:14:47,061 Copy, power. 205 00:14:47,062 --> 00:14:49,127 We're out of sync. 206 00:14:49,128 --> 00:14:52,251 The idea of being there in history 207 00:14:52,252 --> 00:14:56,419 when the first landing on Mars took place was thrilling. 208 00:14:57,882 --> 00:15:00,737 And now, what everyone wanted to know: 209 00:15:00,738 --> 00:15:04,313 What would the surface of Mars look like? 210 00:15:04,314 --> 00:15:06,786 Was it gonna be like someplace on the US? 211 00:15:06,787 --> 00:15:07,936 Was it gonna be a desert? 212 00:15:07,937 --> 00:15:09,909 Was it gonna be sandy, or dusty? 213 00:15:09,910 --> 00:15:14,344 But all we knew is that it was gonna be red. 214 00:15:14,345 --> 00:15:16,352 An hour after Viking landed, 215 00:15:16,353 --> 00:15:20,520 the first black-and-white pictures began to be sent back. 216 00:15:25,998 --> 00:15:29,915 Line by line, the surface of Mars was revealed. 217 00:16:04,827 --> 00:16:07,404 Then came color pictures. 218 00:16:07,405 --> 00:16:09,749 The surface was littered with rocks, 219 00:16:09,750 --> 00:16:13,696 some of them dark and porous, clearly volcanic. 220 00:16:13,697 --> 00:16:17,771 They must have been hurled there by volcanoes. 221 00:16:17,772 --> 00:16:19,664 We knew there were volcanoes on Mars but 222 00:16:19,665 --> 00:16:23,832 actually see a piece of the volcano was just astonishing. 223 00:16:25,388 --> 00:16:28,603 But when had the pieces landed there? 224 00:16:28,604 --> 00:16:30,740 Viking carried a device to find out 225 00:16:30,741 --> 00:16:33,004 whether Mars was still active, 226 00:16:33,005 --> 00:16:37,088 a seismometer, to tell if the ground was shaking. 227 00:16:38,450 --> 00:16:42,200 Viking listened and waited, but felt nothing. 228 00:16:43,152 --> 00:16:47,063 For all its spectacular volcanoes and canyons, it seemed 229 00:16:47,064 --> 00:16:51,231 that geological activity on Mars was a thing of the past. 230 00:17:17,294 --> 00:17:20,485 While the Americans were putting all their efforts into Mars 231 00:17:20,486 --> 00:17:22,986 the Russians headed for Venus. 232 00:17:27,301 --> 00:17:30,342 This world is almost as large as the Earth, 233 00:17:30,343 --> 00:17:34,951 and geologists had always thought it would be our twin. 234 00:17:34,952 --> 00:17:37,784 But Venus was no easy target. 235 00:17:37,785 --> 00:17:41,581 The surface was hidden by a thick blanket of cloud; 236 00:17:41,582 --> 00:17:45,749 but below that serene exterior were hellish conditions. 237 00:17:47,514 --> 00:17:49,603 The pressure of the atmosphere had already 238 00:17:49,604 --> 00:17:52,485 crushed three Soviet probes. 239 00:17:52,486 --> 00:17:55,341 The Russians had found to their cost that the temperature 240 00:17:55,342 --> 00:17:59,425 on the surface was nearly 500 degrees centigrade. 241 00:18:01,054 --> 00:18:03,514 In 1975 they tried again, 242 00:18:03,515 --> 00:18:06,034 and equipped their probe with a camera. 243 00:18:06,035 --> 00:18:07,891 They hoped it would cling on long enough 244 00:18:07,892 --> 00:18:11,642 to send back just one picture of the surface. 245 00:18:21,356 --> 00:18:23,120 The mission chiefs didn't want anyone 246 00:18:23,121 --> 00:18:25,371 to know that it might fail. 247 00:18:52,992 --> 00:18:55,799 Seconds after landing, signals showed 248 00:18:55,800 --> 00:18:58,217 Venera 9 systems were intact. 249 00:18:59,445 --> 00:19:03,914 But on the surface the temperature was hotter than an oven. 250 00:19:03,915 --> 00:19:08,082 Would the probe survive long enough to send back an image? 251 00:19:44,488 --> 00:19:48,272 The camera had captured a blurred view of some rocks. 252 00:19:48,273 --> 00:19:52,440 It was the first-ever image of the surface of Venus. 253 00:19:53,695 --> 00:19:56,862 But it was only a tantalizing glimpse. 254 00:20:09,972 --> 00:20:11,411 With their next probe, 255 00:20:11,412 --> 00:20:14,579 the Russians hoped for something more. 256 00:20:16,218 --> 00:20:19,793 On landing, all systems radioed back OK, 257 00:20:19,794 --> 00:20:22,556 but there was no image of the surface. 258 00:20:22,557 --> 00:20:24,577 Sasha Basilevski was on the team 259 00:20:24,578 --> 00:20:28,025 that tried to work out what had gone wrong. 260 00:20:28,026 --> 00:20:31,113 We had technical meeting and there was discussion 261 00:20:31,114 --> 00:20:34,651 and chief designer that time told: 262 00:20:34,652 --> 00:20:38,401 "You know, I have an idea that we have landed 263 00:20:38,402 --> 00:20:41,652 "in something very sticky and viscous." 264 00:20:42,686 --> 00:20:44,853 And then nasty voice told: 265 00:20:47,016 --> 00:20:49,016 "Yes, sir, in the shit." 266 00:20:51,471 --> 00:20:53,769 But Venera had not sunk. 267 00:20:53,770 --> 00:20:56,323 The intense heat on the surface had melted 268 00:20:56,324 --> 00:20:58,741 the lens cap onto the camera. 269 00:21:00,573 --> 00:21:04,740 Three years later, another pair of probes headed for Venus. 270 00:21:07,400 --> 00:21:09,675 This time, they took beautiful pictures 271 00:21:09,676 --> 00:21:12,960 of a patch of ground filled with lava. 272 00:21:12,961 --> 00:21:16,153 But when the probe tried to sample the newzean rock, 273 00:21:16,154 --> 00:21:19,957 that lens cap came back to haunt them. 274 00:21:19,958 --> 00:21:24,180 Venera 14S, Venera 13, they had special device 275 00:21:24,181 --> 00:21:25,910 to measure electric properties 276 00:21:25,911 --> 00:21:27,762 and mechanical properties of the surface. 277 00:21:27,763 --> 00:21:31,094 It's some arm, this arm goes and puts device 278 00:21:31,095 --> 00:21:33,044 on the surface, it measures. 279 00:21:33,045 --> 00:21:36,086 And Venera 14 did it in a perfect way, 280 00:21:36,087 --> 00:21:38,087 but it just get the cap. 281 00:21:39,500 --> 00:21:42,042 So we measured mechanical properties 282 00:21:42,043 --> 00:21:45,420 and the electrical properties of that thing 283 00:21:45,421 --> 00:21:47,421 they brought from Earth. 284 00:21:57,635 --> 00:21:59,709 On the Planet's surface, the probes 285 00:21:59,710 --> 00:22:02,797 could only survive for an hour or two at most. 286 00:22:02,798 --> 00:22:05,421 Somehow another way had to be found 287 00:22:05,422 --> 00:22:07,589 to see through the clouds. 288 00:22:20,550 --> 00:22:23,217 In 1989, NASA launched Magellan. 289 00:22:33,692 --> 00:22:36,617 Magellan wouldn't take pictures but would scan the planet 290 00:22:36,618 --> 00:22:39,949 with radar to make out the contours of the surface, 291 00:22:39,950 --> 00:22:44,117 cutting through the clouds as if they weren't there. 292 00:22:45,093 --> 00:22:46,904 We were able to actually come around the globe 293 00:22:46,905 --> 00:22:49,226 every day many times and build up a picture 294 00:22:49,227 --> 00:22:51,810 of the global geology of Venus. 295 00:22:57,574 --> 00:22:59,802 Magellan began to send back reams 296 00:22:59,803 --> 00:23:02,693 and reams of data, and a whole new generation 297 00:23:02,694 --> 00:23:05,361 of geologists set to work on it. 298 00:23:08,453 --> 00:23:10,669 When the first image data came back from Magellan, 299 00:23:10,670 --> 00:23:12,562 I went in about four in the morning, 300 00:23:12,563 --> 00:23:15,159 looked at the first strip of Magellan data, 301 00:23:15,160 --> 00:23:17,910 this first track down the Planet. 302 00:23:23,403 --> 00:23:26,162 To see the Planet's surface being revealed 303 00:23:26,163 --> 00:23:28,334 in such incredible detail and to say: 304 00:23:28,335 --> 00:23:30,760 "I'm one of the first people who's ever looked 305 00:23:30,761 --> 00:23:33,512 "at this piece of ground on Venus." 306 00:23:33,513 --> 00:23:36,054 You felt like such an explorer. 307 00:23:36,055 --> 00:23:38,330 The first images showed that Venus had 308 00:23:38,331 --> 00:23:41,302 many similarities to Earth. 309 00:23:41,303 --> 00:23:43,183 There were large mountain ranges; 310 00:23:43,184 --> 00:23:45,853 some of them almost similar to the Himalayas. 311 00:23:45,854 --> 00:23:48,605 There were long faults on the Planet that looked 312 00:23:48,606 --> 00:23:51,403 maybe sort of similar to faults we see on the Earth. 313 00:23:51,404 --> 00:23:53,841 There were volcanoes, lots and lots of volcanoes 314 00:23:53,842 --> 00:23:55,559 on the surface, very large ones, 315 00:23:55,560 --> 00:23:56,906 much larger than some on the Earth, 316 00:23:56,907 --> 00:23:59,074 others on a similar scale. 317 00:24:05,324 --> 00:24:09,697 But then, an alien landscape began to emerge. 318 00:24:09,698 --> 00:24:11,749 There were these huge circular features. 319 00:24:11,750 --> 00:24:15,371 And by huge, I mean about 250, 300 kilometers across. 320 00:24:15,372 --> 00:24:18,366 They were encircled by ridges and they were high, 321 00:24:18,367 --> 00:24:20,595 they were sort of mountainous, and they tended to have 322 00:24:20,596 --> 00:24:22,534 volcanoes all over the surfaces of 'em, 323 00:24:22,535 --> 00:24:24,137 "What are these features? 324 00:24:24,138 --> 00:24:25,286 "How could they have formed?" 325 00:24:25,287 --> 00:24:27,045 We've never seen anything like them. 326 00:24:31,608 --> 00:24:34,893 The 3D images revealed giant blisters 327 00:24:34,894 --> 00:24:37,853 that had oozed lava from every crack. 328 00:24:37,854 --> 00:24:39,618 And the surface of Venus seemed 329 00:24:39,619 --> 00:24:42,242 to have channels running through it. 330 00:24:42,243 --> 00:24:44,100 They looked like long rivers going across 331 00:24:44,101 --> 00:24:45,446 the surface of the Planet. 332 00:24:45,447 --> 00:24:48,836 But we know with Venus' incredibly-high surface temperatures 333 00:24:48,837 --> 00:24:50,973 there's no way that water could have formed those channels 334 00:24:50,974 --> 00:24:53,481 so they had to have been formed by lava. 335 00:25:04,441 --> 00:25:07,319 There are other volcanic features that look like pancakes; 336 00:25:07,320 --> 00:25:09,653 they have very steep sides and very flat tops 337 00:25:09,654 --> 00:25:11,124 and it literally looks like somebody threw 338 00:25:11,125 --> 00:25:14,909 a bunch of pancakes out onto the surface of the Planet. 339 00:25:14,910 --> 00:25:17,092 There were other kinds of volcanoes that looked like 340 00:25:17,093 --> 00:25:19,843 little squashed bugs, like ticks. 341 00:25:21,001 --> 00:25:23,329 Everywhere you look you see some sort of volcanic feature: 342 00:25:23,330 --> 00:25:25,999 a flow, a small volcano, a weird channel. 343 00:25:26,000 --> 00:25:28,391 It's just dominated by volcanism and that's just something 344 00:25:28,392 --> 00:25:31,283 we weren't prepared for really at all. 345 00:25:35,323 --> 00:25:37,714 It's intriguing to look at this surface 346 00:25:37,715 --> 00:25:40,465 that you say: "It should be so much like the Earth; 347 00:25:40,466 --> 00:25:42,474 "it's not; how did it get this way?" 348 00:25:42,475 --> 00:25:43,600 It's just a puzzle. 349 00:25:43,601 --> 00:25:47,394 And to me, that's what makes Venus so interesting. 350 00:25:57,333 --> 00:26:00,710 But when had this volcanic surface formed? 351 00:26:00,711 --> 00:26:03,914 Geologists hoped that by counting impact craters, 352 00:26:03,915 --> 00:26:06,271 they could find out. 353 00:26:06,272 --> 00:26:07,882 When we got the global picture together, 354 00:26:07,883 --> 00:26:09,844 we started counting craters and looking for areas 355 00:26:09,845 --> 00:26:11,702 that had a high density of craters and an area 356 00:26:11,703 --> 00:26:14,372 that would have low density, indicating old and young ages. 357 00:26:14,373 --> 00:26:16,102 When we look at the Moon, we look at Mars, 358 00:26:16,103 --> 00:26:17,692 we look at Mercury, you have areas where you say: 359 00:26:17,693 --> 00:26:19,585 "OK, this area has more craters, it's older; 360 00:26:19,586 --> 00:26:21,431 "this area has fewer craters, it's younger." 361 00:26:21,432 --> 00:26:23,439 But the amazing part was it looked like the craters 362 00:26:23,440 --> 00:26:25,959 were almost randomly distributed across the surface. 363 00:26:25,960 --> 00:26:27,642 And you say: "Wait a minute, the whole Planet, 364 00:26:27,643 --> 00:26:28,742 "it can't be the same age." 365 00:26:28,743 --> 00:26:29,576 It's the size of the Earth. 366 00:26:29,577 --> 00:26:31,437 How could you have a planet the size of the Earth 367 00:26:31,438 --> 00:26:33,527 where the entire surface formed at the same time. 368 00:26:33,528 --> 00:26:36,028 It just didn't make any sense. 369 00:26:37,835 --> 00:26:40,307 So what possible theory could explain 370 00:26:40,308 --> 00:26:42,808 how Venus' surface was formed? 371 00:26:47,355 --> 00:26:49,174 Well, it was really mystifying because nobody could 372 00:26:49,175 --> 00:26:51,319 really be sure, since we hadn't seen anything like this, 373 00:26:51,320 --> 00:26:52,596 what was going on. 374 00:26:52,597 --> 00:26:54,639 One of the main ideas that came out was the idea 375 00:26:54,640 --> 00:26:57,045 that Venus' may have actually been catastrophically 376 00:26:57,046 --> 00:26:59,531 resurfaced just a few hundred million years ago. 377 00:27:07,019 --> 00:27:09,398 The idea that Venus boiled over 378 00:27:09,399 --> 00:27:13,566 in a planetwide flood of lava is still fiercely debated. 379 00:27:29,380 --> 00:27:32,351 But if it did, and has now cooled down, 380 00:27:32,352 --> 00:27:34,519 could it ever erupt again? 381 00:27:36,961 --> 00:27:38,736 The most exciting thing would be to find 382 00:27:38,737 --> 00:27:42,219 an erupting volcano on Venus to say: "Here we have proof 383 00:27:42,220 --> 00:27:44,123 "Venus is still geologically active. 384 00:27:44,124 --> 00:27:46,741 "It really is the Planet most like the Earth 385 00:27:46,742 --> 00:27:48,137 "and here's proof of it. 386 00:27:48,138 --> 00:27:49,415 "It's not a dead planet; 387 00:27:49,416 --> 00:27:51,342 "it's still alive; it's still active." 388 00:27:51,343 --> 00:27:53,443 And that's something that I would 389 00:27:53,444 --> 00:27:56,444 give a awful lot to be able to find. 390 00:28:00,039 --> 00:28:02,975 Magellan scans the Planet for four years, 391 00:28:02,976 --> 00:28:05,476 but found no fresh lava flows. 392 00:28:06,482 --> 00:28:08,536 Venus may well be alive, 393 00:28:08,537 --> 00:28:11,037 but there's no sign of it yet. 394 00:28:12,392 --> 00:28:15,038 Of course if you were in orbit around Earth for a year, 395 00:28:15,039 --> 00:28:16,765 you might not see any volcanic activity at all; 396 00:28:16,766 --> 00:28:19,226 so it's really hard to tell whether it's actually going. 397 00:28:19,227 --> 00:28:20,793 It's like trying to find the smoking gun 398 00:28:20,794 --> 00:28:24,627 or the smoking volcano; it's not easy to find. 399 00:28:25,807 --> 00:28:28,194 Despite the discoveries of Magellan, 400 00:28:28,195 --> 00:28:31,778 Venus remains a Planet shrouded in mystery. 401 00:28:36,589 --> 00:28:39,177 Was Earth the only place where geologists 402 00:28:39,178 --> 00:28:42,138 would find active volcanoes? 403 00:28:42,139 --> 00:28:44,972 It was beginning to look that way. 404 00:28:47,479 --> 00:28:50,578 The only other rocky planet is Mercury. 405 00:28:50,579 --> 00:28:54,363 But it's a small world, barely bigger than our Moon, 406 00:28:54,364 --> 00:28:58,531 and its surface is just as dead and full of craters. 407 00:29:00,422 --> 00:29:04,647 No geological activity has ever been found on Mercury. 408 00:29:04,648 --> 00:29:07,328 The outside of the Planet is baking hot; 409 00:29:07,329 --> 00:29:09,746 but inside, it is stone cold. 410 00:29:28,657 --> 00:29:31,254 There was no hope of finding anything on Jupiter 411 00:29:31,255 --> 00:29:33,308 or the other giant planets 412 00:29:33,309 --> 00:29:36,226 because they have no solid surface. 413 00:29:37,210 --> 00:29:40,205 But there is some solid rock out here. 414 00:29:40,206 --> 00:29:44,373 On its way past Jupiter, Voyager flew by the Planet's moons. 415 00:29:45,976 --> 00:29:48,645 No one expected to see much going on at all 416 00:29:48,646 --> 00:29:50,396 in these tiny worlds. 417 00:29:51,348 --> 00:29:55,260 We expected small objects the size of the Moon or smaller 418 00:29:55,261 --> 00:29:57,350 to be pretty lifeless geologically 419 00:29:57,351 --> 00:29:59,268 and expected them to be 420 00:30:00,961 --> 00:30:03,674 holding records of the very early Solar System. 421 00:30:03,675 --> 00:30:07,842 The impact processes and fairly esoteric kinds of questions 422 00:30:09,318 --> 00:30:12,567 that solar system geologists might be interested in 423 00:30:12,568 --> 00:30:14,367 but not something the general public 424 00:30:14,368 --> 00:30:16,785 would care a whole lot about. 425 00:30:19,209 --> 00:30:22,250 The first thing we ran into course was Callisto 426 00:30:22,251 --> 00:30:25,745 and that was pretty much what we had thought 427 00:30:25,746 --> 00:30:29,019 one of these moons would look like. 428 00:30:29,020 --> 00:30:31,573 Callisto is dark and icy. 429 00:30:31,574 --> 00:30:34,742 Like Mercury, its cratered surface hasn't changed 430 00:30:34,743 --> 00:30:36,576 for billions of years. 431 00:30:40,061 --> 00:30:44,506 The next moon, Ganymede, is the largest in the Solar System. 432 00:30:44,507 --> 00:30:46,674 It had little of interest. 433 00:30:56,164 --> 00:30:58,554 As Voyager reached the Moon lo, 434 00:30:58,555 --> 00:31:02,722 it was about to discover something completely unexpected. 435 00:31:10,665 --> 00:31:13,880 As we looked at it from great distance 436 00:31:13,881 --> 00:31:17,943 we saw a lot of dark spots on the surface, 437 00:31:17,944 --> 00:31:20,904 which we thought maybe were gonna be impact craters. 438 00:31:20,905 --> 00:31:25,048 But Voyager took a few pictures and sailed past lo. 439 00:31:25,049 --> 00:31:28,624 The scientists wanted to focus on Jupiter. 440 00:31:28,625 --> 00:31:31,469 Meanwhile, one of the engineers busied herself 441 00:31:31,470 --> 00:31:34,870 with some routine spacecraft maintenance. 442 00:31:34,871 --> 00:31:36,891 I came in about nine o'clock that morning 443 00:31:36,892 --> 00:31:40,362 to the navigation area and the tape with the pictures 444 00:31:40,363 --> 00:31:44,054 the spacecraft had taken the day before was on my desk. 445 00:31:44,055 --> 00:31:47,177 I put them on the computer system and I displayed them. 446 00:31:47,178 --> 00:31:50,915 And I could see that the Moon of lo was a crescent, 447 00:31:50,916 --> 00:31:54,491 as very often our own Moon is a crescent in the night sky. 448 00:31:54,492 --> 00:31:57,614 I went and enhanced the brightness and there appeared 449 00:31:57,615 --> 00:32:00,935 beside lo an object, a huge object 450 00:32:00,936 --> 00:32:03,895 that looked like something I couldn't recognize 451 00:32:03,896 --> 00:32:05,916 and could never have expected 452 00:32:05,917 --> 00:32:09,250 and it completely captured my attention. 453 00:32:10,677 --> 00:32:12,986 I wanted to know so badly what that was 454 00:32:12,987 --> 00:32:14,542 that I just had to ask myself: 455 00:32:14,543 --> 00:32:16,190 "My goodness, what is that?" 456 00:32:16,191 --> 00:32:18,501 And the answer that occurred to me first 457 00:32:18,502 --> 00:32:22,791 was it looked like another moon peaking out behind lo. 458 00:32:24,811 --> 00:32:27,033 But there was no other moon, 459 00:32:27,034 --> 00:32:29,492 and no fault in the camera. 460 00:32:29,493 --> 00:32:33,660 Linda Hyder decided that this object had to be part of lo. 461 00:32:34,845 --> 00:32:38,129 And in fact that was very hard to accept 462 00:32:38,130 --> 00:32:41,090 because the size of this object was enormous 463 00:32:41,091 --> 00:32:43,674 with respect to the size of lo. 464 00:32:53,572 --> 00:32:56,334 And when I explored it I was able to find 465 00:32:56,335 --> 00:32:58,842 that this large strange object, 466 00:32:58,843 --> 00:33:00,458 it was exactly coincident 467 00:33:00,459 --> 00:33:03,604 and fell over a heart-shaped feature on lo. 468 00:33:03,605 --> 00:33:06,762 What I had discovered was the huge plume 469 00:33:06,763 --> 00:33:10,756 of a volcanic eruption arising 270 kilometers 470 00:33:10,757 --> 00:33:14,924 over the surface of lo and raining back down onto it. 471 00:33:17,096 --> 00:33:20,508 So I had discovered the first-ever volcanic eruption 472 00:33:20,509 --> 00:33:24,259 ever seen on another world besides the Earth. 473 00:33:35,633 --> 00:33:40,606 We didn't really expect to find active volcanic eruptions 474 00:33:40,607 --> 00:33:43,458 throwing material from a volcanic vent 475 00:33:43,459 --> 00:33:46,755 to an altitude of a couple hundred miles, 476 00:33:46,756 --> 00:33:49,149 300 kilometers above the surface. 477 00:33:49,150 --> 00:33:52,899 This stuff goes up with a velocity of a high-powered rifle, 478 00:33:52,900 --> 00:33:55,163 and of course it comes back onto the surface 479 00:33:55,164 --> 00:33:59,319 with the same velocity, so a healthy place to stand 480 00:33:59,320 --> 00:34:01,903 would not be the surface of lo. 481 00:34:03,616 --> 00:34:07,690 The entire surface of lo is covered with volcanoes, 482 00:34:07,691 --> 00:34:11,108 so volcanoes are not unique to our Earth. 483 00:34:17,963 --> 00:34:20,760 But why is lo volcanically active? 484 00:34:20,761 --> 00:34:22,873 It's only the size of our Moon. 485 00:34:22,874 --> 00:34:24,957 It should be cold inside. 486 00:34:27,205 --> 00:34:30,199 Head of the Voyager camera team was Brad Smith. 487 00:34:30,200 --> 00:34:33,984 Up to this point, he'd concentrated on Jupiter's atmosphere. 488 00:34:33,985 --> 00:34:36,068 Now he took a look at lo. 489 00:34:37,178 --> 00:34:38,950 Io is a very small body. 490 00:34:38,951 --> 00:34:42,572 It doesn't have enough of the radioactive materials 491 00:34:42,573 --> 00:34:45,364 that heat up the rock, as happens on the Earth, 492 00:34:45,365 --> 00:34:49,532 and so we didn't expect any kind of volcanism on lo. 493 00:34:53,245 --> 00:34:57,445 The explanation was to be found in our own Moon. 494 00:35:05,015 --> 00:35:09,182 And a NASA scientist in California had predicted it. 495 00:35:11,772 --> 00:35:14,812 Well, as you can see, the power of the Moon's gravity 496 00:35:14,813 --> 00:35:16,902 can move oceans on the Earth. 497 00:35:16,903 --> 00:35:20,176 Imagine what the power of Jupiter, 498 00:35:20,177 --> 00:35:22,963 which is 300 times the mass of the Earth, 499 00:35:22,964 --> 00:35:24,936 can have on lo. 500 00:35:24,937 --> 00:35:27,514 Now, lo, as it circles Jupiter, 501 00:35:27,515 --> 00:35:31,484 approaches Jupiter closer at one point than at another. 502 00:35:31,485 --> 00:35:35,432 What this does is it changes the gravitational force 503 00:35:35,433 --> 00:35:39,539 from Jupiter and results in a giant squeeze. 504 00:35:39,540 --> 00:35:42,032 Physicist Ray Reynolds had realized 505 00:35:42,033 --> 00:35:44,830 that Jupiter's huge gravitational force 506 00:35:44,831 --> 00:35:47,082 was causing the interior of lo 507 00:35:47,083 --> 00:35:50,250 to heat up to incredible temperatures. 508 00:35:51,948 --> 00:35:54,489 We plugged in the numbers into our equations 509 00:35:54,490 --> 00:35:57,763 and lo and behold, we come out with thousands 510 00:35:57,764 --> 00:36:00,967 of degrees near the surface of this satellite. 511 00:36:00,968 --> 00:36:02,895 Well, this immediately raised visions 512 00:36:02,896 --> 00:36:05,813 in our mind of volcanoes going off. 513 00:36:07,656 --> 00:36:10,116 But nobody could have predicted the ferocity 514 00:36:10,117 --> 00:36:14,284 of the sulfur-spewing volcanoes that Voyager found. 515 00:36:23,674 --> 00:36:27,818 Io is just enormously volcanically active, 516 00:36:27,819 --> 00:36:29,966 and more active than the Earth 517 00:36:29,967 --> 00:36:32,250 and any other body in the Solar System. 518 00:36:32,251 --> 00:36:34,209 There's nothing that even comes close to it. 519 00:36:34,210 --> 00:36:38,377 Its surface is completely covered with volcanic debris. 520 00:36:42,305 --> 00:36:44,893 Finally, geologists had found a world 521 00:36:44,894 --> 00:36:48,144 that was alive yet constantly changing. 522 00:36:49,770 --> 00:36:53,937 Draw a map of lo, and it will be obsolete by the next day. 523 00:36:59,371 --> 00:37:03,062 But lo wasn't the only surprise Voyager found. 524 00:37:03,063 --> 00:37:05,814 Next to it lay the Jupiter Moon Europa, 525 00:37:05,815 --> 00:37:07,815 a bright dazzling world. 526 00:37:12,630 --> 00:37:15,590 Europa was surprisingly smooth; 527 00:37:15,591 --> 00:37:19,154 that is, there was little or no topography on it at all. 528 00:37:19,155 --> 00:37:22,161 Scaled down it would have been as smooth as a billiard ball. 529 00:37:22,162 --> 00:37:26,480 And why it should be, why there was no topography 530 00:37:26,481 --> 00:37:28,279 we could only guess. 531 00:37:28,280 --> 00:37:32,598 Close up, scientists were baffled by its surface. 532 00:37:32,599 --> 00:37:34,398 When we looked at Europa, we see 533 00:37:34,399 --> 00:37:38,508 a startling lack of craters and we also see 534 00:37:38,509 --> 00:37:40,725 that there are large linear features 535 00:37:40,726 --> 00:37:43,809 that look like cracks on the surface. 536 00:37:48,075 --> 00:37:50,048 Reynolds thought the cracks might be 537 00:37:50,049 --> 00:37:51,801 a result of the constant pressure 538 00:37:51,802 --> 00:37:55,135 from Jupiter's huge gravitational force. 539 00:37:58,373 --> 00:38:01,298 And there was an intriguing possibility. 540 00:38:01,299 --> 00:38:04,375 Europa's surface is made of ice. 541 00:38:04,376 --> 00:38:08,322 Could that mean that there might be water beneath? 542 00:38:08,323 --> 00:38:10,621 Our calculations indicated that there was 543 00:38:10,622 --> 00:38:13,291 a good possibility that there could be 544 00:38:13,292 --> 00:38:16,042 a ocean beneath a thin ice layer. 545 00:38:19,260 --> 00:38:21,337 Voyager's images were too crude 546 00:38:21,338 --> 00:38:26,259 to prove or disprove the idea of a subterranean ocean. 547 00:38:26,260 --> 00:38:30,091 But 16 years later, another spacecraft, Galileo, 548 00:38:30,092 --> 00:38:32,342 returned for a closer look. 549 00:38:34,898 --> 00:38:37,359 Close up, Europa's surface looks 550 00:38:37,360 --> 00:38:39,878 like a crazy paving of ice. 551 00:38:39,879 --> 00:38:42,374 There are giant icebergs. 552 00:38:42,375 --> 00:38:44,673 It seems that hot water has welled up 553 00:38:44,674 --> 00:38:47,099 through a network of cracks from below 554 00:38:47,100 --> 00:38:49,804 and then frozen instantly in place, 555 00:38:49,805 --> 00:38:53,888 just like lava from a volcanic eruption on Earth. 556 00:38:57,375 --> 00:38:59,383 Instead of hot rock that's coming out, 557 00:38:59,384 --> 00:39:01,147 it's water, it's liquid water. 558 00:39:01,148 --> 00:39:03,353 But the principle is the same. 559 00:39:03,354 --> 00:39:06,175 There's a fluid down underneath the crust 560 00:39:06,176 --> 00:39:09,054 and from time to time this pushes up and flows 561 00:39:09,055 --> 00:39:11,306 onto the surface much in the same way 562 00:39:11,307 --> 00:39:15,474 that hot lava flows onto the surface of the Earth. 563 00:39:25,088 --> 00:39:28,501 No actual eruption of ice has yet been spotted 564 00:39:28,502 --> 00:39:30,927 but Europa has opened up the possibility 565 00:39:30,928 --> 00:39:34,678 of completely new kinds of geological worlds. 566 00:40:02,170 --> 00:40:04,967 As space probes ventured further out, 567 00:40:04,968 --> 00:40:07,551 they found other frozen worlds. 568 00:40:20,363 --> 00:40:23,033 Among the moons of Saturn and Uranus 569 00:40:23,034 --> 00:40:26,867 there were signs of strange geological events. 570 00:40:30,209 --> 00:40:34,376 But it all seemed to have occurred millions of years ago. 571 00:40:41,142 --> 00:40:44,682 Then, a decade after its encounter with Jupiter, 572 00:40:44,683 --> 00:40:47,683 Voyager met Triton, Moon of Neptune. 573 00:40:52,253 --> 00:40:54,713 Triton, as we got closer and closer, 574 00:40:54,714 --> 00:40:59,020 became evident that it was gonna be a very tiny object 575 00:40:59,021 --> 00:41:02,152 and that was covered with very very bright material. 576 00:41:02,153 --> 00:41:04,161 That made it very cold, 577 00:41:04,162 --> 00:41:06,332 the coldest thing we've encountered 578 00:41:06,333 --> 00:41:09,250 so far throughout the Solar System. 579 00:41:10,327 --> 00:41:12,531 Triton is so cold that even 580 00:41:12,532 --> 00:41:15,283 its thin atmosphere of nitrogen freezes 581 00:41:15,284 --> 00:41:18,685 into a solid icecap every winter. 582 00:41:18,686 --> 00:41:23,085 To have expected geologic activity on such a surface 583 00:41:23,086 --> 00:41:25,169 would be insane, frankly. 584 00:41:28,798 --> 00:41:30,887 But when Voyager got close, 585 00:41:30,888 --> 00:41:35,055 it saw there were dark streaks all over the fresh icecap. 586 00:41:38,794 --> 00:41:41,847 Those dark markings had to be sitting on top of that ice. 587 00:41:41,848 --> 00:41:44,819 They had to be laid down there in the recent past. 588 00:41:44,820 --> 00:41:48,429 That meant something had to be going on to make them, 589 00:41:48,430 --> 00:41:49,930 an active process. 590 00:41:52,993 --> 00:41:54,966 Larry Sodablom spent two months 591 00:41:54,967 --> 00:41:57,392 looking at pictures of Triton. 592 00:41:57,393 --> 00:42:00,280 He examined images taken from slightly different angles 593 00:42:00,281 --> 00:42:03,810 to try and build up a 3D view of the surface. 594 00:42:03,811 --> 00:42:05,818 All of a sudden, he saw something 595 00:42:05,819 --> 00:42:09,707 that seemed to stand up from the ice. 596 00:42:09,708 --> 00:42:12,958 One afternoon we were stunned to find 597 00:42:14,852 --> 00:42:19,019 active geysers shooting up above the Triton icecap. 598 00:42:21,179 --> 00:42:25,938 Geysers, fountains of material rising five, 10 kilometers 599 00:42:25,939 --> 00:42:28,189 or miles above the surface. 600 00:42:47,093 --> 00:42:50,249 Even in this dark corner of the Solar System, 601 00:42:50,250 --> 00:42:52,467 the faint heat of the Sun manages 602 00:42:52,468 --> 00:42:54,885 to penetrate Triton's icecap. 603 00:43:03,241 --> 00:43:06,642 It warms liquid nitrogen trapped beneath the surface 604 00:43:06,643 --> 00:43:10,334 up to the point where it bursts out and rises up into space 605 00:43:10,335 --> 00:43:14,502 before turning 90 degrees into Triton's high-altitude winds. 606 00:43:19,228 --> 00:43:22,583 It's almost as if Triton was the last sentence 607 00:43:22,584 --> 00:43:26,402 in the message that we got from the Voyager Mission, 608 00:43:26,403 --> 00:43:28,666 that no matter where you go in the universe, 609 00:43:28,667 --> 00:43:30,667 expect the unexpectable. 610 00:43:37,293 --> 00:43:39,716 Changed that whole concept of what volcanism is. 611 00:43:39,717 --> 00:43:42,723 Our classical concept of course before Voyager 612 00:43:42,724 --> 00:43:44,975 was volcanism was hot rock coming out 613 00:43:44,976 --> 00:43:47,193 of the interior of a planet. 614 00:43:47,194 --> 00:43:50,374 But Voyager showed us that there are other materials 615 00:43:50,375 --> 00:43:53,334 as well that produce volcanism. 616 00:43:53,335 --> 00:43:56,918 On lo we saw molten sulfur, sulfur dioxide. 617 00:43:58,466 --> 00:44:01,883 On Europa, water is an important element. 618 00:44:03,038 --> 00:44:06,776 And on Triton, liquid nitrogen may actually be 619 00:44:06,777 --> 00:44:10,027 the fluid that's involved in volcanism. 620 00:44:12,036 --> 00:44:14,369 After so many amazing discoveries 621 00:44:14,370 --> 00:44:18,061 across the Solar System, geologists are now returning 622 00:44:18,062 --> 00:44:20,979 to the Earth's neighboring planets. 623 00:44:25,550 --> 00:44:28,050 In 1997, NASA returned to Mars 624 00:44:29,008 --> 00:44:31,844 with a new orbiting spacecraft that's providing 625 00:44:31,845 --> 00:44:34,512 greater detail than ever before. 626 00:44:40,309 --> 00:44:43,512 Mars Global Surveyor can pick out individual boulders 627 00:44:43,513 --> 00:44:45,602 on the ground and can spot places where 628 00:44:45,603 --> 00:44:48,353 they've rolled down into gullies. 629 00:44:49,341 --> 00:44:52,258 Could these be evidence of tremors? 630 00:44:55,007 --> 00:44:57,386 And a new probe, Mars Express, 631 00:44:57,387 --> 00:45:01,795 has now discovered evidence of methane on the Red Planet. 632 00:45:01,796 --> 00:45:05,963 Could all this point to geological activity on Mars? 633 00:45:07,189 --> 00:45:10,754 What we're seeing now on Mars is like a shot 634 00:45:10,755 --> 00:45:14,748 from a helicopter compared to a shot from a space shuttle. 635 00:45:14,749 --> 00:45:19,102 The whole sense of Mars is a little bit different 636 00:45:19,103 --> 00:45:22,605 when you get down to the size of detail that we can see. 637 00:45:22,606 --> 00:45:24,576 And we're just beginning to get into that 638 00:45:24,577 --> 00:45:27,943 and get a sense of what's really going on on Mars. 639 00:45:27,944 --> 00:45:30,253 Soon we will have a map of Mars 640 00:45:30,254 --> 00:45:33,671 that's as detailed as those of the Earth. 641 00:45:43,048 --> 00:45:44,925 Now when I come out to Hawaii, 642 00:45:44,926 --> 00:45:47,769 my whole perspective has changed. 643 00:45:47,770 --> 00:45:49,581 I walk around on the surface here, 644 00:45:49,582 --> 00:45:51,020 and in fact I'm beginning to see things 645 00:45:51,021 --> 00:45:52,948 that are the same scale that I'm seeing on Mars 646 00:45:52,949 --> 00:45:54,747 and it's incredibly exciting. 647 00:45:54,748 --> 00:45:56,930 It's bridged the gap; it's brought it together 648 00:45:56,931 --> 00:46:00,479 so it's almost like I'm walking around on Mars. 649 00:46:00,480 --> 00:46:02,372 I think this is the way it's worked with all the planets. 650 00:46:02,373 --> 00:46:04,218 They initially were alien objects 651 00:46:04,219 --> 00:46:06,354 that you had little knowledge about. 652 00:46:06,355 --> 00:46:08,374 But particularly from the geology you begin to see 653 00:46:08,375 --> 00:46:10,580 old friends: volcanoes and lava flows, 654 00:46:10,581 --> 00:46:12,194 sand dunes and so on. 655 00:46:12,195 --> 00:46:15,305 And then little by little you transport yourself there, 656 00:46:15,306 --> 00:46:16,174 you think about there. 657 00:46:16,175 --> 00:46:18,945 I wake up in the night, I have a dream about being on Mars. 658 00:46:18,946 --> 00:46:20,292 It's just amazing. 659 00:46:29,868 --> 00:46:33,849 One day soon, a probe may also return to Venus 660 00:46:33,850 --> 00:46:36,426 and perhaps survive for long enough in its hostile 661 00:46:36,427 --> 00:46:39,844 atmosphere to observe a volcano erupting. 662 00:46:52,951 --> 00:46:56,056 We now know that the Earth is just one 663 00:46:56,057 --> 00:46:58,974 in a Solar System of active worlds. 664 00:47:03,127 --> 00:47:05,960 Every year brings new discoveries. 665 00:47:15,329 --> 00:47:17,464 The Galileo Probe was one of the most 666 00:47:17,465 --> 00:47:20,216 ambitious projects so far. 667 00:47:20,217 --> 00:47:24,988 It gave us a unique insight into Io, one of Jupiter's moons. 668 00:47:24,989 --> 00:47:28,471 We now know it is the most volcanically-active world 669 00:47:28,472 --> 00:47:30,139 in the Solar System. 670 00:47:54,362 --> 00:47:57,356 But the Galileo is no more. 671 00:47:57,357 --> 00:48:01,211 With its fuel spent and suffering critical radiation damage, 672 00:48:01,212 --> 00:48:05,295 it dived headlong into Jupiter's vast atmosphere. 673 00:48:06,390 --> 00:48:09,223 It was the end for the spacecraft; 674 00:48:11,359 --> 00:48:15,720 but this is just the start of our new voyage of discovery 675 00:48:15,721 --> 00:48:17,554 into the Solar System. 54164

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