Would you like to inspect the original subtitles? These are the user uploaded subtitles that are being translated:
1
00:00:01,320 --> 00:00:03,520
Support from viewers like you
makes this program possible.
2
00:00:03,520 --> 00:00:05,080
Please give to your PBS station.
3
00:00:09,000 --> 00:00:12,160
NARRATOR: FOR ANY CIVILIZATION
TO SUCCEED,
4
00:00:12,160 --> 00:00:15,320
IT MUST MEET THE NEEDS
OF ITS PEOPLE,
5
00:00:15,320 --> 00:00:19,480
TO PROVIDE THEM
WITH THE STUFF OF LIFE.
6
00:00:20,520 --> 00:00:24,680
THIS REQUIRES A SYSTEM
OF EXCHANGE
7
00:00:24,680 --> 00:00:28,680
WHERE DEMAND FOR GOODS
IS MET BY SUPPLY.
8
00:00:30,120 --> 00:00:36,560
IN OTHER WORDS, CIVILIZATION
HAS ALWAYS REQUIRED TRADE.
9
00:00:37,880 --> 00:00:43,200
BUT HOW DID TRADE SHAPE
THE COURSE OF CIVILIZATION?
10
00:00:43,200 --> 00:00:44,880
MAN: FROM THE VERY EARLY PERIOD,
11
00:00:44,880 --> 00:00:47,080
TRADE AND EXCHANGE WAS
REALLY IMPORTANT.
12
00:00:47,080 --> 00:00:51,320
IT'S PART OF THE ECONOMIC
AND SOCIAL GLUE THAT
STITCHES PEOPLE TOGETHER.
13
00:00:51,320 --> 00:00:54,120
WOMAN: TRADE IS THE ELIXIR.
14
00:00:54,120 --> 00:00:58,520
IT'S THE THING THAT CREATES
COLLABORATION AND CONNECTION.
15
00:00:58,520 --> 00:01:02,000
IT'S WHAT ENABLES
THE SOCIETY TO PROGRESS.
16
00:01:02,000 --> 00:01:05,560
MAN 2: THAT'S, IN THE END,
WHAT SETS US APART
17
00:01:05,560 --> 00:01:07,760
AND WHICH HAS
EVENTUALLY ENABLED US
18
00:01:07,760 --> 00:01:11,480
TO BUILD A CIVILIZATION
THAT IS SO COMPLEX.
19
00:01:12,760 --> 00:01:15,760
NARRATOR: WE DIDN'T
ALWAYS LIVE THIS WAY.
20
00:01:17,280 --> 00:01:20,320
FOR 99% OF OUR TIME ON EARTH,
21
00:01:20,320 --> 00:01:24,840
HUMANS HAD NO MERCHANTS
OR TRADERS.
22
00:01:26,320 --> 00:01:29,280
BUT THEN...
23
00:01:29,280 --> 00:01:33,280
WE SETTLED DOWN, GREW FOOD,
24
00:01:33,280 --> 00:01:36,920
WORSHIPED GODS,
25
00:01:36,920 --> 00:01:40,040
FOUGHT BATTLES,
26
00:01:40,040 --> 00:01:42,480
WROTE STORIES,
27
00:01:42,480 --> 00:01:47,040
BUILT CITIES,
AND CREATED MARKETS.
28
00:01:47,040 --> 00:01:49,040
[PEOPLE SHOUT]
29
00:01:49,040 --> 00:01:53,840
NARRATOR: THIS IS THE STORY
OF THAT TRANSITION,
30
00:01:53,840 --> 00:01:58,040
STEPPINGSTONES ON THE ROAD
TO CIVILIZATION.
31
00:01:58,040 --> 00:02:00,000
[SHOUTS]
32
00:02:01,120 --> 00:02:04,400
NARRATOR: IT'S A STORY
SET ACROSS THE GLOBE
33
00:02:04,400 --> 00:02:06,400
IN THE MIDDLE EAST,
34
00:02:06,400 --> 00:02:08,440
CENTRAL AMERICA,
35
00:02:08,440 --> 00:02:11,400
SOUTHERN ASIA...
36
00:02:13,240 --> 00:02:17,000
ALL OF THEM SEABEDS
OF CIVILIZATION.
37
00:02:17,000 --> 00:02:21,400
HERE, OUR ANCESTORS
SHAPED THE IDEAS
38
00:02:21,400 --> 00:02:24,120
BY WHICH WE STILL
LIVE OUR LIVES.
39
00:02:25,680 --> 00:02:30,120
THIS IS WHERE
THE MODERN WORLD BEGAN.
40
00:02:45,680 --> 00:02:48,280
NARRATOR:
IN THE MOUNTAINS OF OMAN,
41
00:02:48,280 --> 00:02:53,440
ARCHAEOLOGIST JEFF ROSE HAS MADE
A REMARKABLE DISCOVERY...
42
00:02:56,400 --> 00:02:58,880
AN ANCIENT ROCK PAINTING,
43
00:02:58,880 --> 00:03:03,400
A PETROGLYPH,
OVER 4,000 YEARS OLD...
44
00:03:04,720 --> 00:03:08,000
50 FEET UP A CANYON WALL.
45
00:03:14,600 --> 00:03:16,600
ROSE: SO HERE IT IS,
46
00:03:16,600 --> 00:03:18,880
THE TANUF MURAL.
47
00:03:20,280 --> 00:03:23,120
ROSE: I'VE SEEN ROCK ART ALL UP
AND DOWN THESE CANYONS,
48
00:03:23,120 --> 00:03:25,880
AND SO I DIDN'T REALLY
THINK THAT MUCH OF IT,
49
00:03:25,880 --> 00:03:28,560
EXCEPT THAT WHEN I LOOKED
AT IT UP CLOSE,
50
00:03:28,560 --> 00:03:30,280
I SAW THAT THERE'S
ACTUALLY THIS MOTIF
51
00:03:30,280 --> 00:03:35,280
WHICH I'D NEVER SEEN BEFORE
IN ANY OTHER ROCK ART IN OMAN.
52
00:03:38,000 --> 00:03:40,400
SO YOU HAVE THIS FIGURE HERE,
AND HE'S GRASPING THESE--
53
00:03:40,400 --> 00:03:44,800
THESE TWO OPPOSED BULLS
LIKE THIS, AND HE'S
SURROUNDED BY ANIMALS.
54
00:03:44,800 --> 00:03:46,800
BUT THEN, WHEN YOU LOOK
AT THE BULLS THEMSELVES,
55
00:03:46,800 --> 00:03:50,120
THEY'VE GOT HUMPS, SO THESE
ARE--THESE ARE ZEBU COWS
56
00:03:50,120 --> 00:03:52,600
FROM THOUSANDS
OF MILES TO THE EAST,
57
00:03:52,600 --> 00:03:57,080
AND IT MAKES YOU WONDER
WHAT THE HECK IS GOING ON HERE.
58
00:03:59,560 --> 00:04:02,400
NARRATOR: THE ZEBU IS
A TYPE OF COW FOUND
59
00:04:02,400 --> 00:04:07,520
NOT ON THE ARABIAN PENINSULA,
BUT IN SOUTHERN ASIA
60
00:04:07,520 --> 00:04:10,280
ON THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT.
61
00:04:11,440 --> 00:04:15,280
WHY WOULD THEIR IMAGE BE
ON A ROCK WALL IN OMAN,
62
00:04:15,280 --> 00:04:17,840
A THOUSAND MILES AWAY?
63
00:04:17,840 --> 00:04:21,800
WAS IT CARVED
BY PEOPLE FROM INDIA?
64
00:04:23,000 --> 00:04:25,600
NARRATOR: CLOSE TO THE CANYON
ARE THE REMAINS
65
00:04:25,600 --> 00:04:28,040
OF AN ANCIENT BURIAL SITE
66
00:04:28,040 --> 00:04:31,680
WITH MORE EVIDENCE
OF FOREIGN CONTACT.
67
00:04:34,160 --> 00:04:37,720
ROSE: THIS IS CALLED
A BEEHIVE TOMB.
68
00:04:37,720 --> 00:04:41,360
I'M STANDING HERE RIGHT AT
THE MOUTH OF THE CANYON,
69
00:04:41,360 --> 00:04:44,160
SO FOR ALL WE KNOW,
THOSE PETROGLYPHS
COULD BE TELLING US
70
00:04:44,160 --> 00:04:48,040
THE STORY OF THE GUY OR GIRL
BURIED HERE IN THIS TOMB.
71
00:04:52,160 --> 00:04:55,800
NARRATOR: BEEHIVE TOMBS
ARE COMMON IN OMAN,
72
00:04:55,800 --> 00:04:58,600
BUT ARCHAEOLOGISTS
HAVE FOUND POTTERY HERE
73
00:04:58,600 --> 00:05:01,160
THAT'S NOT LOCAL.
74
00:05:02,480 --> 00:05:04,680
AGAIN, THE ORIGIN SEEMS TO BE
75
00:05:04,680 --> 00:05:08,840
FROM ACROSS THE INDIAN OCEAN.
76
00:05:08,840 --> 00:05:11,240
WHEN WE ADD IT ALL UP TOGETHER,
IT LOOKS LIKE WE'VE GOT
77
00:05:11,240 --> 00:05:13,720
THE FINGERPRINT OF
A FOREIGN CULTURE
78
00:05:13,720 --> 00:05:16,120
FROM THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT.
79
00:05:16,120 --> 00:05:19,720
NARRATOR: HOW DID THESE OBJECTS
FROM SOUTHERN ASIA
80
00:05:19,720 --> 00:05:23,600
END UP IN THIS REMOTE,
MOUNTAINOUS REGION?
81
00:05:23,600 --> 00:05:26,920
IN A WORD, TRADE.
82
00:05:26,920 --> 00:05:29,920
WELL, THE FIRST METAL THAT'S
USED ON ANY INDUSTRIAL SCALE
83
00:05:29,920 --> 00:05:32,920
IN THE ANCIENT WORLD
IS COPPER...
84
00:05:34,040 --> 00:05:37,920
AND THESE MOUNTAINS HERE
ARE LOADED WITH COPPER.
85
00:05:39,240 --> 00:05:42,240
NARRATOR: COPPER WAS ONE
OF THE FIRST COMMODITIES
86
00:05:42,240 --> 00:05:45,920
TO BE EXCHANGED
IN LARGE QUANTITIES,
87
00:05:45,920 --> 00:05:49,600
TRADED OVER HUNDREDS OF MILES.
88
00:05:49,600 --> 00:05:55,040
IT FUELED THE RISE
OF CIVILIZATION.
89
00:06:01,040 --> 00:06:05,360
TODAY, COPPER IS
STILL ONE OF THE MOST
IMPORTANT COMMODITIES
90
00:06:05,360 --> 00:06:07,840
IN THE WORLD.
91
00:06:07,840 --> 00:06:12,160
EACH YEAR,
OVER $90 BILLION WORTH
92
00:06:12,160 --> 00:06:15,480
IS BOUGHT AND SOLD THROUGH
A GLOBAL TRADE NETWORK
93
00:06:15,480 --> 00:06:18,480
CENTERED ON THE LONDON
METAL EXCHANGE.
94
00:06:18,480 --> 00:06:20,920
[PEOPLE SHOUTING]
95
00:06:22,160 --> 00:06:25,720
NARRATOR: BUSINESS STRATEGIST
AND AUTHOR RACHEL BOTSMAN
96
00:06:25,720 --> 00:06:28,400
BELIEVES TRADE WAS VITAL
97
00:06:28,400 --> 00:06:31,240
TO THE BIRTH OF CIVILIZATION.
98
00:06:31,240 --> 00:06:35,240
BOTSMAN: SINCE HUMANS EXISTED,
WE HAVE TRADED.
99
00:06:35,240 --> 00:06:39,040
IT'S A NECESSITY,
BUT IT WAS PRETTY BASIC.
100
00:06:39,040 --> 00:06:43,360
IT WAS LOCAL, IT WAS
WITH PEOPLE THAT THEY KNEW,
101
00:06:43,360 --> 00:06:46,040
SO I MIGHT EXCHANGE A METAL POT
102
00:06:46,040 --> 00:06:48,040
FOR MY NEIGHBOR'S ANIMAL SKINS;
103
00:06:48,040 --> 00:06:52,240
YOU MIGHT EXCHANGE
SOME FOOD FOR A WEAPON.
104
00:06:53,240 --> 00:06:55,360
AND THEN WHAT HAPPENED
OVER TIME IS
105
00:06:55,360 --> 00:06:58,280
THAT TRADE BECAME MORE
AND MORE SOPHISTICATED
106
00:06:58,280 --> 00:07:01,040
IN TERMS OF THE GOODS
THAT PEOPLE WERE TRADING,
107
00:07:01,040 --> 00:07:05,360
BUT ALSO THE DISTANCES
THAT THEY WERE TRADING OVER.
108
00:07:07,480 --> 00:07:09,240
WE TRANSITIONED
FROM LOCAL TRADE--
109
00:07:09,240 --> 00:07:12,480
TRADE WITH PEOPLE THAT WE
KNEW, TRADE WITH PEOPLE
THAT WE TRUSTED--
110
00:07:12,480 --> 00:07:15,160
TO TRUSTING STRANGERS.
111
00:07:16,480 --> 00:07:18,680
BOTSMAN: IT WAS A REVOLUTION
112
00:07:18,680 --> 00:07:22,280
WHEN WE STARTED TO TRADE
LONG DISTANCES.
113
00:07:28,800 --> 00:07:31,800
NARRATOR: THE ANCIENT COPPER
FROM OMAN ENDED UP
114
00:07:31,800 --> 00:07:36,160
BESIDE ONE OF ASIA'S
GREAT RIVERS...
115
00:07:36,160 --> 00:07:39,000
THE INDUS.
116
00:07:40,600 --> 00:07:45,400
IT'S THE RIVER AFTER WHICH
INDIA IS NAMED.
117
00:07:46,920 --> 00:07:51,920
BUT TODAY, MOST OF ITS WATER
FLOWS THROUGH PAKISTAN.
118
00:07:53,160 --> 00:07:55,800
PEOPLE HAVE BEEN LIVING
ALONGSIDE THE INDUS
119
00:07:55,800 --> 00:07:59,280
FOR THOUSANDS OF YEARS...
120
00:08:00,600 --> 00:08:02,280
ALTHOUGH IT'S ONLY NOW
121
00:08:02,280 --> 00:08:05,920
ARCHAEOLOGISTS ARE UNDERSTANDING
THE SOPHISTICATION
122
00:08:05,920 --> 00:08:10,600
OF THE ANCIENT CIVILIZATION
ONCE HERE.
123
00:08:13,240 --> 00:08:16,600
BUILT 4,500 YEARS AGO,
124
00:08:16,600 --> 00:08:20,040
THIS WAS A GREAT CITY...
125
00:08:24,600 --> 00:08:28,120
MOHENJO-DARO.
126
00:08:37,880 --> 00:08:40,720
WOMAN: THE SITE,
IN A VERY ROUGH ESTIMATE,
127
00:08:40,720 --> 00:08:44,080
IS 250 HECTARES,
WHICH IS OVER 600 ACRES.
128
00:08:44,080 --> 00:08:47,080
IT WOULD BE
ABOUT 40,000 PEOPLE.
129
00:08:47,080 --> 00:08:51,000
SOME ESTIMATES ALSO GO
AS HIGH AS 60,000.
130
00:08:51,000 --> 00:08:54,880
NARRATOR: MOHENJO-DARO WAS AT
THE CENTER OF A CIVILIZATION
131
00:08:54,880 --> 00:08:57,760
IN THE INDUS VALLEY
THAT WAS AS OLD AS ANY
132
00:08:57,760 --> 00:09:00,840
IN EGYPT OR MESOPOTAMIA.
133
00:09:00,840 --> 00:09:05,320
IT WAS THE FIRST
CIVILIZATION IN ASIA.
134
00:09:09,600 --> 00:09:13,600
ARCHAEOLOGIST
UZMA RIZVI BELIEVES
135
00:09:13,600 --> 00:09:17,960
THE INDUS CIVILIZATION
WAS BUILT ON TRADE,
136
00:09:17,960 --> 00:09:22,440
MORE SO THAN ANY OTHER
FIRST CIVILIZATION.
137
00:09:22,440 --> 00:09:26,240
RIZVI: WHAT THE INDUS DID
REALLY, REALLY WELL WAS
138
00:09:26,240 --> 00:09:30,760
REALLY GET IN ON WHAT IT WAS
THAT PEOPLE WANTED, RIGHT?
139
00:09:30,760 --> 00:09:33,240
SO WHAT DOES AN ELITE WANT?
140
00:09:33,240 --> 00:09:35,960
EVERYONE WANTS THE BEAUTIFUL
CARNELIAN BEADS
141
00:09:35,960 --> 00:09:40,120
THAT ARE ETCHED AND ARE
JUST GORGEOUS TO LOOK AT.
142
00:09:41,320 --> 00:09:44,000
THEY DID A FANTASTIC JOB
CORNERING THAT MARKET,
143
00:09:44,000 --> 00:09:46,120
AND THEY ALSO DID
A FANTASTIC JOB KNOWING EXACTLY
144
00:09:46,120 --> 00:09:49,000
WHERE THE RESOURCES WERE,
THE BEST RESOURCES.
145
00:09:49,000 --> 00:09:52,600
THEY'RE NOT USING
MEDIOCRE MATERIAL.
146
00:09:52,600 --> 00:09:55,120
IT'S ALMOST LIKE HAVING A BRAND,
147
00:09:55,120 --> 00:09:58,200
YOU KNOW, LIKE IN
THE CONTEMPORARY SENSE.
148
00:09:59,360 --> 00:10:02,760
ONE OF THE KEY FINDS WE HAVE
IS THE FIGURINE.
149
00:10:02,760 --> 00:10:07,760
IT'S A SMALL FIGURINE, BUT IT IS
QUITE BEAUTIFUL WHEN YOU LOOK
AT IT CLOSE UP.
150
00:10:07,760 --> 00:10:10,600
IT SEEMS LIKE A SEATED FIGURE
151
00:10:10,600 --> 00:10:13,600
WITH SORT OF ALMOND-SHAPED EYES.
152
00:10:13,600 --> 00:10:16,120
YOU HAVE A BAND ACROSS THE TOP,
153
00:10:16,120 --> 00:10:19,480
BEAUTIFULLY MANICURED
HAIR AND BEARD.
154
00:10:19,480 --> 00:10:21,600
THE LINES ARE QUITE PRISTINE.
155
00:10:21,600 --> 00:10:25,240
THE CARVING IS ACTUALLY
QUITE EXQUISITE.
156
00:10:25,240 --> 00:10:28,240
EXEMPLARY CRAFT,
EXEMPLARY RAW MATERIAL,
157
00:10:28,240 --> 00:10:33,760
AND EXEMPLARY TRADE NETWORKS
THAT REALLY ALLOW
FOR THESE CITIES TO BLOSSOM.
158
00:10:35,720 --> 00:10:41,320
NARRATOR: THE CITY IS SO VAST
THAT MUCH STILL LIES
UNEXCAVATED...
159
00:10:43,120 --> 00:10:46,480
BUT ARCHAEOLOGISTS HAVE
UNCOVERED LARGE AREAS
160
00:10:46,480 --> 00:10:48,760
DEDICATED TO THE MANUFACTURE
161
00:10:48,760 --> 00:10:50,960
OF SPECIALIST CRAFTS,
162
00:10:50,960 --> 00:10:54,360
SUCH AS THE SMELTING OF COPPER.
163
00:10:54,360 --> 00:10:57,760
SO EVERY ONE OF THESE BLACK,
SORT OF GRAY-BLACK STONES
164
00:10:57,760 --> 00:11:00,840
THAT YOU'RE SEEING HERE, IS
ACTUALLY THE WASTE MATERIAL
165
00:11:00,840 --> 00:11:03,000
FROM A SECONDARY
SMELTING PROCESS.
166
00:11:03,000 --> 00:11:05,320
SO YOU CAN TELL JUST
BY THE DENSITY
167
00:11:05,320 --> 00:11:08,840
OF WHAT WE'RE SEEING HERE THAT
THIS WAS A VERY ACTIVE PLACE
168
00:11:08,840 --> 00:11:13,120
FOR PRODUCTION OF METALS,
OF COPPER, OF BRONZE.
169
00:11:16,240 --> 00:11:19,480
RIZVI: WE CAN ACTUALLY ISOLATE
THE VARIOUS ISOTOPES,
170
00:11:19,480 --> 00:11:23,360
AND SO WE KNOW, THEN,
THE LEAD ISOTOPE SIGNATURE
FROM DIFFERENT REGIONS,
171
00:11:23,360 --> 00:11:27,360
AND WE CAN SAY,
"OH, A CERTAIN AMOUNT OF COPPER
IS COMING FROM RAJASTHAN,
172
00:11:27,360 --> 00:11:31,520
A CERTAIN AMOUNT OF COPPER IS
COMING FROM OMAN."
173
00:11:31,520 --> 00:11:35,000
THERE IS A VERY CLEAR SENSE
THAT EXCHANGE IS HAPPENING,
174
00:11:35,000 --> 00:11:38,000
AND THINGS THAT ARE BEING
MADE IN THESE KINDS OF
PRODUCTION CENTERS
175
00:11:38,000 --> 00:11:42,200
ARE BEING USED
IN THAT WIDER NETWORK.
176
00:11:46,480 --> 00:11:49,840
NARRATOR: ONE OF THE THINGS
MADE AT MOHENJO-DARO
177
00:11:49,840 --> 00:11:53,200
IS THIS STATUETTE
CRAFTED FROM BRONZE,
178
00:11:53,200 --> 00:11:57,320
PRODUCED BY COMBINING
COPPER AND TIN.
179
00:11:58,760 --> 00:12:03,200
IT'S 4,500 YEARS OLD.
180
00:12:04,600 --> 00:12:06,760
RIZVI: A WOMAN
WITH IMMENSE BEAUTY
181
00:12:06,760 --> 00:12:09,840
AND POISE AND POSTURE,
AND SHE'S STANDING THERE
182
00:12:09,840 --> 00:12:13,320
AND SHE'S JUST LIKE,
"HERE I AM."
183
00:12:16,240 --> 00:12:17,880
SHE HAS HER BANGLES,
184
00:12:17,880 --> 00:12:21,600
AND THERE IS A CERTAIN KIND
OF PRIDE TO HER.
185
00:12:21,600 --> 00:12:26,600
AND YOU CAN SEE IT'S BEEN
CRAFTED WITH THAT SAME KIND
OF PERFECTION.
186
00:12:26,600 --> 00:12:31,120
THAT CRAFTSMANSHIP IS SOMETHING
THAT IS UNIQUE TO THE INDUS.
187
00:12:33,000 --> 00:12:36,000
NARRATOR: HOW DID THE PEOPLE
OF THE INDUS VALLEY
188
00:12:36,000 --> 00:12:41,000
ACHIEVE SUCH EXPERTISE
SO LONG AGO?
189
00:12:42,520 --> 00:12:44,000
PA.
190
00:12:49,840 --> 00:12:53,600
NARRATOR: THE DISCOVERY OF
A SMALL, CORRODED AMULET
191
00:12:53,600 --> 00:12:56,720
MAY PROVIDE AN ANSWER.
192
00:13:00,720 --> 00:13:02,880
NARRATOR: IN FRANCE,
193
00:13:02,880 --> 00:13:07,200
PHYSICIST MATHIEU THOURY
IS EXAMINING THE AMULET
194
00:13:07,200 --> 00:13:11,880
AT THE SYNCHROTRON PARTICLE
ACCELERATOR NEAR PARIS.
195
00:13:13,240 --> 00:13:18,600
USING A PROCESS KNOWN AS
PHOTOLUMINESCENCE SPECTROSCOPY,
196
00:13:18,600 --> 00:13:22,080
HE CAN WORK OUT HOW IT WAS MADE.
197
00:13:25,320 --> 00:13:29,000
THOURY: THE AMULET IS
25 MILLIMETERS WIDE,
198
00:13:29,000 --> 00:13:31,480
SO WE ARE WORKING
WITH A MICROSCOPE,
199
00:13:31,480 --> 00:13:34,720
WHICH RESOLUTION, THE SMALLEST
OBJECT THAT YOU CAN SEE,
200
00:13:34,720 --> 00:13:36,840
IS A FRACTION OF MICRON,
201
00:13:36,840 --> 00:13:40,360
AND A MICRON IS
A FRACTION OF AN HAIR.
202
00:13:40,360 --> 00:13:45,720
NARRATOR: A POWERFUL BEAM IS
PROJECTED AT THE AMULET.
203
00:13:46,840 --> 00:13:51,360
ITS ELECTRONS EMIT
THEIR OWN LIGHT IN RESPONSE,
204
00:13:51,360 --> 00:13:55,480
ALLOWING THOURY TO ANALYZE
THOSE PARTS OF THE AMULET
205
00:13:55,480 --> 00:13:58,120
HIDDEN BY CORROSION.
206
00:13:58,120 --> 00:14:01,640
THOURY: I KNEW THAT CONSIDERING
THIS PATTERN WAS INVISIBLE
207
00:14:01,640 --> 00:14:06,360
AND EXTREMELY ORGANIZED, IT WAS
VERY INTERESTING INFORMATION.
208
00:14:07,840 --> 00:14:11,840
NARRATOR: THE MICROSCOPIC
ANALYSIS REVEALS THE AMULET IS
209
00:14:11,840 --> 00:14:14,320
THE OLDEST EVIDENCE IN THE WORLD
210
00:14:14,320 --> 00:14:19,200
OF A TECHNIQUE KNOWN
AS LOST-WAX CASTING.
211
00:14:22,480 --> 00:14:27,440
SPECIALIST METAL WORKERS USE
THE SAME TECHNIQUE TODAY
212
00:14:27,440 --> 00:14:30,720
FOR DOING PRECISION WORK.
213
00:14:33,720 --> 00:14:36,840
ARCHAEOLOGIST BENOIT MILLE
IS AN EXPERT
214
00:14:36,840 --> 00:14:40,360
IN ITS ANCIENT HISTORY.
215
00:14:42,480 --> 00:14:44,320
[MILLE SPEAKING FRENCH]
216
00:14:44,320 --> 00:14:48,640
TRANSLATOR: LOST-WAX CASTING
ALLOWS US TO MAKE VERY
COMPLEX OBJECTS.
217
00:14:48,640 --> 00:14:51,480
NARRATOR: THE FIRST PART
OF THE PROCESS IS
218
00:14:51,480 --> 00:14:54,480
TO CREATE THE OBJECT
YOU WANT TO CAST
219
00:14:54,480 --> 00:14:57,240
OUT OF MALLEABLE WAX.
220
00:14:57,240 --> 00:15:02,360
TRANSLATOR: THIS MAKES IT
POSSIBLE TO PRODUCE
A NEW TYPE OF METAL OBJECT,
221
00:15:02,360 --> 00:15:06,240
MADE BY SMELTING AND CASTING,
222
00:15:06,240 --> 00:15:08,880
WITH GREAT PRECISION;
223
00:15:08,880 --> 00:15:12,520
LITTLE OBJECTS WHICH HAVE
DELICATE DETAILS,
224
00:15:12,520 --> 00:15:17,520
AS WELL AS VERY COMPLEX
AND VARIED FORMS.
225
00:15:17,520 --> 00:15:20,720
NARRATOR: ONCE THE WAX MODEL
IS FINISHED,
226
00:15:20,720 --> 00:15:24,720
IT'S ENCASED IN CLAY
TO MAKE A MOLD.
227
00:15:24,720 --> 00:15:27,440
THIS IS THEN HEATED
228
00:15:27,440 --> 00:15:29,520
TO MELT THE WAX AWAY,
229
00:15:29,520 --> 00:15:34,720
LEAVING AN EMPTY MOLD, WHICH IS
FILLED WITH MOLTEN METAL.
230
00:15:34,720 --> 00:15:39,480
THIS IS WHY IT'S CALLED
LOST-WAX CASTING.
231
00:15:39,480 --> 00:15:41,120
[MILLE SPEAKING FRENCH]
232
00:15:41,120 --> 00:15:43,120
TRANSLATOR:
DURING THE INDUS CIVILIZATION,
233
00:15:43,120 --> 00:15:46,840
THESE CRAFT SKILLS BECAME
HIGHLY DEVELOPED.
234
00:15:51,000 --> 00:15:55,000
YOU NEED TO MASTER A NUMBER
OF DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES.
235
00:15:55,000 --> 00:15:57,880
YOU NEED TO KNOW HOW
TO MAKE AN OVEN,
236
00:15:57,880 --> 00:16:01,120
AND THEN HOW TO WORK
WITH THE CAST.
237
00:16:02,440 --> 00:16:04,600
TO HANDLE METALS
AT 1,000 DEGREES IS
238
00:16:04,600 --> 00:16:07,520
SOMETHING QUITE DANGEROUS,
239
00:16:07,520 --> 00:16:11,360
WHICH YOU WOULDN'T
ENTRUST TO A NOVICE.
240
00:16:13,480 --> 00:16:15,360
[SIZZLES]
241
00:16:17,480 --> 00:16:19,120
TRANSLATOR:
THIS RESEARCH SHOWS
242
00:16:19,120 --> 00:16:22,360
THERE WAS AN EXTRAORDINARY
INGENUITY BACK THEN,
243
00:16:22,360 --> 00:16:26,480
THAT THESE SOCIETIES WERE
AMAZINGLY INNOVATIVE
244
00:16:26,480 --> 00:16:30,200
IN TERMS OF CRAFTSMANSHIP.
245
00:16:31,720 --> 00:16:33,840
NARRATOR:
THIS TECHNICAL SKILL WAS
246
00:16:33,840 --> 00:16:38,440
BEHIND THE GROWTH OF TRADE
IN THE INDUS VALLEY.
247
00:16:39,720 --> 00:16:42,240
NARRATOR:
ARTISANS MADE ORNAMENTS,
248
00:16:42,240 --> 00:16:44,440
MERCHANTS TRADED THEM,
249
00:16:44,440 --> 00:16:47,440
AND EVERYONE PROSPERED.
250
00:16:50,480 --> 00:16:53,480
BOTSMAN: THE BENEFITS OF TRADE,
THEY START WITH US.
251
00:16:53,480 --> 00:16:56,720
THEY START WITH THE INDIVIDUAL,
SO THE FIRST THING
THAT THEY DO IS
252
00:16:56,720 --> 00:16:59,840
THEY EXPAND OUR NEEDS AND WANTS.
253
00:16:59,840 --> 00:17:03,000
THEY EXPAND THE CHOICES
AVAILABLE TO US,
254
00:17:03,000 --> 00:17:06,760
BUT THEN MAGIC THINGS
START TO HAPPEN
255
00:17:06,760 --> 00:17:11,080
BECAUSE FOR TRADE TO HAPPEN,
MARKETS HAVE TO GROW,
256
00:17:11,080 --> 00:17:14,520
NEW ALLIANCES HAVE TO FORM,
IDEAS HAVE TO--
257
00:17:14,520 --> 00:17:17,400
AND PEOPLE HAVE TO BUMP
INTO ONE ANOTHER.
258
00:17:17,400 --> 00:17:20,920
SO TRADE IS THE ELIXIR.
259
00:17:20,920 --> 00:17:24,920
IT'S THE THING THAT CREATES
COLLABORATION AND CONNECTIONS.
260
00:17:24,920 --> 00:17:28,920
IT'S WHAT ENABLES IDEAS
TO MOVE FORWARD.
261
00:17:28,920 --> 00:17:33,320
I THINK IT'S WHAT ENABLES
THE SOCIETY TO PROGRESS.
262
00:17:37,280 --> 00:17:41,880
NARRATOR: BUT WHAT WAS SO
SPECIAL ABOUT THE INDUS VALLEY
263
00:17:41,880 --> 00:17:46,000
THAT ALLOWED A TRADE NETWORK,
AND THEN A CIVILIZATION,
264
00:17:46,000 --> 00:17:50,200
TO START HERE,
RATHER THAN ELSEWHERE?
265
00:17:51,920 --> 00:17:55,880
ULTIMATELY, ANY CIVILIZATION
DEPENDS ON ITS FARMERS
266
00:17:55,880 --> 00:18:00,320
TO PRODUCE ENOUGH FOOD
TO FEED ITS PEOPLE.
267
00:18:04,880 --> 00:18:08,200
ONE OF THE MOST RECENT SITES
TO BE EXCAVATED
268
00:18:08,200 --> 00:18:11,320
IS ON THE INDIAN SIDE
OF THE VALLEY.
269
00:18:11,320 --> 00:18:17,000
IT'S A SMALL, RURAL SETTLEMENT
CALLED LOHARI RAGHO.
270
00:18:18,680 --> 00:18:21,200
ARCHAEOLOGIST CAMERON PETRIE
271
00:18:21,200 --> 00:18:25,200
BELIEVES EARLY FARMERS HERE
GOT A HELPING HAND
272
00:18:25,200 --> 00:18:28,080
FROM THE CLIMATE.
273
00:18:28,080 --> 00:18:31,080
THE INDUS CIVILIZATION IS
AT THE VERY EASTERN EDGE
274
00:18:31,080 --> 00:18:34,440
OF THE RAINS THAT AFFECT
THE MEDITERRANEAN
AND THE MIDDLE EAST.
275
00:18:34,440 --> 00:18:38,240
BUT IT'S ALSO
AT THE WESTERN EDGE OF
THE INDIAN SUMMER MONSOON,
276
00:18:38,240 --> 00:18:42,240
SO WHERE THE INDUS
POPULATIONS LIVE IS
277
00:18:42,240 --> 00:18:46,440
DIRECTLY WHERE THESE TWO
WEATHER SYSTEMS OVERLAP.
278
00:18:46,440 --> 00:18:48,720
[THUNDER]
279
00:18:50,000 --> 00:18:53,720
NARRATOR: THIS MADE
THE INDUS VALLEY UNIQUE.
280
00:18:53,720 --> 00:18:56,280
IT BENEFITED FROM TWO
RAINY SEASONS--
281
00:18:56,280 --> 00:18:59,480
WINTER AND SUMMER--
282
00:18:59,480 --> 00:19:01,680
WHICH ENABLED ITS FARMERS
283
00:19:01,680 --> 00:19:06,160
TO GROW MORE THAN ONE SET
OF CROPS EACH YEAR.
284
00:19:10,680 --> 00:19:14,200
ITS BENEFICIAL LOCATION GAVE
THE INDUS VALLEY
285
00:19:14,200 --> 00:19:20,240
AN ADVANTAGE OVER ALL OTHER
FIRST CIVILIZATIONS.
286
00:19:20,240 --> 00:19:22,640
IN MESOPOTAMIA AND EGYPT,
287
00:19:22,640 --> 00:19:26,040
THEY HARVESTED WHEAT,
BARLEY, SORGHUM,
288
00:19:26,040 --> 00:19:28,240
AND MILLET.
289
00:19:28,240 --> 00:19:33,000
IN MESOAMERICA,
IT WAS SQUASH AND CORN.
290
00:19:33,000 --> 00:19:36,400
BUT NOWHERE WAS FARMING
AS PRODUCTIVE
291
00:19:36,400 --> 00:19:38,440
AS THE INDUS VALLEY.
292
00:19:38,440 --> 00:19:42,720
PETRIE: SO WHAT THAT MEANS
IS THAT THEY COULD BE
MUCH MORE ADAPTABLE
293
00:19:42,720 --> 00:19:45,000
TO THEIR SITUATIONS.
294
00:19:45,000 --> 00:19:47,720
THEY'RE ABLE
TO MAXIMIZE THE OUTPUT
295
00:19:47,720 --> 00:19:50,520
FROM THE HINTERLANDS
AROUND THEIR SITES.
296
00:19:50,520 --> 00:19:54,720
IT DOES CREATE, IN SOME WAYS,
A SORT OF ECONOMIC DRIVE
297
00:19:54,720 --> 00:19:58,440
FOR THE LOCAL ECONOMIES
TO HAVE A SURPLUS
298
00:19:58,440 --> 00:20:01,240
AND BE RELATIVELY WELL-OFF,
299
00:20:01,240 --> 00:20:05,000
AND THEREFORE TO ENGAGE
IN THINGS LIKE TRADE.
300
00:20:05,000 --> 00:20:07,680
AND IN SOME WAYS,
IT'S PART OF THE ECONOMIC
301
00:20:07,680 --> 00:20:10,320
AND SOCIAL GLUE THAT
STITCHES PEOPLE TOGETHER.
302
00:20:10,320 --> 00:20:14,000
WE'VE GOT A NICE, INTERESTING
DYNAMIC WITH THE INDUS,
303
00:20:14,000 --> 00:20:16,680
SO IT'S SIMULTANEOUSLY
DIFFERENT--PEOPLE ARE VARIED
304
00:20:16,680 --> 00:20:18,680
AND THEY'RE PROBABLY SPEAKING
DIFFERENT SORTS OF LANGUAGES--
305
00:20:18,680 --> 00:20:21,480
BUT THERE'S THINGS THAT
STICK THEM TOGETHER,
AND IT'S THE ACCESS
306
00:20:21,480 --> 00:20:26,440
TO THIS TRADE NETWORK
AND THE ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
THAT THEY CAN OBTAIN.
307
00:20:28,320 --> 00:20:32,240
PETRIE: TODAY WE'RE IN LUCK.
SO THE TEAM'S BEEN
EXCAVATING CAREFULLY,
308
00:20:32,240 --> 00:20:36,240
AND WE'VE FOUND
A NICE CARNELIAN BEAD.
309
00:20:36,240 --> 00:20:39,240
WHAT'S INTERESTING IS THAT IT'S
PROBABLY COMING FROM SOMEWHERE
310
00:20:39,240 --> 00:20:42,880
DOWN IN GUJARAT, 800 KILOMETERS
AS THE CROW FLIES.
311
00:20:42,880 --> 00:20:46,280
BUT IT DOES GIVE US
A NICE, NEAT EXAMPLE OF--
312
00:20:46,280 --> 00:20:49,480
OR A DEMONSTRATION OF HOW
THIS TRADING SYSTEM OPERATES
313
00:20:49,480 --> 00:20:52,760
AND THE SORTS OF THINGS
THAT ARE MOVING AROUND.
314
00:20:58,480 --> 00:21:01,640
NARRATOR: THE INDUS VALLEY
WAS PREVIOUSLY THOUGHT TO BE
315
00:21:01,640 --> 00:21:05,160
A PREDOMINANTLY URBAN
CIVILIZATION.
316
00:21:05,160 --> 00:21:08,040
BUT NOW, ARCHAEOLOGISTS
ARE DISCOVERING
317
00:21:08,040 --> 00:21:11,280
THAT ALONGSIDE THE CITIES,
THERE WERE THOUSANDS
318
00:21:11,280 --> 00:21:13,680
OF SMALLER SITES, JOINED UP
319
00:21:13,680 --> 00:21:17,000
IN A NEXUS OF TRADE.
320
00:21:21,320 --> 00:21:24,680
[MEN SINGING INDISTINCTLY]
321
00:21:25,720 --> 00:21:29,240
NARRATOR: HERE, THE AGENTS
OF CIVILIZATION
322
00:21:29,240 --> 00:21:33,440
WERE NOT SOLDIERS,
BUREAUCRATS, OR PRIESTS,
323
00:21:33,440 --> 00:21:35,960
BUT TRAVELING MERCHANTS
324
00:21:35,960 --> 00:21:38,560
WHO WOULD ESTABLISH
NEW TRADE ROUTES
325
00:21:38,560 --> 00:21:40,960
TO BUY AND SELL THEIR WARES.
326
00:21:42,280 --> 00:21:47,280
COTTON PROVIDED A LUCRATIVE
RAW MATERIAL FOR MERCHANTS,
327
00:21:47,280 --> 00:21:53,000
WHO WOULD BARTER FOR IT
BY OFFERING OTHER GOODS
IN EXCHANGE.
328
00:21:54,480 --> 00:21:56,760
AS A RESULT, SETTLEMENTS EMERGED
329
00:21:56,760 --> 00:22:00,280
TO SERVICE THIS NEW TRADE.
330
00:22:12,440 --> 00:22:15,560
ARCHAEOLOGISTS
ADAM AND LILY GREEN
331
00:22:15,560 --> 00:22:19,040
ARE USING ANCIENT MAPS
AND LOCAL KNOWLEDGE
332
00:22:19,040 --> 00:22:24,280
TO ESTABLISH THE FULL EXTENT OF
THE INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION.
333
00:22:24,280 --> 00:22:28,680
SO WHAT I THINK WE HAVE
HERE AT THIS STAGE IS
A SMALL-SCALE SETTLEMENT.
334
00:22:28,680 --> 00:22:31,480
WE'RE PICKING UP LOTS
OF EVIDENCE OF ACTIVITY,
335
00:22:31,480 --> 00:22:34,000
EVIDENCE OF BUILDING UP
THE SITE,
336
00:22:34,000 --> 00:22:38,000
LIVING DAY-TO-DAY--
EVERYDAY-LIFE KIND OF THINGS.
337
00:22:38,000 --> 00:22:40,480
SO IF YOU KIND OF WALK
ALONG HERE,
338
00:22:40,480 --> 00:22:43,480
YOU'LL SEE AN OCCASIONAL
PIECE OF BROKEN POTTERY
339
00:22:43,480 --> 00:22:46,320
THAT'S BEEN PLOWED OVER
AND OVER AND OVER AGAIN
340
00:22:46,320 --> 00:22:51,880
BY TRACTORS AS THEY'RE PREPARING
THE SOIL FOR THESE COTTON CROPS.
341
00:22:51,880 --> 00:22:53,880
YOU CAN SEE THIS.
THIS IS REALLY GREAT.
342
00:22:53,880 --> 00:22:56,480
HAVE THIS BLACK-PAINTED
BODY SHARD.
343
00:22:56,480 --> 00:23:00,400
THIS IS A PIECE OF A VESSEL
WITH BLACK PAINT ON IT.
344
00:23:05,280 --> 00:23:10,480
ADAM: ALL THESE GROUPS WERE
ENGAGING IN DIFFERENT FORMS
OF SPECIALIZATION,
345
00:23:10,480 --> 00:23:13,800
CREATING A RANGE OF GOODS
346
00:23:13,800 --> 00:23:16,800
THAT WERE BEING FED INTO
THE SYSTEM AS A WHOLE.
347
00:23:16,800 --> 00:23:21,280
SO THERE HAD TO HAVE BEEN
LARGE-SCALE, LONG-DISTANCE
SYSTEMS OF CONTACT
348
00:23:21,280 --> 00:23:26,400
AND INTERACTION THAT TIED
THE WHOLE CIVILIZATION TOGETHER.
349
00:23:27,800 --> 00:23:30,000
NARRATOR: FOR TRADE TO FLOURISH,
350
00:23:30,000 --> 00:23:32,680
THERE NEEDS TO BE
A SET OF RULES,
351
00:23:32,680 --> 00:23:35,880
A PROTOCOL FOR EXCHANGE
BETWEEN STRANGERS
352
00:23:35,880 --> 00:23:39,640
HUNDREDS OR THOUSANDS
OF MILES APART.
353
00:23:39,640 --> 00:23:42,520
THIS WAS TRUE IN ANCIENT TIMES
354
00:23:42,520 --> 00:23:44,760
JUST AS MUCH AS TODAY.
355
00:23:44,760 --> 00:23:48,480
BOTSMAN: YOU'D ASK MANY PEOPLE
HOW DOES TRADE WORK, THEY
WOULD SAY, "WELL, IT'S MONEY."
356
00:23:48,480 --> 00:23:51,320
MONEY IS A CURRENCY
OF TRANSACTIONS,
357
00:23:51,320 --> 00:23:54,440
BUT FOR HUMAN BEINGS
TO INTERACT, FOR
HUMAN BEINGS TO TRADE,
358
00:23:54,440 --> 00:23:58,880
THE SOCIAL GLUE, THE LUBRICANT
THAT MAKES THIS WORK, IS TRUST.
359
00:23:58,880 --> 00:24:02,720
THAT'S THE MOST FRAGILE
AND PRECIOUS ASSET
360
00:24:02,720 --> 00:24:06,720
THAT EXISTS IN ANY FORM
OF TRADE NETWORK.
361
00:24:07,880 --> 00:24:10,440
BOTSMAN: WHEN YOU TRADE
WITH A STRANGER,
362
00:24:10,440 --> 00:24:12,960
YOU DON'T KNOW THE OUTCOME.
363
00:24:12,960 --> 00:24:17,240
THIS IS WHAT I DESCRIBE
AS A TRUST LEAP...
364
00:24:17,240 --> 00:24:19,440
[OVERLAPPING CHATTER]
365
00:24:19,440 --> 00:24:22,320
AND THE EASIEST WAY TO THINK
OF A TRUST LEAP IS
366
00:24:22,320 --> 00:24:25,320
IT'S WHEN WE TAKE A RISK
TO DO SOMETHING NEW
367
00:24:25,320 --> 00:24:29,680
OR TO DO IT DIFFERENTLY FROM
THE WAY WE'VE DONE IT BEFORE...
368
00:24:37,480 --> 00:24:39,200
AND THEREFORE,
369
00:24:39,200 --> 00:24:43,880
THE CURRENCY
THAT MAKES IT WORK IS TRUST.
370
00:24:43,880 --> 00:24:48,400
IF THERE IS NO TRUST,
YOU CANNOT TRADE.
371
00:24:56,800 --> 00:25:01,000
NARRATOR: BUT HOW DO YOU DECIDE
IF YOU CAN TRUST SOMEONE?
372
00:25:03,440 --> 00:25:06,920
IS IT BASED
ON THEIR APPEARANCE...
373
00:25:08,440 --> 00:25:11,640
THE WAY THEY LOOK YOU
IN THE EYE...
374
00:25:13,280 --> 00:25:17,160
OR THEIR BODY LANGUAGE?
375
00:25:18,520 --> 00:25:21,080
PSYCHOLOGIST TIM HAHN
376
00:25:21,080 --> 00:25:26,480
BELIEVES TRUST IS SO FUNDAMENTAL
TO HUMAN INTERACTION
377
00:25:26,480 --> 00:25:28,640
THAT OUR BRAINS HAVE EVOLVED
378
00:25:28,640 --> 00:25:31,520
TO BE INNATELY TRUSTING.
379
00:25:31,520 --> 00:25:33,680
TO TEST THIS,
380
00:25:33,680 --> 00:25:37,520
HE IS RUNNING
AN EXPERIMENTAL TRUST GAME
381
00:25:37,520 --> 00:25:42,000
IN WHICH TWO STRANGERS ARE
PAIRED THROUGH A COMPUTER LINK.
382
00:25:42,000 --> 00:25:46,280
EACH IS GIVEN A POT
OF MONEY TO TRADE WITH.
383
00:25:47,640 --> 00:25:49,760
HAHN RECORDS
THEIR BRAIN ACTIVITY
384
00:25:49,760 --> 00:25:53,760
DURING EVERY STAGE
OF THE GAME.
385
00:25:53,760 --> 00:25:56,000
HAHN: YOU'RE ACTUALLY MEASURING
386
00:25:56,000 --> 00:25:59,480
HOW YOUR BRAIN RESPONDS
TO THE STIMULI IN THE TRUST GAME
387
00:25:59,480 --> 00:26:02,280
BY LOOKING AT THE BRAIN WAVES.
388
00:26:02,280 --> 00:26:07,280
FEMALE COMPUTER VOICE:
HOW MUCH MONEY DO YOU WANT
TO GIVE TO PLAYER TWO?
389
00:26:07,280 --> 00:26:10,680
NARRATOR: WHATEVER AMOUNT
PLAYER ONE DECIDES TO GIVE
390
00:26:10,680 --> 00:26:14,680
TO PLAYER TWO WILL BE TRIPLED.
391
00:26:14,680 --> 00:26:17,240
HAHN: TRUST, IN THE CASE
OF OUR EXPERIMENT, IS
392
00:26:17,240 --> 00:26:20,280
ALWAYS ENTRUSTING MONEY
TO ANOTHER PERSON IN THE HOPE
393
00:26:20,280 --> 00:26:24,880
THAT THIS PERSON WILL RETURN
SOME OF YOUR MONEY
BACK TO YOU...
394
00:26:26,320 --> 00:26:28,200
AND EVEN MORE, HOPEFULLY,
395
00:26:28,200 --> 00:26:31,680
THAN YOU'VE INITIALLY
ENTRUSTED TO THAT PERSON.
396
00:26:32,800 --> 00:26:35,160
COMPUTER: PLAYER ONE
HAS GIVEN YOU 45.
397
00:26:35,160 --> 00:26:39,240
HOW MUCH MONEY
DO YOU WANT TO GIVE BACK?
398
00:26:39,240 --> 00:26:42,760
NARRATOR: WHATEVER AMOUNT
PLAYER TWO DECIDES TO RETURN
399
00:26:42,760 --> 00:26:45,880
WILL ALSO BE TRIPLED.
400
00:26:45,880 --> 00:26:49,760
THE GAME IS DESIGNED
SO THAT THE MORE YOU
TRUST A STRANGER,
401
00:26:49,760 --> 00:26:52,680
THE MORE YOU ARE REWARDED.
402
00:26:53,960 --> 00:26:56,720
IT'S A WIN-WIN SCENARIO,
403
00:26:56,720 --> 00:27:01,240
MIRRORING THE PROCESS OF TRADE.
404
00:27:02,760 --> 00:27:06,480
HAHN: IF THAT WORKS WELL OVER
THE COURSE OF SEVERAL ROUNDS
405
00:27:06,480 --> 00:27:09,000
OF THE TRUST GAME,
BOTH PLAYERS CAN LEARN
406
00:27:09,000 --> 00:27:12,640
THAT THEY CAN TRUST EACH OTHER,
AND THEN THEY START TO INVEST
407
00:27:12,640 --> 00:27:14,640
MORE AND MORE MONEY
INTO THE OTHER PERSON.
408
00:27:14,640 --> 00:27:17,560
MORE AND MORE MONEY
IS FLOWING BACK,
409
00:27:17,560 --> 00:27:21,080
WHICH BENEFITS BOTH PARTIES.
410
00:27:23,480 --> 00:27:27,960
NARRATOR: HAHN'S RESEARCH
REVEALS THAT THE MOST
CRUCIAL MOMENT OCCURS
411
00:27:27,960 --> 00:27:30,960
AT THE VERY START OF THE GAME,
412
00:27:30,960 --> 00:27:33,960
WHEN THE TWO STRANGERS MEET
FOR THE FIRST TIME
413
00:27:33,960 --> 00:27:37,720
AND THEY HAVE TO OVERCOME
THEIR INITIAL CAUTION.
414
00:27:37,720 --> 00:27:39,720
[SPEAKS NATIVE LANGUAGE]
415
00:27:39,720 --> 00:27:43,040
HAHN: THE THING THAT WE'VE SHOWN
IN OUR EXPERIMENT IS
416
00:27:43,040 --> 00:27:46,480
THAT EVEN BEFORE YOU START
TO KNOW A PARTNER,
417
00:27:46,480 --> 00:27:48,280
YOU WILL DISPLAY
SOME LEVEL OF TRUST,
418
00:27:48,280 --> 00:27:52,480
WHICH MEANS THAT OVER TIME,
PRETTY MUCH ANY RELATIONSHIP
419
00:27:52,480 --> 00:27:54,480
WHERE TRUST
IS ANSWERED WITH TRUST
420
00:27:54,480 --> 00:27:58,720
WILL EVOLVE INTO A MORE
TRUSTING RELATIONSHIP.
421
00:28:00,000 --> 00:28:03,320
WE AS HUMANS ARE PROBABLY
VERY WELL-EQUIPPED TO TRADE
422
00:28:03,320 --> 00:28:07,000
BECAUSE WE ALL SHOW AT LEAST
THE BASIC LEVEL OF TRUST.
423
00:28:07,000 --> 00:28:11,000
AND THAT SEEMS TO BE, IF NOT
HARD-WIRED INTO OUR BRAINS,
424
00:28:11,000 --> 00:28:14,720
THEN STILL IMPLEMENT
IN OUR BRAINS IN SUCH
A SMART WAY
425
00:28:14,720 --> 00:28:18,240
THAT WE WILL ALWAYS TRUST,
BUT THAT WE'RE FLEXIBLE
426
00:28:18,240 --> 00:28:20,920
IN RESPONDING
TO DIFFERENT CIRCUMSTANCES
427
00:28:20,920 --> 00:28:24,800
AND DIFFERENT PARTNERS
IN TRADE INTERACTIONS.
428
00:28:27,720 --> 00:28:30,800
HAHN: THAT'S, IN THE END,
WHAT SETS US APART
429
00:28:30,800 --> 00:28:33,000
AND WHICH HAS
EVENTUALLY ENABLED US
430
00:28:33,000 --> 00:28:36,240
TO BUILD A CIVILIZATION
THAT IS SO COMPLEX.
431
00:28:36,240 --> 00:28:41,000
COMPUTER: CONGRATULATIONS,
PLAYER ONE. YOU HAVE WON 240.
432
00:28:42,160 --> 00:28:46,960
CONGRATULATIONS, PLAYER TWO.
YOU HAVE WON 180.
433
00:28:50,240 --> 00:28:54,480
NARRATOR: TO ENSHRINE TRUST
BETWEEN BUYER AND SELLER,
434
00:28:54,480 --> 00:28:56,880
THE MERCHANTS
OF THE INDUS VALLEY
435
00:28:56,880 --> 00:29:01,480
PIONEERED THEIR OWN METHOD
OF DOING BUSINESS.
436
00:29:01,480 --> 00:29:04,160
MAN: THE PEOPLE OF
THE INDUS VALLEY
WERE AMONG THE FIRST
437
00:29:04,160 --> 00:29:06,720
TO REALIZE THE FULL
POTENTIAL OF TRADE.
438
00:29:06,720 --> 00:29:12,000
THEY FOUND MANY INNOVATIVE WAYS
TO FACILITATE THE EXCHANGE
OF GOODS BETWEEN MERCHANTS,
439
00:29:12,000 --> 00:29:14,720
AND PERHAPS THE MOST
INVENTIVE WAY
440
00:29:14,720 --> 00:29:17,720
WAS USING SEALS.
441
00:29:17,720 --> 00:29:21,160
MANY OF THESE SEALS HAVE
TALLY MARKS--
442
00:29:21,160 --> 00:29:24,000
YOU KNOW, 1, 2, 3, 4,
UP TO 7 TALLY MARKS--
443
00:29:24,000 --> 00:29:27,000
FOLLOWED BY SYMBOLS,
SUCH AS A STALK OF WHEAT
444
00:29:27,000 --> 00:29:29,280
OR A STALK OF BARLEY,
WHICH SEEMS TO INDICATE
445
00:29:29,280 --> 00:29:33,280
THAT SOMETHING IS BEING COUNTED,
PERHAPS A QUANTITY OF GRAIN.
446
00:29:33,280 --> 00:29:36,480
AND THERE'S OTHER SYMBOLS
THAT COULD POTENTIALLY STAND
447
00:29:36,480 --> 00:29:39,280
FOR WEIGHTS AND VOLUME,
448
00:29:39,280 --> 00:29:44,320
AND PERHAPS SYMBOLS
THAT STAND FOR THE NAMES
OF MERCHANTS' LOCATIONS...
449
00:29:45,680 --> 00:29:48,200
OR EVEN STATE INSTITUTIONS
SUCH AS, YOU KNOW,
450
00:29:48,200 --> 00:29:52,200
THE TAX DEPARTMENT
OR THE CUSTOMS DEPARTMENT.
451
00:29:52,200 --> 00:29:55,520
THESE INDUS SEALS COULD
ALSO HAVE BEEN USED
AS AN ANCIENT BARCODE,
452
00:29:55,520 --> 00:29:59,880
SO NUMEROUS CLAY TAGS HAVE BEEN
FOUND IN DIFFERENT SITES OF
THE CIVILIZATION.
453
00:29:59,880 --> 00:30:03,520
THE INFORMATION THAT
THESE CLAY TAGS MIGHT CONTAIN
454
00:30:03,520 --> 00:30:08,240
INCLUDE THE SOURCE
AND THE DESTINATION
OF THE GOODS.
455
00:30:08,240 --> 00:30:11,240
SOME OF THESE SEALS AND THE TAGS
ASSOCIATED WITH THEM
456
00:30:11,240 --> 00:30:14,320
HAVE BEEN FOUND SNAPPED,
ALMOST DELIBERATELY SNAPPED.
457
00:30:14,320 --> 00:30:18,400
THESE SNAPPED SEALS OR TAGS
COULD DENOTE THE FACT THAT
A TRANSACTION,
458
00:30:18,400 --> 00:30:22,400
A BUSINESS TRANSACTION,
HAS ENDED OR CONCLUDED,
AND THAT'S BEEN DONE
459
00:30:22,400 --> 00:30:27,680
TO PREVENT FUTURE ABUSE
OF THE LEGITIMATE AUTHORITY
OF THE SEALS.
460
00:30:30,800 --> 00:30:33,880
NARRATOR: EACH SEAL FEATURED
A DIFFERENT ANIMAL,
461
00:30:33,880 --> 00:30:37,480
WHICH MAY HAVE BEEN USED
TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL TRADERS,
462
00:30:37,480 --> 00:30:40,280
LIKE A MODERN-DAY LOGO.
463
00:30:43,640 --> 00:30:46,080
THOUSANDS OF YEARS
BEFORE COCA-COLA AND NIKE,
464
00:30:46,080 --> 00:30:50,240
THE PEOPLE OF THE INDUS VALLEY
DISCOVERED THE POWER
OF BRANDING.
465
00:30:52,480 --> 00:30:56,240
RAO: IT'S SOMETHING
THAT EVEN AN ILLITERATE
PERSON CAN JUST GLANCE AT
466
00:30:56,240 --> 00:31:00,800
AND UNDERSTAND THE POWER
OF THAT PARTICULAR IMAGE...
467
00:31:00,800 --> 00:31:03,920
ANCIENT BRANDS OF
THE QUALITY OF THE GOODS
468
00:31:03,920 --> 00:31:05,920
OR THE AFFILIATION
OF THE MERCHANT
469
00:31:05,920 --> 00:31:10,040
TO A PARTICULAR CLAN
OR COMMUNITY.
470
00:31:28,680 --> 00:31:34,240
NARRATOR: THE SAME ATTENTION
TO DETAIL WENT INTO THE PLANNING
OF THEIR CITIES.
471
00:31:35,800 --> 00:31:41,200
EVERYTHING WAS DESIGNED TO
PROMOTE THE FREE FLOW OF TRADE.
472
00:31:42,240 --> 00:31:46,000
IN ANY CIVILIZATION,
HAPPY, WELL-ORDERED PEOPLE
473
00:31:46,000 --> 00:31:51,480
ARE MORE EFFICIENT PEOPLE
WITH MORE TIME FOR BUSINESS.
474
00:31:52,880 --> 00:31:55,320
RIZVI: WHAT IS DISTINCT
ABOUT THE INDUS, AS COMPARED
475
00:31:55,320 --> 00:31:57,280
TO MANY OTHER SITES
FROM 5,000 YEARS AGO
476
00:31:57,280 --> 00:32:01,000
AROUND THE WORLD IS THAT WE
DON'T HAVE THE ZIGGURAT.
477
00:32:01,000 --> 00:32:03,480
WE DON'T HAVE
THE MONUMENTAL PALACES, RIGHT?
478
00:32:03,480 --> 00:32:07,760
WE DON'T HAVE THE LARGE TEMPLES
WITH THE COLUMNS.
479
00:32:07,760 --> 00:32:11,800
BUT WHAT WE DO HAVE IS
AN INCREDIBLE MONUMENTALITY
480
00:32:11,800 --> 00:32:14,680
OF ORGANIZATION AND PLANNING,
OF STANDARDIZATION.
481
00:32:14,680 --> 00:32:17,160
THERE IS A MONUMENTALITY
OF THOUGHT HERE
482
00:32:17,160 --> 00:32:22,280
THAT GOES BEYOND
WHAT WE GENERALLY SEE
AT THIS TIME PERIOD.
483
00:32:24,960 --> 00:32:29,000
THE INDUS, IN MY MIND, WAS
ACTUALLY FAR AHEAD OF THE CURVE.
484
00:32:31,640 --> 00:32:34,160
IT'S NOT KIND OF
AN ORGANIC FORMATION
485
00:32:34,160 --> 00:32:37,880
RESPONDING TO EACH OTHER, SEEING
HOW THE POPULATION GROWS.
486
00:32:37,880 --> 00:32:42,480
THIS CITY IN PARTICULAR IS JUST
PLANNED FROM TOP TO BOTTOM.
487
00:32:42,480 --> 00:32:46,640
YOU CAN WALK THROUGH THE CITY
AND YOU CAN FEEL IT.
488
00:32:46,640 --> 00:32:49,760
IT FEELS LIKE A MODERN CITY.
489
00:32:51,720 --> 00:32:56,280
ALL THE ARCHITECTS AND THOSE
WHO WERE PLANNING THIS PLACE
WERE VERY CLEAR IN THEIR MIND.
490
00:32:56,280 --> 00:33:03,680
THEY KNEW WHAT THE CITY NEEDED
IN ORDER FOR IT TO BE
A SUCCESSFUL CITY...
491
00:33:03,680 --> 00:33:07,560
LIKE THINKING ENVIRONMENTALLY,
LIKE THINKING ABOUT WHERE IS
THE WIND FLOWING FROM,
492
00:33:07,560 --> 00:33:12,160
SO YOU MAY NOT HAVE
AN AIR CONDITIONER, BUT YOU HAVE
REALLY FANTASTIC WIND TUNNELS.
493
00:33:12,160 --> 00:33:14,640
SO YOU CAN STAND HERE IN
A LITTLE BIT OF SHADE,
494
00:33:14,640 --> 00:33:18,160
AND YOU ACTUALLY GET
A GREAT BREEZE COMING BY.
495
00:33:22,720 --> 00:33:25,440
NARRATOR: FRESH WATER
AND A SEWAGE SYSTEM
496
00:33:25,440 --> 00:33:30,080
ARE OFTEN THOUGHT
TO HAVE BEEN INVENTED
DURING THE HEYDAY OF ROME,
497
00:33:30,080 --> 00:33:33,440
BUT THE PEOPLE OF
THE INDUS VALLEY GOT THERE
498
00:33:33,440 --> 00:33:37,720
2,000 YEARS BEFORE THE ROMANS.
499
00:33:39,520 --> 00:33:43,200
HERE WE HAVE A GREAT EXAMPLE
OF A SECOND-FLOOR BATHROOM,
500
00:33:43,200 --> 00:33:46,480
AND THERE WAS A TERRACOTTA PIPE
THAT WAS PLACED INSIDE
501
00:33:46,480 --> 00:33:49,640
FOR DRAINAGE, COVERED ENTIRELY,
RIGHT--WE CAN SEE IT
502
00:33:49,640 --> 00:33:53,160
BECAUSE IT'S BEEN EXCAVATED--
AND THEN COMING DOWN
THE CHUTE HERE.
503
00:33:53,160 --> 00:33:57,040
AND ALONG BOTH SIDES
OF THE STREET, WE HAVE DRAINAGE.
504
00:33:57,040 --> 00:33:59,720
SO IT'S COMING STRAIGHT IN
AND MOVING OUT,
505
00:33:59,720 --> 00:34:03,000
OUT OF THE CITY, WHICH IS
JUST REALLY FANTASTIC.
506
00:34:06,720 --> 00:34:08,760
MY STUDENTS ALWAYS
LAUGH ABOUT THIS.
507
00:34:08,760 --> 00:34:11,920
THEY'RE LIKE, "YES,
THE ONE THING WE LEARNED ABOUT
MOHENJO-DARO IS THE DRAINAGE.
508
00:34:11,920 --> 00:34:15,040
WE KNOW THERE'S DRAINAGE."
BUT IT IS REMARKABLE DRAINAGE.
509
00:34:15,040 --> 00:34:19,200
IT IS NOT JUST DRAINAGE.
IT IS FANTASTIC DRAINAGE.
510
00:34:19,200 --> 00:34:22,200
EVERY SINGLE HOUSE HAS BEEN
THOUGHT THROUGH.
511
00:34:22,200 --> 00:34:24,200
THIS IS PLANNED.
THIS IS ORCHESTRATED.
512
00:34:24,200 --> 00:34:27,760
THIS IS A LOT OF CONTROL
AND A LOT OF THOUGHT.
513
00:34:30,960 --> 00:34:33,960
RIZVI: THIS IS REALLY WHAT
MAKES MOHENJO-DARO,
514
00:34:33,960 --> 00:34:37,320
AND THE INDUS
IN GENERAL, REMARKABLE.
515
00:34:37,320 --> 00:34:40,960
THESE INDIVIDUALS KNEW
WHAT THEY WERE DOING.
516
00:34:45,080 --> 00:34:49,160
THIS IS BETTER-ORGANIZED
THAN MANY OTHER CITIES
I'VE LIVED IN TODAY.
517
00:34:53,920 --> 00:34:57,160
NARRATOR: AT THE SOUTHERN END
OF THE INDUS VALLEY REGION,
518
00:34:57,160 --> 00:35:00,480
THERE WAS ANOTHER
IMPORTANT TRADING CITY,
519
00:35:00,480 --> 00:35:02,840
DHOLAVIRA.
520
00:35:04,400 --> 00:35:07,080
[BIRD CALLS]
521
00:35:07,080 --> 00:35:12,080
THE COASTAL LOWLANDS
OF NORTHERN GUJARAT
WERE A WILDERNESS
522
00:35:12,080 --> 00:35:16,880
COMPARED TO THE RICH FARMLAND
FURTHER NORTH.
523
00:35:16,880 --> 00:35:21,520
TODAY, THE AREA HAS BEEN
ABANDONED TO NATURE...
524
00:35:21,520 --> 00:35:24,400
BUT THE PEOPLE OF THE INDUS
525
00:35:24,400 --> 00:35:26,760
WERE ABLE TO MAKE THIS A HOME.
526
00:35:26,760 --> 00:35:29,920
[VEHICLE APPROACHING]
527
00:35:34,640 --> 00:35:37,640
NARRATOR: ARCHAEOLOGIST
MICHEL DANINO
528
00:35:37,640 --> 00:35:41,880
HAS MADE A LIFELONG STUDY
OF DHOLAVIRA.
529
00:35:43,080 --> 00:35:45,560
DANINO: IT'S A VERY ARID REGION,
530
00:35:45,560 --> 00:35:47,560
NOT VERY HOSPITABLE.
531
00:35:47,560 --> 00:35:51,640
FOR THE CITY TO BE SUSTAINABLE,
532
00:35:51,640 --> 00:35:56,000
THEY HAD TO STORE RAINWATER.
533
00:35:56,000 --> 00:36:00,200
NARRATOR: DHOLAVIRA IS RINGED
BY A SERIES OF RESERVOIRS
534
00:36:00,200 --> 00:36:04,840
THAT STORED THE MONSOON
RAINWATER EACH YEAR.
535
00:36:04,840 --> 00:36:09,480
IT IS THE OLDEST SYSTEM
OF URBAN WATER MANAGEMENT
536
00:36:09,480 --> 00:36:12,320
ANYWHERE IN THE WORLD.
537
00:36:16,280 --> 00:36:22,960
DANINO: WE ARE HERE
AT THE BOTTOM OF
THE EASTERN RESERVOIR.
538
00:36:22,960 --> 00:36:26,120
ITS LENGTH WAS ABOUT 73 METERS.
539
00:36:26,120 --> 00:36:30,920
THAT'S NEARLY ONE AND A HALF
OLYMPIC SWIMMING POOLS,
540
00:36:30,920 --> 00:36:35,760
SO THEREFORE, THIS WOULD HAVE
BEEN A VERY IMPRESSIVE SIGHT,
541
00:36:35,760 --> 00:36:39,520
ESPECIALLY WHENEVER IT WAS FULL.
542
00:36:39,520 --> 00:36:41,880
NARRATOR: IT HAS BEEN ESTIMATED
543
00:36:41,880 --> 00:36:46,920
THE CITY'S RESERVOIRS COULD HOLD
79 MILLION GALLONS OF WATER,
544
00:36:46,920 --> 00:36:52,040
ENOUGH FOR 14 GALLONS
PER PERSON PER DAY.
545
00:36:54,480 --> 00:36:58,960
THIS PART OF GUJARAT IS
AN EARTHQUAKE ZONE,
546
00:36:58,960 --> 00:37:02,320
BUT THE RESERVOIRS SEEM
TO HAVE BEEN DESIGNED
547
00:37:02,320 --> 00:37:04,960
TO WITHSTAND SEISMIC ACTIVITY.
548
00:37:04,960 --> 00:37:07,800
DANINO: YOU CAN SEE THOSE--
WHAT LOOKS LIKE VERTICAL LINES.
549
00:37:07,800 --> 00:37:11,280
ACTUALLY, THEY'RE SIMPLY
LINES WHERE THE--I MEAN,
550
00:37:11,280 --> 00:37:15,200
THE STONES ARE NOT JOINED,
THEY ARE NOT OVERLAPPING.
551
00:37:16,320 --> 00:37:18,280
IN CIVIL ENGINEERING,
THIS IS CALLED A FUSE;
552
00:37:18,280 --> 00:37:21,320
IN OTHER WORDS, THIS IS
THE WEAKEST PART OF THE WALL,
553
00:37:21,320 --> 00:37:24,480
AND IF THERE IS,
FOR EXAMPLE, AN EARTHQUAKE,
554
00:37:24,480 --> 00:37:26,800
IF THE WHOLE WALL IS
INTERLOCKED,
555
00:37:26,800 --> 00:37:30,800
PERHAPS A BIG PORTION OF IT
MIGHT JUST FALL OUT,
556
00:37:30,800 --> 00:37:33,800
WHEREAS, IF YOU KEEP
A WEAKER PORTION HERE,
557
00:37:33,800 --> 00:37:36,320
PERHAPS ONLY THIS--
OR A LITTLE BIT ON THE SIDES,
558
00:37:36,320 --> 00:37:40,320
OR MAYBE ONLY ONE OF
THE SIDES--WILL FALL OUT.
559
00:37:40,320 --> 00:37:45,320
SO IF THIS IS AN EARTHQUAKE
SAFETY MEASURE,
560
00:37:45,320 --> 00:37:49,640
THEN IT WAS REALLY
WELL AHEAD OF ITS TIME.
561
00:37:51,440 --> 00:37:53,800
NARRATOR: WHEREVER DANINO LOOKS,
562
00:37:53,800 --> 00:37:57,520
HE FINDS THE SAME EVIDENCE
OF AN ENGINEERING MINDSET
563
00:37:57,520 --> 00:37:59,520
AMONG THE RUINS;
564
00:37:59,520 --> 00:38:03,400
THE STREETS, THE BUILDINGS,
EVEN THE BRICKS,
565
00:38:03,400 --> 00:38:06,440
WERE ALL MADE TO MEASURE.
566
00:38:06,440 --> 00:38:10,800
DANINO: THE BRICKS WERE
STANDARDIZED IN THE SENSE
567
00:38:10,800 --> 00:38:15,800
THAT THE WIDTH IS TWICE
AS MUCH AS THE HEIGHT,
568
00:38:15,800 --> 00:38:20,280
AND THE LENGTH IS
TWICE AS MUCH AS THE WIDTH,
569
00:38:20,280 --> 00:38:22,520
SO IT'S 1:2:4.
570
00:38:22,520 --> 00:38:26,280
THIS WAS ACTUALLY
A STROKE OF GENIUS
571
00:38:26,280 --> 00:38:30,560
BECAUSE IT GIVES YOU
THE MAXIMUM STRUCTURAL STRENGTH
572
00:38:30,560 --> 00:38:34,080
WITH A MINIMUM AMOUNT
OF BUILDING MATERIAL.
573
00:38:39,320 --> 00:38:42,680
NARRATOR: MATHEMATICAL
PRINCIPLES WERE APPLIED
574
00:38:42,680 --> 00:38:45,520
TO ALL THE CITIES OF
THE INDUS VALLEY.
575
00:38:45,520 --> 00:38:50,320
CONSTRUCTION WAS ALWAYS BASED
ON PRECISE, RISING RATIOS,
576
00:38:50,320 --> 00:38:55,920
WHERE THE LENGTH OF A BUILDING
WAS LARGER THAN ITS WIDTH.
577
00:38:57,960 --> 00:39:00,600
THIS SERVED
NO PRACTICAL PURPOSE;
578
00:39:00,600 --> 00:39:03,080
IT MADE THE BUILDING WORK
MORE COMPLICATED,
579
00:39:03,080 --> 00:39:07,800
BUT IT SUGGESTS A FAITH
IN A CORE IDEA--
580
00:39:07,800 --> 00:39:11,760
THE POWER OF PROGRESS.
581
00:39:12,920 --> 00:39:16,480
THIS FAITH UNDERPINNED
THE PRINCIPLES
582
00:39:16,480 --> 00:39:20,000
OF A TRADING CIVILIZATION.
583
00:39:23,520 --> 00:39:28,200
DANINO: THERE'S
A VERY CLEAR CONCEPT THAT IT
IS SOMETHING WHICH HAS VALUE.
584
00:39:28,200 --> 00:39:31,520
IN LATER INDIAN TRADITIONS,
THIS CONCEPT OF GROWTH IS GOING
585
00:39:31,520 --> 00:39:34,400
TO BE VERY,
VERY CLEARLY EXPRESSED
586
00:39:34,400 --> 00:39:36,200
IN THE BUILDING OF ALTARS,
587
00:39:36,200 --> 00:39:38,960
IN THE BUILDING OF TEMPLES
AND SO ON,
588
00:39:38,960 --> 00:39:41,600
INVOKING A DESIRE
FOR PROSPERITY,
589
00:39:41,600 --> 00:39:43,600
FOR AUSPICIOUSNESS.
590
00:39:43,600 --> 00:39:45,800
AND THEY WOULD HAVE SEEN
THIS RATIO AS--
591
00:39:45,800 --> 00:39:50,400
CERTAINLY AS AUSPICIOUS,
IF NOT, PERHAPS, AS SACRED.
592
00:39:54,320 --> 00:39:58,320
NARRATOR: WHEN TRYING
TO UNDERSTAND THE FIRST
CIVILIZATIONS,
593
00:39:58,320 --> 00:40:01,640
ARCHAEOLOGISTS LOOK
FOR EVIDENCE OF THE FORCES
594
00:40:01,640 --> 00:40:05,520
THAT MIGHT BIND PEOPLE
TOGETHER...
595
00:40:05,520 --> 00:40:08,520
PERHAPS A KING OR AN EMPEROR
596
00:40:08,520 --> 00:40:10,680
WHO LAYS DOWN THE LAW
597
00:40:10,680 --> 00:40:14,200
AND IMPOSES ORDER.
598
00:40:19,520 --> 00:40:22,000
BUT IN THE INDUS VALLEY,
599
00:40:22,000 --> 00:40:26,000
NO SUCH EVIDENCE HAS BEEN FOUND.
600
00:40:27,520 --> 00:40:30,600
ARCHAEOLOGISTS ALSO LOOK
FOR TEMPLES,
601
00:40:30,600 --> 00:40:33,640
THE EXISTENCE
OF ORGANIZED RELIGION
602
00:40:33,640 --> 00:40:37,000
WITH A UNIFYING SYSTEM
OF BELIEF.
603
00:40:40,000 --> 00:40:43,320
AGAIN, HERE IN THE INDUS VALLEY,
604
00:40:43,320 --> 00:40:46,000
NONE HAS BEEN FOUND.
605
00:40:46,000 --> 00:40:49,000
[WOMAN SCREAMS, MEN SHOUTING]
606
00:40:49,000 --> 00:40:53,320
NARRATOR: ANOTHER
RECURRING FEATURE IS WAR...
607
00:40:54,680 --> 00:40:56,760
AS THE WEAK ARE WEEDED OUT
608
00:40:56,760 --> 00:41:00,600
AND THE STRONG PREVAIL.
609
00:41:02,480 --> 00:41:05,320
BUT FOR THE PEOPLE OF THE INDUS,
610
00:41:05,320 --> 00:41:08,040
IT WAS A DIFFERENT STORY.
611
00:41:09,480 --> 00:41:12,440
WITH TRADE CAME PEACE,
612
00:41:12,440 --> 00:41:15,280
GIVING CIVILIZATION HERE
613
00:41:15,280 --> 00:41:18,000
A DIFFERENT FLAVOR.
614
00:41:19,160 --> 00:41:22,560
IT FUNCTIONED LIKE
A MODERN BUSINESS CORPORATION,
615
00:41:22,560 --> 00:41:25,560
DESIGNED TO MAXIMIZE
ITS OWN WEALTH,
616
00:41:25,560 --> 00:41:28,280
NOT BY RULING WITH
AN IRON FIRST,
617
00:41:28,280 --> 00:41:32,960
BUT BY CREATING A LOOSE WEB
OF LIKE-MINDED INTERESTS--
618
00:41:32,960 --> 00:41:36,280
FRANCHISE HOLDERS UP
AND DOWN THE VALLEY
619
00:41:36,280 --> 00:41:41,000
WHO SHARE THE SAME DESIRE
FOR TRADE AND PROSPERITY.
620
00:41:42,160 --> 00:41:44,640
IN DAYS WHEN THE FASTEST
COMMUNICATION IS A BOAT,
621
00:41:44,640 --> 00:41:47,760
RIVER BOAT, OR A BULL AND CART,
622
00:41:47,760 --> 00:41:52,440
AND YOU HAVE CITIES
2,000 KILOMETERS APART,
623
00:41:52,440 --> 00:41:56,840
IT DOESN'T MAKE SENSE TO RUN
THIS AS A CENTRALIZED EMPIRE.
624
00:41:56,840 --> 00:41:59,840
THERE WERE ORIGINAL CHIEFTAINS
625
00:41:59,840 --> 00:42:03,640
WHICH WERE CONTROLLING
THEIR REGIONS, BUT THEY
WERE WORKING TOGETHER.
626
00:42:03,640 --> 00:42:09,160
IT'S VERY CLEAR THAT YOU
HAVE ONE MIND AT WORK.
627
00:42:09,160 --> 00:42:11,360
[INDISTINCT CHATTER]
628
00:42:17,120 --> 00:42:21,640
BOTSMAN: OFTEN TRADE IS
LOOKED THROUGH IN TERMS
OF ECONOMIC BENEFITS,
629
00:42:21,640 --> 00:42:25,840
BUT IF YOU LOOK BACK IN HISTORY
AND YOU LOOK AT TRADE PATTERNS,
630
00:42:25,840 --> 00:42:28,520
TYPICALLY, COUNTRIES
THAT TRADE WITH ONE ANOTHER
631
00:42:28,520 --> 00:42:31,520
DO NOT GO TO WAR
WITH ONE ANOTHER.
632
00:42:31,520 --> 00:42:33,880
THERE IS A HUMAN
UNDERSTANDING THERE.
633
00:42:33,880 --> 00:42:36,160
IT CREATES CIVILIZATION.
634
00:42:36,160 --> 00:42:40,680
IT'S WHAT ENABLES
A CIVILIZED SOCIETY.
635
00:42:44,200 --> 00:42:47,200
NARRATOR: THE IDEAS SEEDED
IN THE INDUS VALLEY
636
00:42:47,200 --> 00:42:52,440
ARE THE VERY ESSENCE OF
OUR OWN ECONOMIC SYSTEM--
637
00:42:52,440 --> 00:42:56,400
THE LINK BETWEEN TRADE, WEALTH,
638
00:42:56,400 --> 00:42:59,480
CITIES, PRODUCTION,
639
00:42:59,480 --> 00:43:04,480
CONSUMPTION, CIVILIZATION--
640
00:43:04,480 --> 00:43:06,800
IDEAS WE MAY THINK ARE MODERN,
641
00:43:06,800 --> 00:43:09,320
BUT WERE ACTUALLY ROAD-TESTED
642
00:43:09,320 --> 00:43:12,080
4,500 YEARS AGO.
643
00:43:13,440 --> 00:43:15,440
INSTEAD OF PRIESTS,
644
00:43:15,440 --> 00:43:17,440
TODAY THERE ARE TRADERS;
645
00:43:17,440 --> 00:43:20,120
INSTEAD OF PYRAMIDS AND TEMPLES,
646
00:43:20,120 --> 00:43:24,760
THERE ARE THE HIGH-RISES OF
THE CENTRAL BUSINESS DISTRICT--
647
00:43:24,760 --> 00:43:29,000
MONUMENTS TO A TRUST
IN PROSPERITY.
648
00:43:30,120 --> 00:43:32,400
BOTSMAN: TRUST AND TRADE,
THEY WORK
649
00:43:32,400 --> 00:43:34,960
IN THIS BEAUTIFUL FEEDBACK LOOP.
650
00:43:34,960 --> 00:43:37,560
FOR TRADE TO START IN ANY
CIVILIZATION, YOU NEED TRUST,
651
00:43:37,560 --> 00:43:41,280
AND THEN THE MORE TRADE YOU
HAVE, THE MORE TRUST YOU HAVE,
AND SO THE LOOP CONTINUES,
652
00:43:41,280 --> 00:43:44,560
AND THE BENEFITS ARE
REALLY EXPONENTIAL.
653
00:43:44,560 --> 00:43:47,680
IN HIGH-TRUST SOCIETIES,
654
00:43:47,680 --> 00:43:49,880
THEY DON'T JUST THRIVE
ECONOMICALLY;
655
00:43:49,880 --> 00:43:52,360
YOU ACTUALLY SEE INDIVIDUALS
IN SOCIETY THRIVE
656
00:43:52,360 --> 00:43:56,480
BECAUSE THEY HAVE MORE FREEDOMS,
THEY HAVE MORE EMPOWERMENT.
657
00:43:56,480 --> 00:43:58,600
YOU SEE MORE ENTREPRENEURSHIP,
658
00:43:58,600 --> 00:44:02,200
YOU SEE MORE
HUMAN EMPATHY.
659
00:44:06,800 --> 00:44:09,320
NARRATOR: AT THE HEIGHT
OF ITS EXPANSION,
660
00:44:09,320 --> 00:44:12,800
THE INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION
COVERED AN AREA
661
00:44:12,800 --> 00:44:16,000
OVER HALF A MILLION
SQUARE MILES.
662
00:44:16,000 --> 00:44:19,480
BUT ITS TRADE LINKS
REACHED EVEN FURTHER:
663
00:44:19,480 --> 00:44:21,480
IN THE NORTH AND EAST,
664
00:44:21,480 --> 00:44:24,600
TO MODERN-DAY CHINA
AND AFGHANISTAN;
665
00:44:24,600 --> 00:44:29,120
IN THE WEST, AS FAR
AS THE PERSIAN GULF.
666
00:44:35,120 --> 00:44:40,360
THIS WAS A CIVILIZATION THAT
PRODUCED BEAUTIFUL ARTIFACTS.
667
00:44:41,640 --> 00:44:44,400
ITS PEOPLE WERE WELL-FED.
668
00:44:44,400 --> 00:44:47,200
ITS CITIES WERE CLEAN.
669
00:44:47,200 --> 00:44:50,400
INEQUALITY WAS LOW,
670
00:44:50,400 --> 00:44:52,600
AND IT WAS PEACEFUL.
671
00:44:52,600 --> 00:44:56,960
WHAT COULD POSSIBLY GO WRONG?
672
00:44:59,440 --> 00:45:01,600
RAO: AROUND 1900 BC,
673
00:45:01,600 --> 00:45:05,080
THE SEALS--SO THE ALL-IMPORTANT
SEALS THAT WERE CRUCIAL
674
00:45:05,080 --> 00:45:09,800
TO THE SUCCESS
OF THE INDUS CIVILIZATION
AND THE INDUS MERCHANTS--
675
00:45:09,800 --> 00:45:12,800
DISAPPEAR FROM
THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD.
676
00:45:12,800 --> 00:45:15,320
IT'S ALMOST AS IF SOMETHING
CATASTROPHIC HAS HAPPENED
677
00:45:15,320 --> 00:45:19,760
TO DISRUPT TRADE AND, INDEED,
THE INDUS CIVILIZATION.
678
00:45:19,760 --> 00:45:22,800
PETRIE: ALL OF A SUDDEN,
IF YOU DON'T GET A SURPLUS
679
00:45:22,800 --> 00:45:26,000
ONE YEAR, YOU CAN PROBABLY
COMPENSATE FOR IT.
680
00:45:26,000 --> 00:45:28,640
IF YOU DON'T GET A SURPLUS
FOR A SECOND YEAR,
681
00:45:28,640 --> 00:45:31,480
YOU MIGHT BE ABLE TO COMPENSATE
FOR IT, BUT IF IT KEEPS GOING ON
682
00:45:31,480 --> 00:45:35,760
AND ON AND ON, THEN THE ECONOMY
SORT OF HAS TO CHANGE.
683
00:45:37,200 --> 00:45:40,680
AND I SUSPECT THAT WOULD HAVE
RESULTED IN A SOCIAL
INSTABILITY.
684
00:45:40,680 --> 00:45:44,920
MAYBE THE CITY STARTS
TO COME UNDER STRAIN
IN THIS SOCIAL STRIFE,
685
00:45:44,920 --> 00:45:48,440
AND THE URBAN FABRIC
STARTS TO BREAK DOWN.
686
00:45:50,760 --> 00:45:54,520
MORE AND MORE,
THE THINKING TOWARDS CLIMATIC,
687
00:45:54,520 --> 00:45:57,120
ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES.
688
00:45:57,120 --> 00:45:59,480
A BIG DROUGHT
689
00:45:59,480 --> 00:46:03,560
THAT STRUCK 2200 BC,
690
00:46:03,560 --> 00:46:06,200
AND THE DRYING UP OF
THE SARASWATI RIVER
691
00:46:06,200 --> 00:46:10,040
IN THE EASTERN REGION
OF THIS CIVILIZATION.
692
00:46:12,800 --> 00:46:15,320
RIZVI: ONE OF THE MOST
STRIKING THINGS TO ME
693
00:46:15,320 --> 00:46:18,320
IS THAT SOMEHOW
THAT ABILITY TO CONTROL
694
00:46:18,320 --> 00:46:22,080
AND ORGANIZE LARGE LANDSCAPES
HAS CRUMBLED.
695
00:46:22,080 --> 00:46:25,080
THERE'S A SHIFT
IN BELIEF PATTERNS,
696
00:46:25,080 --> 00:46:30,000
AND THAT SHIFT ALTERS
THE WAYS IN WHICH PEOPLE LIVE,
697
00:46:30,000 --> 00:46:34,000
AND THAT'S WHEN YOU BEGIN TO SEE
ALL OF THIS BREAK DOWN.
698
00:46:35,320 --> 00:46:38,480
NARRATOR: THE COLLAPSE
OF ANY CIVILIZATION
699
00:46:38,480 --> 00:46:41,080
IS NEVER A SIMPLE STORY.
700
00:46:41,080 --> 00:46:46,280
HOW DID THE WORLD
OF THE INDUS PEOPLE IMPLODE?
701
00:46:51,000 --> 00:46:54,000
WHEN ITS CITIES WERE
FIRST EXCAVATED,
702
00:46:54,000 --> 00:46:57,880
SKELETONS WERE FOUND
AMONG THE RUINS.
703
00:46:59,680 --> 00:47:03,160
THEY WERE DATED
TO THE FINAL PHASE
704
00:47:03,160 --> 00:47:06,480
OF THE CIVILIZATION.
705
00:47:06,480 --> 00:47:09,400
SOME WERE BURIED IN CEMETERIES.
706
00:47:09,400 --> 00:47:14,040
OTHERS APPEARED TO HAVE DIED
WHERE THEY FELL.
707
00:47:15,400 --> 00:47:18,000
BIOARCHAEOLOGIST GWEN SCHUG
708
00:47:18,000 --> 00:47:21,080
HAS FOUND A CLUE
TO WHAT HAPPENED
709
00:47:21,080 --> 00:47:25,000
BY STUDYING
ONE PARTICULAR SPECIMEN.
710
00:47:26,160 --> 00:47:29,080
SCHUG: THIS SKELETON WAS
THE FIRST INDIVIDUAL
711
00:47:29,080 --> 00:47:33,800
THAT WE DISCOVERED
TO HAVE LEPROSY FROM
THE INDUS CIVILIZATION,
712
00:47:33,800 --> 00:47:36,800
AND THE PRESENCE
OF LEPROSY IN SOUTH ASIA
713
00:47:36,800 --> 00:47:40,280
AT THAT TIME
WAS PREVIOUSLY UNKNOWN.
714
00:47:42,800 --> 00:47:46,400
IT WAS THE OLDEST EVIDENCE
OF LEPROSY IN THE WORLD
715
00:47:46,400 --> 00:47:49,040
BY ABOUT 1,400 YEARS.
716
00:47:49,040 --> 00:47:53,080
WE FIND EVIDENCE
FOR MYCOBACTERIAL INFECTION,
717
00:47:53,080 --> 00:47:57,560
LEPROSY, AND POSSIBLY
ALSO TUBERCULOSIS.
718
00:47:58,920 --> 00:48:02,960
NARRATOR: THIS WAS THE DOWNSIDE
OF LONG-DISTANCE TRADE.
719
00:48:02,960 --> 00:48:06,360
IT OPENED A DOOR
FOR NEW PATHOGENS
720
00:48:06,360 --> 00:48:09,400
TO ENTER THE HUMAN POPULATION--
721
00:48:09,400 --> 00:48:11,600
INFECTIOUS DISEASES,
722
00:48:11,600 --> 00:48:15,200
SPREAD BY CLOSE CONTACT--
723
00:48:15,200 --> 00:48:18,440
THE PRICE OF CIVILIZATION.
724
00:48:20,280 --> 00:48:22,280
THE BONES ALSO REVEAL
725
00:48:22,280 --> 00:48:26,480
THE DIET OF THE INDUS PEOPLE
COLLAPSED AT THIS TIME.
726
00:48:26,480 --> 00:48:29,480
SCHUG: WE START TO SEE EVIDENCE
727
00:48:29,480 --> 00:48:32,080
FOR VITAMIN-C DEFICIENCY.
728
00:48:32,080 --> 00:48:36,520
THEIR BASIC NUTRITIONAL
REQUIREMENTS COULDN'T BE MET.
729
00:48:36,520 --> 00:48:40,760
THE FACT THAT THIS IS ALSO
PRESENT IN VERY YOUNG INFANTS,
730
00:48:40,760 --> 00:48:43,400
RIGHT AROUND THE TIME OF BIRTH,
731
00:48:43,400 --> 00:48:47,560
DEMONSTRATES THAT PREGNANT WOMEN
WERE NOT ABLE
732
00:48:47,560 --> 00:48:51,600
TO GET THEIR BASIC NEEDS MET
FOR FOOD.
733
00:48:51,600 --> 00:48:54,680
ALL OF THE FOODSTUFFS
AND DIFFERENT PRODUCTS
734
00:48:54,680 --> 00:48:57,400
THAT WERE COMING IN
AND OUT OF THE CITY,
735
00:48:57,400 --> 00:49:00,920
IT'S NOT HAPPENING ANYMORE.
736
00:49:00,920 --> 00:49:04,520
NARRATOR: TRADE BROUGHT DISEASE.
737
00:49:04,520 --> 00:49:08,520
DISEASE DISRUPTED
THE SUPPLY OF FOOD.
738
00:49:08,520 --> 00:49:13,560
THAT LED TO A BREAKDOWN
IN SOCIAL ORDER.
739
00:49:13,560 --> 00:49:19,040
THIS IS HOW CIVILIZATION FALLS.
740
00:49:21,520 --> 00:49:24,520
SCHUG: WE FIND THAT
THE PREVALENCE
741
00:49:24,520 --> 00:49:27,400
OF INTERPERSONAL VIOLENCE CLIMBS
742
00:49:27,400 --> 00:49:30,560
WITHIN THE SKELETAL MATERIAL
THAT'S AVAILABLE,
743
00:49:30,560 --> 00:49:34,120
TO ABOUT 50% OF THE INDIVIDUALS.
744
00:49:34,120 --> 00:49:38,480
A LARGE NUMBER OF
THE CRANIA ARE IMPACTED
745
00:49:38,480 --> 00:49:41,600
BY TRAUMATIC INJURIES.
746
00:49:42,800 --> 00:49:44,920
IT SORT OF PAINTS A PICTURE
747
00:49:44,920 --> 00:49:48,880
OF THE EXPERIENCE
OF THAT LOSS OF SOCIAL CONTROL.
748
00:49:53,400 --> 00:49:56,400
WHAT'S FASCINATING IS YOU
CAN LOOK BACK OVER HISTORY
749
00:49:56,400 --> 00:50:01,320
AND LOOK AT THE COLLAPSE
OF CIVILIZATIONS, AND THEY
FOLLOW THIS SIMILAR PATTERN.
750
00:50:02,840 --> 00:50:04,600
BOTSMAN: MOST RECENTLY,
WE'VE SEEN THIS
751
00:50:04,600 --> 00:50:06,440
IN THE FINANCIAL CRASH,
752
00:50:06,440 --> 00:50:08,920
IN THAT YOU HAVE A SYSTEM
753
00:50:08,920 --> 00:50:10,920
THAT PEOPLE HAVE CONFIDENCE IN,
754
00:50:10,920 --> 00:50:13,680
AND THEN SOMETHING GOES WRONG.
755
00:50:13,680 --> 00:50:15,760
SOMEONE BEHAVES BADLY,
756
00:50:15,760 --> 00:50:17,280
SOMEONE BECOMES GREEDY,
757
00:50:17,280 --> 00:50:21,560
AND THE FIRST THING
TO GO IS THE CONFIDENCE.
758
00:50:21,560 --> 00:50:24,080
[PEOPLE SHOUTING]
759
00:50:24,080 --> 00:50:28,600
BOTSMAN: AND THEN QUICKLY,
IT'S LIKE A HOUSE OF CARDS.
760
00:50:28,600 --> 00:50:32,320
THE WEAKEST LINK
IN ANY SOCIETY IS US.
761
00:50:45,840 --> 00:50:48,840
NARRATOR:
OVER A 200-YEAR PERIOD,
762
00:50:48,840 --> 00:50:52,480
THE INDUS VALLEY'S VAST
INTERNATIONAL TRADE NETWORK
763
00:50:52,480 --> 00:50:54,320
FELL APART.
764
00:50:56,800 --> 00:51:00,000
ROSE: AS THE INDUS VALLEY
CIVILIZATION IS COLLAPSING,
765
00:51:00,000 --> 00:51:04,080
THERE ARE REVERBERATIONS
ACROSS THE ENTIRE REGION.
766
00:51:05,280 --> 00:51:07,360
SO HERE IN THE ANCIENT KINGDOM
OF NORTHERN OMAN,
767
00:51:07,360 --> 00:51:13,080
WE SEE A PROFOUND SOCIAL CHANGE,
AND IT'S EXEMPLIFIED HERE
AT THIS SITE.
768
00:51:15,520 --> 00:51:17,920
DURING THE HEYDAY
OF THE INDUS VALLEY,
769
00:51:17,920 --> 00:51:20,920
DOWN THERE ON THE COAST,
THERE WAS A THRIVING VILLAGE
770
00:51:20,920 --> 00:51:23,400
OPENLY TRADING WITH
THEIR NEIGHBORS ACROSS THE SEA.
771
00:51:23,400 --> 00:51:27,760
AND AS THE INDUS VALLEY
DECLINES,
THAT SETTLEMENT MOVES UP
772
00:51:27,760 --> 00:51:31,560
TO THE TOP OF THIS MESA,
THIS NATURAL CITADEL.
773
00:51:31,560 --> 00:51:36,200
THEY'RE HUNKERING DOWN,
AND THEY'RE BUILDING WALLS HERE
TO PROTECT THEMSELVES,
774
00:51:36,200 --> 00:51:42,480
SO THE TRUST THAT WAS TYING
THE WHOLE NETWORK TOGETHER
IS BEGINNING TO UNRAVEL.
775
00:51:44,040 --> 00:51:47,520
NARRATOR: WITHIN A SHORT TIME,
THE WORLD OF THE INDUS PEOPLE
776
00:51:47,520 --> 00:51:50,520
TURNED TO DUST;
777
00:51:50,520 --> 00:51:54,120
TRADING CENTERS ABANDONED,
778
00:51:54,120 --> 00:51:57,480
CITIES RUINED,
779
00:51:57,480 --> 00:52:01,120
ITS LEGACY FORGOTTEN.
780
00:52:01,120 --> 00:52:05,120
ROSE: CIVILIZATIONS ARE,
ESSENTIALLY, SOCIAL EXPERIMENTS
781
00:52:05,120 --> 00:52:07,800
AND LARGE GROUPS OF PEOPLE
LIVING TOGETHER,
782
00:52:07,800 --> 00:52:13,000
BEING CIVIL WITH ONE ANOTHER,
BUT THERE'S A NATURAL EBB
AND FLOW TO THIS PROCESS.
783
00:52:13,000 --> 00:52:17,920
INEVITABLY, AT SOME POINT,
ALL CIVILIZATIONS RISE AND FALL.
784
00:52:19,400 --> 00:52:23,680
SO IT'S OUR JOB TO RIDE OUT
THESE SOCIAL TRANSFORMATIONS
785
00:52:23,680 --> 00:52:27,680
AND BUILD ON THE BEST IDEAS
OF OUR ANCESTORS.
786
00:52:30,080 --> 00:52:34,160
NARRATOR: TRADE HAS ALWAYS BEEN
A TRIGGER OF CHANGE.
787
00:52:34,160 --> 00:52:35,880
[MAN SHOUTS]
788
00:52:35,880 --> 00:52:39,440
NARRATOR: IT ENCOURAGES US
TO COME TOGETHER,
789
00:52:39,440 --> 00:52:43,400
TO EXCHANGE THINGS...
790
00:52:43,400 --> 00:52:46,160
TO SHARE IDEAS...
791
00:52:46,160 --> 00:52:50,600
TO CREATE SOCIETIES
BUILT ON COOPERATION,
792
00:52:50,600 --> 00:52:53,480
TRUST,
793
00:52:53,480 --> 00:52:56,120
PEACE.
794
00:52:57,280 --> 00:53:01,160
THIS WAS TRUE FOR
THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS...
795
00:53:02,960 --> 00:53:06,960
AND IT'S STILL TRUE TODAY.
796
00:53:08,400 --> 00:53:10,400
TRADE--
797
00:53:10,400 --> 00:53:11,400
THE DRIVING FORCE
OF CIVILIZATION.
65212
Can't find what you're looking for?
Get subtitles in any language from opensubtitles.com, and translate them here.