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NARRATOR: As soon as
photography became
a practical reality in 1839,
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00:01:57,578 --> 00:02:03,382
its inventors and partisans
dreamed of using it to
analyze and synthesize motion.
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00:02:03,382 --> 00:02:06,351
In the 1890s
the modern cinema,
made possible
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00:02:06,351 --> 00:02:10,588
by the development
of flexible roll film,
realized these dreams.
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00:02:15,258 --> 00:02:18,828
But even before roll film,
Eadweard Muybridge found a way
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00:02:18,828 --> 00:02:23,165
of making motion pictures
using photographs
made on glass plates
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00:02:23,165 --> 00:02:26,902
with the wet collodion process
and a projector of
his own design,
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00:02:26,902 --> 00:02:29,404
which he called
the zoopraxiscope.
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00:02:31,172 --> 00:02:35,875
In 1878, under the title
"The Horse in Motion,"
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00:02:35,875 --> 00:02:38,911
Muybridge published the first
instantaneous sequential
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00:02:38,911 --> 00:02:41,880
photographs of animals
in motion.
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00:02:41,880 --> 00:02:46,851
These pictures were not
simply a technical curiosity
of passing interest.
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00:02:46,851 --> 00:02:50,855
They overthrew all the
accepted conceptions
of animal motion
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00:02:50,855 --> 00:02:55,425
and extended photography's
exploration into
the optical unconscious.
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00:02:58,027 --> 00:03:01,497
Although today his work
is known as still photographs,
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00:03:01,497 --> 00:03:05,701
sequential but static,
beginning in 1879
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00:03:05,701 --> 00:03:10,772
Muybridge also presented them
as motion pictures
with the zoopraxiscope,
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00:03:10,772 --> 00:03:13,207
one of the earliest motion
picture projectors.
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00:03:15,442 --> 00:03:18,311
The zoopraxiscope predated
by 16 years
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00:03:18,311 --> 00:03:23,315
the Lumieres' cinematograph,
the machine that established
the modern cinema.
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00:03:23,315 --> 00:03:27,485
As Muybridge claimed,
the zoopraxiscope was
the first apparatus
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00:03:27,485 --> 00:03:30,521
ever constructed
for synthetically
demonstrating movements
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00:03:30,521 --> 00:03:32,689
analytically photographed
from life.
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00:03:37,126 --> 00:03:41,263
In 1885, with the new
rapid dry plate process,
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00:03:41,263 --> 00:03:44,833
Muybridge widened
and extended his work.
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00:03:44,833 --> 00:03:48,469
His emphasis shifted from
horses to men and women.
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00:03:50,804 --> 00:03:55,474
He made 562 sequences
analyzing the movements
of the human figure,
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00:03:57,142 --> 00:04:00,245
95 sequences of horses,
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00:04:00,245 --> 00:04:03,314
and 124 sequences
of other animals.
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00:04:06,950 --> 00:04:13,322
100,000 negatives on glass
plates were exposed
at a cost of $30,000.
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00:04:13,322 --> 00:04:17,992
This encyclopedia of motion
encompassed 20,000 positions
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00:04:17,992 --> 00:04:21,095
assumed by men,
women, and children,
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00:04:21,095 --> 00:04:25,765
clothed and naked,
and by birds and animals.
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00:04:25,765 --> 00:04:29,235
Human action was
photographed through all
the round of work
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00:04:29,235 --> 00:04:34,005
and play, for both sexes
and all ages.
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00:04:34,005 --> 00:04:38,209
Champion athletes
and hospital patients alike
were photographed.
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00:04:42,179 --> 00:04:45,148
This work was finally
published in 1887
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00:04:45,148 --> 00:04:48,451
as 781 photogravure plates
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00:04:48,451 --> 00:04:51,353
contained in 11
mammoth folio volumes.
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00:04:53,221 --> 00:04:56,457
The full title of this
anatomy of motion was
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00:04:56,457 --> 00:05:00,727
Animal Locomotion:
An Electro-Photographic
Investigation of
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00:05:00,727 --> 00:05:03,262
Consecutive Phases
of Animal Movements.
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00:05:05,931 --> 00:05:09,501
But, Muybridge notes,
the term "Locomotion
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00:05:09,501 --> 00:05:13,872
"in the title of this work
is stretched to
its broadest capacity."
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00:05:16,941 --> 00:05:20,277
Muybridge considered
himself a scientist.
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00:05:20,277 --> 00:05:25,648
His concern was
demonstrating the successive
phases of animal movements
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00:05:25,648 --> 00:05:28,150
to illustrate the motion
and play of the muscles.
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00:05:31,920 --> 00:05:35,490
He called his new science
"Descriptive Zoopraxography."
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00:05:38,793 --> 00:05:41,395
He was the first and
only zoopraxographer.
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00:06:05,117 --> 00:06:08,687
Before his work in
motion photography began,
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00:06:08,687 --> 00:06:13,058
Muybridge was a successful
landscape photographer
in San Francisco,
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00:06:13,058 --> 00:06:16,594
a middle-class Victorian from
Kingston-on-Thames, England,
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00:06:16,594 --> 00:06:19,996
who had originally
journeyed to California
as a book-seller.
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00:06:21,931 --> 00:06:25,534
Although his work in
conventional still photography
has been obscured
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00:06:25,534 --> 00:06:28,703
by his later work
in zoopraxography,
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00:06:28,703 --> 00:06:33,140
it, too, embodies a
monumental undertaking
of encyclopedic scope.
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00:06:47,787 --> 00:06:51,190
From the beginning
of his career in 1867,
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00:06:51,190 --> 00:06:56,228
Muybridge rejected
studio portraiture in favor
of location photography,
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00:06:56,228 --> 00:06:59,664
which was both less profitable
and more arduous.
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00:07:13,577 --> 00:07:18,281
Traveling with
a darkroom wagon he called
"The flying studio,"
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00:07:18,281 --> 00:07:22,118
and publishing his work
under the pseudonym Helios,
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00:07:22,118 --> 00:07:26,088
Muybridge undertook
a systematic survey of
the wonders and curiosities
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00:07:26,088 --> 00:07:27,556
of Western America.
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00:07:33,694 --> 00:07:37,631
But not all his pictures
were documentary or topical.
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00:07:37,631 --> 00:07:40,734
In his studies
of trees and clouds,
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00:07:40,734 --> 00:07:44,671
the subject matter could not
be more commonplace.
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00:07:44,671 --> 00:07:49,875
These pictures, made in
the 1860s, anticipate
a mode of photography
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00:07:49,875 --> 00:07:52,644
only thoroughly explored
two generations later.
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00:08:48,799 --> 00:08:51,168
Muybridge photographed
San Francisco as it was
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00:08:51,168 --> 00:08:53,737
before the great
earthquake of 1906.
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00:09:16,459 --> 00:09:19,829
And he photographed
the havoc wrought by
one earthquake,
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00:09:19,829 --> 00:09:23,465
the quake of
October 21st, 1868.
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00:09:35,309 --> 00:09:38,245
Around San Francisco,
he photographed
the state prison
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00:09:38,245 --> 00:09:39,613
at San Quentin,
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00:09:41,748 --> 00:09:43,483
the warden's daughters,
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00:09:50,389 --> 00:09:52,357
Mills Seminary in Oakland.
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00:10:13,977 --> 00:10:17,280
In Berkeley, the California
School for the Deaf and Blind.
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00:10:30,025 --> 00:10:33,028
The Medical Department
of the State University,
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00:10:38,366 --> 00:10:40,067
a lecture on anatomy.
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00:10:49,976 --> 00:10:54,280
(INDIAN WAR CRY)
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00:10:54,280 --> 00:10:57,683
NARRATOR: In 1873, Muybridge
went to the lava beds
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00:10:57,683 --> 00:11:00,485
around Tule Lake
in northern California
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00:11:00,485 --> 00:11:03,453
to make stereographs
of the Modoc Indian War.
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00:11:05,354 --> 00:11:10,057
This episodic war eventually
engaged 700 government troops
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00:11:10,057 --> 00:11:13,794
to hunt down a band of
50 Indian warriors
and their families,
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00:11:13,794 --> 00:11:16,163
so that they could be removed
from their homeland
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00:11:16,163 --> 00:11:17,230
and exiled to
a reservation in Oklahoma.
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00:11:21,901 --> 00:11:26,705
The stereograph was
the most popular photographic
format of the era.
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00:11:26,705 --> 00:11:29,808
Two almost identical images
taken by a camera with
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00:11:29,808 --> 00:11:32,877
two lenses a few inches apart
were mounted together
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00:11:32,877 --> 00:11:37,247
to produce a three-dimensional
effect when viewed
through a stereoscope.
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00:11:37,947 --> 00:11:41,917
(INDIAN WAR CRY)
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00:11:41,917 --> 00:11:44,886
Muybridge's Modoc brave was,
in fact,
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00:11:44,886 --> 00:11:47,355
one of the mercenary
Tenino Indian scouts
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00:11:47,355 --> 00:11:51,158
recruited from the Warm
Spring Reservation.
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00:11:51,158 --> 00:11:54,227
These Indians did most of the
fighting for the US Army.
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00:12:03,702 --> 00:12:08,539
In 1867 and again in 1872,
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00:12:08,539 --> 00:12:11,375
Muybridge
photographed Yosemite,
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00:12:11,375 --> 00:12:14,478
the classic challenge
for California photographers.
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00:12:23,686 --> 00:12:27,456
A correspondent for
the leading San Francisco
newspaper of the day,
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00:12:27,456 --> 00:12:31,326
the Alta California,
reported his
second expedition.
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00:12:33,728 --> 00:12:36,831
"Muybridge has waited
several days to get
the proper conditions
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00:12:36,831 --> 00:12:40,167
"of atmosphere for some
of his views,
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00:12:40,167 --> 00:12:42,335
"has cut down trees
by the score
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00:12:42,335 --> 00:12:47,106
"that interfered with
the camera from the best
point of sight.
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00:12:47,106 --> 00:12:51,777
"Has had himself lowered
by ropes down precipices to
establish his instruments
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00:12:51,777 --> 00:12:55,947
"in places where the
full beauty of the object
to be photographed
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00:12:55,947 --> 00:12:58,149
"could be transferred
to the negative.
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00:12:59,817 --> 00:13:04,121
"Has gone to points where his
packers refused to follow him
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00:13:04,121 --> 00:13:07,057
"and has carried the
apparatus himself,
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00:13:07,057 --> 00:13:10,460
"rather than forego
the picture on which
he had set his mind."
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00:13:14,096 --> 00:13:18,166
At the end of
this Yosemite trip, Muybridge
sat for a self-portrait
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00:13:18,166 --> 00:13:19,967
at the base of a sequoia tree.
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00:13:22,202 --> 00:13:27,974
Around the time he posed
for this photograph,
Muybridge, at the age of 42,
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00:13:27,974 --> 00:13:30,543
married Flora Stone,
a girl half his age.
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00:13:33,245 --> 00:13:36,848
Two years later,
in October 1874,
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00:13:36,848 --> 00:13:40,251
he discovered that she
was having an affair
with Harry Larkyns,
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00:13:40,251 --> 00:13:42,219
an adventurer
and newspaperman,
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00:13:42,219 --> 00:13:44,821
and that Larkyns
was the father
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00:13:44,821 --> 00:13:47,323
of the child whom he
thought he had sired.
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00:13:49,224 --> 00:13:52,560
Muybridge proceeded
to the Yellow Jacket
quicksilver mine
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00:13:52,560 --> 00:13:55,763
near Calistoga,
where Larkyns was
working as a surveyor.
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00:13:57,197 --> 00:13:59,265
He accosted Larkyns
at a party,
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00:13:59,265 --> 00:14:02,000
and with a single pistol shot,
killed him.
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00:14:04,402 --> 00:14:09,005
In February 1875, Muybridge
was tried for murder.
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00:14:10,840 --> 00:14:13,943
Although his original plea
was insanity,
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00:14:13,943 --> 00:14:17,145
he was acquitted on
the verdict
of justifiable homicide.
128
00:14:18,679 --> 00:14:21,948
A few months later,
his wife died of a stroke
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00:14:21,948 --> 00:14:24,884
and her child was placed
in an orphanage.
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00:14:34,460 --> 00:14:36,829
Almost immediately
after his trial,
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00:14:36,829 --> 00:14:38,664
Muybridge left for
Central America on
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00:14:38,664 --> 00:14:41,132
his most productive
photographic expedition.
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00:14:42,933 --> 00:14:45,468
(MARCHING BAND PLAYING)
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00:15:02,384 --> 00:15:08,122
Manifest Destiny, incarnated
in the Pacific Mail
and Steamship Company,
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00:15:08,122 --> 00:15:12,359
carried Muybridge
to Darien, which was then
a world on the wane.
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00:15:14,961 --> 00:15:19,332
In Guatemala and Panama,
he distributed a circular
announcing the sale
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00:15:19,332 --> 00:15:22,001
of the photographs
he made there
and signed it
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00:15:22,001 --> 00:15:24,570
Eduardo Santiago Muybridge.
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00:15:28,040 --> 00:15:31,243
As he had on most
of his previous journeys,
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00:15:31,243 --> 00:15:36,681
Muybridge carried cameras
for making both large prints
and stereographs.
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00:15:41,952 --> 00:15:44,254
He photographed
the elegant capitals,
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00:15:45,221 --> 00:15:48,723
Guatemala, Panama,
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00:15:50,291 --> 00:15:52,526
as well as
the uncharted interior
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00:15:54,227 --> 00:15:55,895
and its overgrown ruins.
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00:16:04,236 --> 00:16:06,905
Muybridge made a
series of photographs
devoted to the
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00:16:06,905 --> 00:16:09,440
recently established
coffee plantations which
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00:16:09,440 --> 00:16:13,610
he titled, "The Cultivation
and Transportation of Coffee."
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00:16:15,612 --> 00:16:19,081
"First Day of the
Coffee Season, Las Nubes."
149
00:16:20,882 --> 00:16:24,151
"Coffee Pickers at Dinner,
Hacienda Mateo."
150
00:16:26,987 --> 00:16:30,090
"A Fete Day with
the Coffee Pickers,
Santa Maria."
151
00:16:33,460 --> 00:16:36,029
"Coffee pickers
at their Ablutions,"
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00:16:36,029 --> 00:16:41,334
or, as he also titled it,
"Coffee Pickers at their
Evening Recreations."
153
00:16:44,236 --> 00:16:47,005
In one photograph
he shows their masters,
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00:16:47,005 --> 00:16:51,542
a picture titled, "Coffee
Planter's Residence,
San Felipe."
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00:17:01,484 --> 00:17:04,420
Three years before his trip
to Central America,
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00:17:04,420 --> 00:17:07,589
Muybridge had begun
experimenting in the
instantaneous photography
157
00:17:07,589 --> 00:17:11,426
of motion under the
patronage of Leland Stanford,
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00:17:11,426 --> 00:17:14,495
a builder of railroads
and breeder of racehorses.
159
00:17:16,697 --> 00:17:20,200
Stanford, who once said,
"The machine cannot lie,"
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00:17:20,200 --> 00:17:23,536
thought a photographic
analysis of the horses' stride
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00:17:23,536 --> 00:17:26,238
might make possible
a more efficient
method of training.
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00:17:27,505 --> 00:17:30,241
However, with a single camera,
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00:17:30,241 --> 00:17:33,977
Muybridge could not record
the consecutive phases
of a complete stride.
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00:17:36,846 --> 00:17:40,816
So in 1878, three years
after his return,
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00:17:40,816 --> 00:17:45,220
at Stanford's Palo Alto
stock farm, Muybridge set up
a battery of cameras
166
00:17:45,220 --> 00:17:48,289
to make a series of
photographs in
rapid succession
167
00:17:48,289 --> 00:17:49,957
and at regular intervals.
168
00:17:51,925 --> 00:17:55,428
Muybridge's motion
picture studio required
169
00:17:55,428 --> 00:18:00,365
12 to 24 still cameras
enclosed in a long open shed.
170
00:18:02,333 --> 00:18:05,736
The row of cameras
was arranged parallel
to a white track
171
00:18:05,736 --> 00:18:12,308
over which, in Muybridge's
words, "the animals are
caused to move."
172
00:18:12,308 --> 00:18:15,344
The shutters of the cameras
were successfully activated
173
00:18:15,344 --> 00:18:20,147
either by a clockwork
apparatus or by wires
stretched over the track
174
00:18:20,147 --> 00:18:22,549
and broken by the horses,
as they moved along it.
175
00:18:23,950 --> 00:18:26,986
Journalists marveled
at this novel plan
176
00:18:26,986 --> 00:18:30,556
by which the horse took
his own picture.
177
00:18:30,556 --> 00:18:33,558
Muybridge photographed
the basic gaits of the horse,
178
00:18:34,492 --> 00:18:39,730
walking, pacing, trotting,
179
00:18:41,264 --> 00:18:48,437
cantering, running,
and hauling,
180
00:18:48,437 --> 00:18:52,140
and he photographed
other animal species
in motion,
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00:18:52,140 --> 00:18:58,112
the greyhound,
the ox, the goat,
182
00:18:59,847 --> 00:19:01,315
the boar.
183
00:19:05,318 --> 00:19:07,720
In August 1879,
184
00:19:07,720 --> 00:19:10,355
he photographed
the human animal,
185
00:19:10,355 --> 00:19:13,324
athletes from the Olympic
Club of San Francisco.
186
00:19:53,663 --> 00:19:56,732
In the fall of 1879,
Muybridge began
187
00:19:56,732 --> 00:19:59,367
reconstituting the motion
his cameras broke down
188
00:19:59,367 --> 00:20:03,337
and analyzed, by
projecting his photographs
with the zoopraxiscope.
189
00:20:04,604 --> 00:20:07,373
The zoopraxiscope
had many precursors,
190
00:20:07,373 --> 00:20:11,643
the simple optical devices
such as the phenakistoscope
191
00:20:11,643 --> 00:20:13,177
and the zoetrope,
192
00:20:13,177 --> 00:20:15,812
which the Victorians
called, "Philosophical toys"
193
00:20:15,812 --> 00:20:19,948
because they were designed
to provide both entertainment
and enlightenment.
194
00:20:21,549 --> 00:20:24,018
Like these forerunners,
and like its descendant,
195
00:20:24,018 --> 00:20:27,721
the 20th century
movie projector,
the zoopraxiscope relies
196
00:20:27,721 --> 00:20:31,424
on the phenomenon of
persistence of vision.
197
00:20:31,424 --> 00:20:34,727
When a series of intermittent
flashes of light succeed
198
00:20:34,727 --> 00:20:37,496
each other rapidly so that
before one fades away
199
00:20:37,496 --> 00:20:40,365
from the retina,
another appears,
200
00:20:40,365 --> 00:20:43,901
the successive impressions
fuse into one
continuous sensation.
201
00:20:45,802 --> 00:20:48,771
In Muybridge's projector,
the images were arranged
202
00:20:48,771 --> 00:20:52,174
consecutively around
the perimeter of a glass disc
203
00:20:52,174 --> 00:20:56,077
which revolved at the front
of a magic lantern.
204
00:20:56,077 --> 00:21:00,214
So that the revolving images
would not appear
as a continuous blur,
205
00:21:00,214 --> 00:21:02,716
a second disc made
of metal and perforated
206
00:21:02,716 --> 00:21:07,386
with narrow slits at
regular intervals was attached
in front of the glass disc.
207
00:21:09,521 --> 00:21:13,491
Because the narrow slits
compress the images
projected through them,
208
00:21:13,491 --> 00:21:16,961
Muybridge mounted on
the glass disc elongated
drawings based on
209
00:21:16,961 --> 00:21:21,665
the photographs, rather than
the photographs themselves.
210
00:21:21,665 --> 00:21:24,501
When the two discs revolved
in opposite directions,
211
00:21:24,501 --> 00:21:27,370
the metal disc
served as a shutter.
212
00:21:27,370 --> 00:21:30,840
Thus the separate images
were revealed intermittently
213
00:21:30,840 --> 00:21:32,808
and united by
the persistence of vision
214
00:21:32,808 --> 00:21:35,010
to form a continuous
moving image.
215
00:21:40,848 --> 00:21:42,850
However, the modern
cinema projector
216
00:21:42,850 --> 00:21:44,818
is a far more
sophisticated device
217
00:21:44,818 --> 00:21:47,587
for illuminating and animating
photographic images
218
00:21:47,587 --> 00:21:50,756
than Muybridge
had available to him.
219
00:21:50,756 --> 00:21:54,259
It makes it possible
to see his photographs
as he never could.
220
00:22:14,178 --> 00:22:17,347
The almost artificial
quality of these images
was determined by
221
00:22:17,347 --> 00:22:21,451
the insensitivity of
Muybridge's
photographic materials.
222
00:22:21,451 --> 00:22:23,619
To intensify the brilliance
of the illumination,
223
00:22:23,619 --> 00:22:26,788
the track was covered
with lime and
the backdrop set
224
00:22:26,788 --> 00:22:30,291
at a 20-degree angle
and covered with rock salt.
225
00:22:30,291 --> 00:22:32,259
But with all
these ingenuities,
226
00:22:32,259 --> 00:22:35,495
instantaneous exposures
on wet collodion plates
227
00:22:35,495 --> 00:22:37,730
gave little more than
silhouettes set off
228
00:22:37,730 --> 00:22:38,997
against a white void.
229
00:22:42,400 --> 00:22:45,403
At the beginning of the 1880s,
there was a revolution
230
00:22:45,403 --> 00:22:47,371
in photographic technology,
231
00:22:47,371 --> 00:22:50,240
the perfecting of
the rapid gelatin dry plate,
232
00:22:50,240 --> 00:22:52,875
far more sensitive to light
than the collodion plate.
233
00:22:54,643 --> 00:22:58,513
The dry plate made Muybridge's
first motion studies obsolete
234
00:22:58,513 --> 00:23:01,816
and suggested that a
more systematic and
comprehensive investigation
235
00:23:01,816 --> 00:23:03,818
of animal motion
could be undertaken.
236
00:23:08,188 --> 00:23:10,089
So six years later,
237
00:23:10,089 --> 00:23:13,459
under the sponsorship
of the University of
Pennsylvania in Philadelphia,
238
00:23:13,459 --> 00:23:16,661
Muybridge repeated
and expanded
his experiments.
239
00:23:18,095 --> 00:23:19,863
The white backdrop
was replaced
240
00:23:19,863 --> 00:23:23,366
by a white-on-black gridwork
made of strings.
241
00:23:28,270 --> 00:23:35,009
His models performed their
simple actions on a level
track 120 feet long.
242
00:23:35,009 --> 00:23:38,112
In Philadelphia, he used
three batteries of cameras
243
00:23:38,112 --> 00:23:40,314
positioned to a afford
a lateral view,
244
00:23:44,117 --> 00:23:45,686
a front foreshortening,
245
00:23:49,056 --> 00:23:50,924
and a rear foreshortening.
246
00:24:15,648 --> 00:24:17,016
This was
the general plan.
247
00:24:18,117 --> 00:24:21,620
But in many sequences,
only one or two
248
00:24:21,620 --> 00:24:25,090
of the three
camera banks was used.
249
00:24:25,090 --> 00:24:27,425
And there are 48 sequences
where the cameras
250
00:24:27,425 --> 00:24:30,594
were arranged in
a semi-circle around
the track and triggered at
251
00:24:30,594 --> 00:24:34,564
the same time to give
simultaneous views
of a single moment
252
00:24:34,564 --> 00:24:39,368
in the course of the action,
instead of sequential views
of a continuing action.
253
00:24:54,849 --> 00:24:59,085
He again photographed
horses, the first subject
of his motion studies,
254
00:25:00,119 --> 00:25:03,222
horses walking, ambling,
255
00:25:04,289 --> 00:25:05,690
trotting free,
256
00:25:09,159 --> 00:25:10,660
galloping.
257
00:25:21,003 --> 00:25:22,270
Horses leaping hurdles,
258
00:25:24,272 --> 00:25:25,373
rearing up,
259
00:25:31,779 --> 00:25:33,280
hauling heavy weights,
260
00:25:44,890 --> 00:25:46,191
horses with jockeys,
261
00:25:48,026 --> 00:25:50,361
and horses with naked riders,
262
00:25:50,361 --> 00:25:54,197
male and female.
263
00:25:56,832 --> 00:25:59,734
Again he photographed
greyhounds and oxen,
264
00:26:01,535 --> 00:26:05,238
but he also photographed
many other animal species
265
00:26:05,238 --> 00:26:08,473
that he seemed to pick
especially for the
euphony of their names.
266
00:26:09,273 --> 00:26:11,674
The Chacma baboon,
267
00:26:13,042 --> 00:26:14,743
the oryx,
268
00:26:16,044 --> 00:26:17,845
the Dorcas gazelle,
269
00:26:19,279 --> 00:26:20,746
the white-tailed gnu,
270
00:26:22,848 --> 00:26:24,115
the guanaco.
271
00:26:27,351 --> 00:26:29,419
Again, he
photographed athletes.
272
00:26:31,954 --> 00:26:34,456
Most of these models were,
in Muybridge's words,
273
00:26:34,456 --> 00:26:38,526
"Students or graduates
of the University
of Pennsylvania,
274
00:26:38,526 --> 00:26:40,394
"each one of whom
has a well-earned record
275
00:26:40,394 --> 00:26:43,163
"in the particular feat
selected for illustration."
276
00:27:17,363 --> 00:27:21,100
Among the athletes, Muybridge
included a contortionist,
277
00:27:21,100 --> 00:27:24,403
a performer he identified
as a public acrobat.
278
00:27:38,916 --> 00:27:43,253
But for the first time,
he photographed men, women,
and children in actions
279
00:27:43,253 --> 00:27:44,988
incidental to everyday life.
280
00:27:45,989 --> 00:27:47,457
Walking,
281
00:27:49,425 --> 00:27:50,525
crawling,
282
00:27:53,127 --> 00:27:54,394
standing still,
283
00:27:58,030 --> 00:27:59,264
drinking tea,
284
00:28:03,100 --> 00:28:04,468
reading a pamphlet,
285
00:28:08,738 --> 00:28:09,905
kneeling in prayer,
286
00:28:12,240 --> 00:28:13,341
playing ball,
287
00:28:24,117 --> 00:28:25,351
getting out of bed,
288
00:28:40,332 --> 00:28:42,067
emptying a bucket of water,
289
00:28:54,211 --> 00:28:55,912
spanking a child.
290
00:29:21,537 --> 00:29:24,039
And men working
at various trades,
291
00:29:25,974 --> 00:29:27,208
blacksmiths,
292
00:29:27,875 --> 00:29:29,076
a carpenter,
293
00:29:33,713 --> 00:29:34,880
a farrier.
294
00:29:48,426 --> 00:29:50,995
Muybridge also made
a more circumstantial record
295
00:29:50,995 --> 00:29:54,398
of his times in sequences
of elaborately dressed
men and women
296
00:29:54,398 --> 00:29:56,333
performing social actions.
297
00:29:57,500 --> 00:29:58,767
Waltzing,
298
00:30:02,503 --> 00:30:05,606
walking as if in the street,
299
00:30:05,606 --> 00:30:09,276
making a gesture of
acknowledgment to
an imaginary passerby,
300
00:30:15,114 --> 00:30:17,249
encumbered with
a satchel and cane,
301
00:30:23,321 --> 00:30:25,790
or a parasol and handkerchief.
302
00:30:27,391 --> 00:30:30,227
The long full dresses
accentuate the radicalism
303
00:30:30,227 --> 00:30:32,529
of the nakedness
in other sequences.
304
00:31:09,465 --> 00:31:13,235
And in five sequences
depicting movements
of the hand,
305
00:31:13,235 --> 00:31:16,671
Muybridge made the first
moving picture close-ups.
306
00:31:46,834 --> 00:31:49,870
BefoAnimal Locomotion
was published,
307
00:31:49,870 --> 00:31:54,407
Muybridge issued a prospectus
and a catalog of plates.
308
00:31:54,407 --> 00:31:57,309
In the catalog,
he offered a title
309
00:32:00,245 --> 00:32:03,247
and explanatory note
for each sequence.
310
00:32:04,982 --> 00:32:07,684
The titles are given
in the form of gerunds,
311
00:32:07,684 --> 00:32:11,587
suggesting that the action is
universal and timeless.
312
00:32:11,587 --> 00:32:17,025
In contrast,
the explanatory notes
are topical and specific.
313
00:32:17,025 --> 00:32:20,228
In this profusion of
descriptive and
technical data,
314
00:32:20,228 --> 00:32:22,063
the action and the
method of recording
315
00:32:22,063 --> 00:32:26,333
are analyzed, codified,
tabulated and annotated.
316
00:32:29,235 --> 00:32:31,804
He includes a statement
of the interval of time
317
00:32:31,804 --> 00:32:34,506
between successive exposures,
318
00:32:34,506 --> 00:32:36,808
a measurement of
the unphotographed time
319
00:32:36,808 --> 00:32:39,309
which elapsed between
one image and the next.
320
00:32:41,044 --> 00:32:42,678
"Plate number 219,
321
00:32:44,579 --> 00:32:47,515
"stooping and lifting broom,
322
00:32:49,583 --> 00:32:50,917
"and sweeping.
323
00:32:53,085 --> 00:32:57,355
"Model 7, Costume: nude
324
00:32:57,355 --> 00:33:02,993
"Twelve lateral views.
Ten 60-degree
rear foreshortenings.
325
00:33:04,694 --> 00:33:06,629
"Interval between exposures:
326
00:33:07,663 --> 00:33:11,266
"325 thousandths of a second."
327
00:33:11,266 --> 00:33:15,270
An interval that can be
approximately represented
in modern cinema
328
00:33:15,270 --> 00:33:18,439
by an interval of darkness
lasting one third of a second.
329
00:33:21,675 --> 00:33:26,012
Each of Muybridge's
exposures lasted only one
hundredth of a second,
330
00:33:26,012 --> 00:33:29,214
so less than a 30th of
the movement is
actually photographed.
331
00:33:30,682 --> 00:33:32,083
The rest is lost.
332
00:34:12,156 --> 00:34:15,725
"Lying on a couch and
turning over on side,
333
00:34:17,493 --> 00:34:21,729
"Model 47, Costume: nude
334
00:34:23,864 --> 00:34:29,568
"Ten lateral views.
Ten 90-degree
rear foreshortenings.
335
00:34:29,568 --> 00:34:33,405
"Interval between
exposures: .264 seconds."
336
00:34:52,757 --> 00:34:55,426
The verbal dialectic
in Muybridge's catalog,
337
00:34:55,426 --> 00:34:58,629
between the generalizing
titles and the precise data
338
00:34:58,629 --> 00:35:02,999
of the notes,
corresponds to a dialectic
within the images.
339
00:35:04,834 --> 00:35:07,937
It might be called
a dialectic of subject
and method.
340
00:35:11,206 --> 00:35:16,677
The inherently compelling
subject, naked men and women,
341
00:35:16,677 --> 00:35:20,414
is set into
a neutral framework.
342
00:35:20,414 --> 00:35:24,918
The timeless, functionless,
autonomous human
actions depicted,
343
00:35:24,918 --> 00:35:28,187
actions often adapted from
romantic painting,
344
00:35:28,187 --> 00:35:31,357
are countered by the site
in which they take place,
345
00:35:31,357 --> 00:35:33,092
commanded by the gridwork.
346
00:35:37,129 --> 00:35:41,032
The grid, in turn, implies
the systemic methodology
347
00:35:41,032 --> 00:35:43,300
of which it is part.
348
00:35:43,300 --> 00:35:46,102
Its use was suggested
by Thomas Eakins,
349
00:35:46,102 --> 00:35:49,738
a painter noted for his
careful studies of
perspective and anatomy
350
00:35:49,738 --> 00:35:53,174
to facilitate analysis
of the movements.
351
00:35:53,174 --> 00:35:56,410
The white crosslines
formed a network
of regular coordinates,
352
00:35:56,410 --> 00:35:58,478
making it possible
to plot the movements
353
00:35:58,478 --> 00:36:00,780
superimposed on them
in the photographs.
354
00:36:03,682 --> 00:36:07,085
But the grid has
another effect.
355
00:36:07,085 --> 00:36:12,189
Because it is the most inert,
inorganic mode of
delineating space,
356
00:36:12,189 --> 00:36:14,958
the rectangular grid
provides the most
dramatic means
357
00:36:14,958 --> 00:36:18,795
of establishing the
separateness of
human beings
358
00:36:18,795 --> 00:36:21,731
from the physical objects
surrounding them.
359
00:36:31,173 --> 00:36:33,875
Muybridge, in his catalog,
gives the names of
360
00:36:33,875 --> 00:36:37,144
all the horses, mules
and dogs he photographed.
361
00:36:38,178 --> 00:36:39,312
Hansel,
362
00:36:39,945 --> 00:36:41,146
Deusel,
363
00:36:41,946 --> 00:36:43,080
Dread,
364
00:36:44,014 --> 00:36:45,148
Eagle,
365
00:36:46,082 --> 00:36:49,485
and Elberon, among others.
366
00:36:49,485 --> 00:36:52,754
But he identifies
his human models
only by number.
367
00:36:54,655 --> 00:36:57,157
However, a few bits
of information about
some of them
368
00:36:57,157 --> 00:36:59,626
can be gathered
from his prospectus,
369
00:36:59,626 --> 00:37:03,362
and from the notebooks
he kept during the photography
Animal Locomotion.
370
00:37:05,731 --> 00:37:09,134
From the prospectus,
that Model 22 was a mulatto
371
00:37:09,134 --> 00:37:11,302
and a professional pugilist,
372
00:37:11,302 --> 00:37:14,371
and from the notebooks,
that his name was Ben Bailey.
373
00:37:22,445 --> 00:37:26,581
Model 60, who invariably
appears rifle in hand,
374
00:37:26,581 --> 00:37:29,050
was, according
to the prospectus,
375
00:37:29,050 --> 00:37:31,385
a well-drilled member
of the state militia.
376
00:37:43,429 --> 00:37:47,699
In the notebooks,
Muybridge jotted the names,
age, height, and weight
377
00:37:47,699 --> 00:37:50,835
of a few female models,
378
00:37:50,835 --> 00:37:55,272
and in the prospectus,
he relates the marital status
of 18 of them.
379
00:37:55,272 --> 00:38:00,410
Four were married,
one was widowed,
and 13 were unmarried.
380
00:38:16,925 --> 00:38:19,661
Aside from these
biographical shards,
381
00:38:19,661 --> 00:38:23,598
Muybridge recorded only
one statement about them,
382
00:38:23,598 --> 00:38:27,868
"The female models were
chosen from all
classes of society."
383
00:38:30,704 --> 00:38:35,341
Reflected in the ambiguity and
irony of this statement is
the presence of a society
384
00:38:35,341 --> 00:38:39,645
which, as Henry Adams
testifies, regarded
the suppression of sex
385
00:38:39,645 --> 00:38:43,215
as its greatest triumph.
386
00:38:43,215 --> 00:38:47,518
While Muybridge was
preparing Animal Locomotion
for publication,
387
00:38:47,518 --> 00:38:49,353
Thomas Eakins was dismissed
from teaching
388
00:38:49,353 --> 00:38:51,988
at the Pennsylvania
Academy of Fine Arts
389
00:38:51,988 --> 00:38:56,024
for uncovering the genitals
of a male model
in a life drawing class.
390
00:38:57,525 --> 00:39:00,661
To the dismay of
his fellow Philadelphians,
391
00:39:00,661 --> 00:39:04,331
Eakins had revealed that
which the Heavenly Father
himself concealed
392
00:39:04,331 --> 00:39:06,266
from the sight of
his fallen children.
393
00:39:12,804 --> 00:39:14,539
Artists were accustomed
to searching
394
00:39:14,539 --> 00:39:18,209
for their female models
among prostitutes.
395
00:39:18,209 --> 00:39:20,344
Any women willing
to pose naked
396
00:39:20,344 --> 00:39:23,113
was generally considered
a degraded women,
397
00:39:23,113 --> 00:39:25,782
unworthy to sit
in a parlor, clothed.
398
00:39:28,251 --> 00:39:32,454
Muybridge's female models
violated the conventions
of their society not only by
399
00:39:32,454 --> 00:39:34,923
appearing naked in his
photographs,
400
00:39:34,923 --> 00:39:37,926
but also by wearing
their hair close-cropped
401
00:39:37,926 --> 00:39:40,762
and by languorously
smoking cigarettes.
402
00:39:44,499 --> 00:39:48,935
But Muybridge's objective gaze
discovered not licentiousness
and dissipation,
403
00:39:49,969 --> 00:39:52,037
but naturalness and grace.
404
00:41:00,437 --> 00:41:02,705
Muybridge's work was
necessarily subversive
405
00:41:02,705 --> 00:41:05,840
of the taboo against realistic
representation of nudity.
406
00:41:07,274 --> 00:41:10,844
In a culture which associates
evil with materiality,
407
00:41:10,844 --> 00:41:13,646
even today representations
of nudity are considered
408
00:41:13,646 --> 00:41:17,416
acceptable to the degree
they are dematerialized.
409
00:41:17,416 --> 00:41:20,819
The usual strategies
are lyricism,
410
00:41:20,819 --> 00:41:23,887
idealization, and good taste.
411
00:41:26,456 --> 00:41:31,359
But Muybridge's method
precluded these forms
of artifice.
412
00:41:31,359 --> 00:41:35,763
It required him
to renounce the decorative
and the pictorial.
413
00:41:35,763 --> 00:41:40,901
It forced him to exclude
anything unnecessary
to his project,
414
00:41:40,901 --> 00:41:44,337
analyzing the forms
of matter in motion.
415
00:41:47,239 --> 00:41:49,975
He photographed naked men
and women objectively,
416
00:41:49,975 --> 00:41:53,411
without superfluous lighting
or flattering angles.
417
00:42:01,986 --> 00:42:05,322
Always the same lucid,
merciless, direct sunlight.
418
00:42:07,691 --> 00:42:11,227
Always the same set
of mechanically
predetermined angles.
419
00:42:14,263 --> 00:42:16,632
Muybridge made no attempt
to spare his models
420
00:42:16,632 --> 00:42:18,734
from embarrassment
or discomfort.
421
00:42:22,003 --> 00:42:24,071
He had them walk on all fours,
422
00:42:31,477 --> 00:42:33,345
crawl on their hands
and knees.
423
00:42:40,351 --> 00:42:43,754
He called one sequence,
"A Shock to
the Nervous System."
424
00:42:50,560 --> 00:42:53,462
Around the waist
of Blanche Epler,
Muybridge strapped
425
00:42:53,462 --> 00:42:56,831
a metal box from
which extended,
three white-tipped antennae.
426
00:42:59,366 --> 00:43:01,868
These artificial appendages
were designed
427
00:43:01,868 --> 00:43:04,937
to aid in measuring
the oscillations of her hips
428
00:43:04,937 --> 00:43:07,239
as she walked across
a wooden platform.
429
00:43:09,374 --> 00:43:13,044
At the suggestion of
Dr. Francis X. Dercum,
430
00:43:13,044 --> 00:43:15,212
a specialist in mental
and nervous diseases
431
00:43:15,212 --> 00:43:17,781
at the University
of Pennsylvania,
432
00:43:17,781 --> 00:43:21,250
Muybridge photographed
artificially induced
nervous convulsions.
433
00:43:22,584 --> 00:43:26,154
In a paper on this experiment,
Deercum wrote,
434
00:43:26,154 --> 00:43:28,623
"The tips of the fingers
were placed upon a table
435
00:43:28,623 --> 00:43:31,292
"as to give merely
a delicate sense of contact.
436
00:43:32,760 --> 00:43:35,796
"An object was selected,
and the mind fixed upon it.
437
00:43:37,197 --> 00:43:41,867
"After a period of time,
from a few minutes
to an hour,
438
00:43:41,867 --> 00:43:43,968
"tremors commenced
in the hand.
439
00:43:46,537 --> 00:43:50,440
"The tremor is just being
magnified into to
and fro movements
440
00:43:50,440 --> 00:43:52,208
"of the hands and feet.
441
00:43:54,376 --> 00:43:57,045
"If the experiment
was continued,
442
00:43:57,045 --> 00:44:03,150
"the muscles of the arms,
shoulders, back, buttock
and legs
443
00:44:03,150 --> 00:44:05,819
"would become
successively affected
444
00:44:05,819 --> 00:44:08,621
"and the subject thrown
violently to the ground
445
00:44:08,621 --> 00:44:11,256
"in a strong
general convulsion.
446
00:44:18,362 --> 00:44:21,064
"It might have been possible
by prolonging the experiment
447
00:44:21,064 --> 00:44:24,534
"to produce still more
startling results.
448
00:44:24,534 --> 00:44:28,303
"However, the results were
by no means unsatisfactory.
449
00:44:30,271 --> 00:44:32,306
"The convulsion was
of considerable violence."
450
00:44:46,086 --> 00:44:49,489
Muybridge also photographed
forms of pathologic motion,
451
00:44:50,590 --> 00:44:52,191
epileptics,
452
00:44:55,360 --> 00:44:58,496
a young girl suffering from
infantile paralysis
453
00:44:58,496 --> 00:45:01,665
whose only method
of locomotion was by
the use of her limbs
454
00:45:01,665 --> 00:45:04,267
exactly in the manner
of a four-legged animal.
455
00:45:07,470 --> 00:45:09,205
Amputees.
456
00:45:59,054 --> 00:46:03,525
A 340-pound woman,
struggling to stand up.
457
00:46:25,480 --> 00:46:29,149
But Muybridge, in turn,
appeared naked before
his own cameras,
458
00:46:30,483 --> 00:46:33,819
identified in
the catalog simply as
459
00:46:33,819 --> 00:46:37,022
"an ex-athlete,
aged about 60."
460
00:46:38,323 --> 00:46:41,959
He was, in fact, 55.
461
00:46:41,959 --> 00:46:44,761
Muybridge began
the photography of
Animal Locomotion
462
00:46:44,761 --> 00:46:46,662
in the spring of 1884,
463
00:46:46,662 --> 00:46:49,230
and it was finally
published in 1887.
464
00:46:51,966 --> 00:46:55,202
He spent most
of the next six years
on lecture tours,
465
00:46:55,202 --> 00:46:57,270
attempting to repay
the money advanced by
466
00:46:57,270 --> 00:47:01,306
the backers of
Animal Locomotion and to
finance another study
467
00:47:01,306 --> 00:47:03,174
of the forms of motion.
468
00:47:03,174 --> 00:47:07,211
He hoped to refine
his system and to
enlarge his encyclopedia
469
00:47:07,211 --> 00:47:11,581
by photographing
aquatic birds,
marine mammals,
470
00:47:11,581 --> 00:47:14,951
and actors performing
scenes from plays.
471
00:47:14,951 --> 00:47:18,688
But he never
found a sponsor
for this project.
472
00:47:18,688 --> 00:47:22,491
He hadn't repaid
the deficit from
Animal Locomotion
473
00:47:22,491 --> 00:47:25,560
when the kinetoscope
of Edison and the
474
00:47:25,560 --> 00:47:29,730
cinematograph of Lumiere
took away his audience.
475
00:47:32,699 --> 00:47:36,602
He retired and returned
to his birthplace,
476
00:47:36,602 --> 00:47:41,472
Kingston-on-Thames, England,
where he died in 1904,
477
00:47:41,472 --> 00:47:45,142
nine years after the
debut of the cinematograph.
478
00:47:51,247 --> 00:47:54,416
On his lecture tours,
he used the zoopraxiscope
479
00:47:54,416 --> 00:47:59,253
to reconstruct the motion
fragmented by his cameras.
480
00:47:59,253 --> 00:48:01,388
The individual photographs
from the plates
481
00:48:01,388 --> 00:48:04,657
were projected
on the screen as stills,
482
00:48:04,657 --> 00:48:07,926
then animated
by the zoopraxiscope,
483
00:48:07,926 --> 00:48:11,128
its wheel accelerating
until finally,
484
00:48:11,995 --> 00:48:14,664
life-like motion
was reproduced.
485
00:52:58,513 --> 00:53:01,782
In 1903, Louis Lumiere said,
486
00:53:01,782 --> 00:53:05,218
"The cinema is an invention
without a future."
487
00:53:05,218 --> 00:53:08,287
The prediction was not
unreasonable since
his invention was
488
00:53:08,287 --> 00:53:12,057
still considered
a crude toy, a silly
little device for
489
00:53:12,057 --> 00:53:14,059
making pictures
that would dance,
490
00:53:14,059 --> 00:53:16,961
as Thomas Edison,
another of its inventors,
called it.
491
00:53:18,963 --> 00:53:20,631
However, Lumiere was wrong.
492
00:53:23,300 --> 00:53:27,404
But although, Muybridge's
zoopraxiscope was
granted more respect
493
00:53:27,404 --> 00:53:31,341
on its debut than
the kinetoscope and
the cinematograph,
494
00:53:31,341 --> 00:53:34,577
it was an invention
without a future.
495
00:53:34,577 --> 00:53:37,813
Muybridge made the first
photographic motion pictures,
496
00:53:37,813 --> 00:53:41,115
but he was in no sense
an inventor of
the modern cinema.
497
00:53:42,749 --> 00:53:45,017
All modern systems
of motion pictures depend
498
00:53:45,017 --> 00:53:46,752
on flexible roll film.
499
00:53:48,487 --> 00:53:51,089
When celluloid was fabricated
as a film base
500
00:53:51,089 --> 00:53:53,024
at the end of the 1880s,
501
00:53:53,024 --> 00:53:56,327
any intelligent mechanic
who turned his mind
to the task
502
00:53:56,327 --> 00:53:58,395
could invent cinema,
and many did.
503
00:54:00,430 --> 00:54:04,100
But still bound by
the inflexibility
of glass plates,
504
00:54:04,100 --> 00:54:09,271
Muybridge had to employ
a separate camera for
each image he recorded.
505
00:54:09,271 --> 00:54:13,775
His multiple camera system
was a technological curiosity,
506
00:54:13,775 --> 00:54:16,944
unnecessary for
the development
of modern cinema.
507
00:54:18,745 --> 00:54:21,814
His longest sequence
contained 24 images,
508
00:54:21,814 --> 00:54:25,384
the number a modern motion
picture projects every second.
509
00:54:25,384 --> 00:54:29,154
As early as the 1890s, films
lasted over 30 seconds.
510
00:54:29,154 --> 00:54:33,224
And by the early 1900s,
10 minutes had become
the standard length.
511
00:54:41,064 --> 00:54:44,534
But in Muybridge's work,
photography in its
passage to cinema
512
00:54:44,534 --> 00:54:47,003
overcame a
philosophical obstacle.
513
00:54:50,606 --> 00:54:53,308
The modern motion picture
camera bisects human time
514
00:54:53,308 --> 00:54:55,777
into equal moments
of light and darkness,
515
00:54:55,777 --> 00:54:59,246
their duration regulated
by the constant rotation
of the shutter.
516
00:55:00,513 --> 00:55:03,148
Between each frame,
when the shutter closes
517
00:55:03,148 --> 00:55:05,917
over the lens as
the strip of the film
is repositioned,
518
00:55:05,917 --> 00:55:10,621
there is a moment of darkness,
a fragment of time which
is not recorded.
519
00:55:11,989 --> 00:55:14,358
Time, like any
continuous quantity,
520
00:55:14,358 --> 00:55:17,060
is infinitely divisible.
521
00:55:17,060 --> 00:55:20,963
It cannot be reconstituted
in its unity
by a mechanical instrument
522
00:55:20,963 --> 00:55:24,499
which bisects it finitely.
523
00:55:24,499 --> 00:55:27,335
So we might question
the possibility of cinema,
524
00:55:27,335 --> 00:55:30,171
asking, "How can we
recapture motion
525
00:55:30,171 --> 00:55:33,040
"in a finite number
of still pictures?"
526
00:55:33,040 --> 00:55:36,576
Just as Zeno asked,
"How can we cross space
527
00:55:36,576 --> 00:55:38,444
"in a finite number
of movements
528
00:55:38,444 --> 00:55:40,579
"since it is
infinitely divisible?"
529
00:55:41,713 --> 00:55:43,481
The solution to this paradox
530
00:55:43,481 --> 00:55:46,484
lies in the persistence
of vision,
531
00:55:46,484 --> 00:55:51,121
metaphorically described
in the 15th century
by Leonardo da Vinci.
532
00:55:52,355 --> 00:55:56,258
"Every body that moves rapidly
seems to color its path
533
00:55:56,258 --> 00:55:58,660
"with the impression
of its hue.
534
00:55:58,660 --> 00:56:01,629
"Thus when lightning
moves among dark clouds,
535
00:56:01,629 --> 00:56:03,464
"the speed
of its sinuous flight
536
00:56:03,464 --> 00:56:06,200
"makes its whole course
resemble a luminous snake.
537
00:56:07,467 --> 00:56:09,902
"This is because
the organ of perception
538
00:56:09,902 --> 00:56:12,571
"acts more rapidly
than the judgment."
539
00:56:35,760 --> 00:56:38,129
Through the persistence
of vision,
540
00:56:38,129 --> 00:56:40,898
human perception is able to
bridge the darkness
541
00:56:40,898 --> 00:56:43,667
which always alternates
coequally with the light
542
00:56:43,667 --> 00:56:45,702
on every
motion picture screen.
543
00:56:53,108 --> 00:56:57,045
The persistence of vision
had already found
a practical application
544
00:56:57,045 --> 00:57:01,115
in the simple illusionistic
optical toys
of the early 19th century.
545
00:57:04,852 --> 00:57:08,889
But it remained
to Eadweard Muybridge
to demonstrate empirically
546
00:57:08,889 --> 00:57:11,892
that the infinite flux of time
could be reconstructed
547
00:57:11,892 --> 00:57:14,261
from a finite
number of photographs.
548
00:57:17,497 --> 00:57:19,532
Muybridge transformed
photography
549
00:57:19,532 --> 00:57:22,668
from the Zenonian reverie
on movement it had been,
550
00:57:22,668 --> 00:57:26,405
into the modern instrument
that recovers
the unity of human motion.
551
00:57:29,541 --> 00:57:33,444
The motion by which
Zeno's paradoxes
are refuted in a single step.
47327
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