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♪ ♪
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00:00:27,679 --> 00:00:28,984
MAN [over radio]:
Systems this is prop.
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00:00:29,159 --> 00:00:31,335
I read you 500, do you read me?
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00:00:31,509 --> 00:00:34,860
TYSON: These people are
watching their life's
work come to an end.
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00:00:35,034 --> 00:00:36,340
MAN [over radio]: The team
is on its way to point.
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00:00:36,514 --> 00:00:38,037
TYSON: On another world.
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00:00:38,211 --> 00:00:41,519
MAN [over radio]:
All right. Roger that.
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00:00:48,743 --> 00:00:53,139
TYSON: They were all young
when they sent her on her way.
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00:00:55,098 --> 00:01:00,320
These men and women have been
traveling vicariously with her
for more than two decades.
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00:01:07,806 --> 00:01:13,377
And now, her work is done,
so she must die.
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00:01:17,598 --> 00:01:20,427
But before she
takes the fatal plunge,
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00:01:20,601 --> 00:01:25,389
they've given her
one final, epic challenge.
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00:01:36,051 --> 00:01:41,492
[theme music plays].
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00:02:01,729 --> 00:02:08,171
♪ ♪
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00:02:28,234 --> 00:02:34,197
♪ ♪
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00:02:47,949 --> 00:02:50,909
TYSON: Gravity has
a big bag of tricks,
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00:02:51,083 --> 00:02:54,652
none lovelier than
the ring systems of worlds.
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00:02:54,826 --> 00:02:59,265
Our own solar system, alone,
has four ringed planets.
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00:03:03,182 --> 00:03:08,013
This one, with the
romantic name J-1407B,
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00:03:08,187 --> 00:03:12,278
is the first we've
found circling another sun.
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Why haven't we found more
ringed planets in our galaxy?
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00:03:19,938 --> 00:03:23,681
Is it that the
rings are so unusual,
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00:03:23,855 --> 00:03:26,640
or are the methods we use
to find exoplanets not very
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00:03:26,814 --> 00:03:30,862
good at seeing the ring
systems that may surround them?
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00:03:31,906 --> 00:03:35,127
J-1407B's ring
system is so vast,
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00:03:35,301 --> 00:03:38,391
that it eclipsed
its star for days.
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These rings extend across an
astonishing 112 million miles.
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They would more than
fill the distance between
Earth and the sun.
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00:03:50,098 --> 00:03:54,015
But as enormous as they are,
they're shockingly thin.
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00:03:54,189 --> 00:03:58,672
If the ring system of J-1407B
were the size of a dinner plate,
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00:03:58,846 --> 00:04:01,719
it would have to be
100 times thinner,
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00:04:01,893 --> 00:04:04,548
as thin as a human hair.
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00:04:07,420 --> 00:04:10,380
This surprising contrast
between the immense territory
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00:04:10,554 --> 00:04:12,773
of a ring system,
and its thinness,
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00:04:12,947 --> 00:04:15,950
is just as striking
in our own solar system.
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00:04:16,908 --> 00:04:20,215
The outermost ring
of Neptune is so dainty,
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00:04:20,390 --> 00:04:23,131
that it was first thought
to be the fragments of a ring.
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00:04:23,306 --> 00:04:26,352
Not a ring, but
a collection of arcs.
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00:04:26,526 --> 00:04:29,442
That was, until NASA's
Voyager 2 spacecraft revealed
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00:04:29,616 --> 00:04:32,706
that the so-called
arcs were clumps,
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00:04:32,880 --> 00:04:35,927
the thicker parts of
a fainter, complete ring.
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00:04:40,540 --> 00:04:43,413
It's funny that the weirdest
planet in the solar system has
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attracted the least attention.
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Voyager 2 is the only
spacecraft that has ever been
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00:04:49,244 --> 00:04:52,247
sent on a reconnaissance
mission to Uranus,
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00:04:52,422 --> 00:04:55,947
one of the two ice giant
planets that circle the sun.
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00:04:57,601 --> 00:04:59,820
During its 20-year-long summers,
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00:04:59,994 --> 00:05:02,867
the sun never sets on Uranus.
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00:05:03,041 --> 00:05:05,173
The winters
are equally as long,
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00:05:05,348 --> 00:05:08,916
20 years of unbroken night.
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00:05:12,180 --> 00:05:16,141
Unlike its fellow gas planets,
Uranus is cold-hearted.
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00:05:16,315 --> 00:05:19,362
It doesn't
generate any internal heat.
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00:05:27,065 --> 00:05:30,677
Uranus is one crazy world.
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00:05:30,851 --> 00:05:33,506
The outer edge of
Uranus's atmosphere is so hot,
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00:05:33,680 --> 00:05:37,945
it's hotter than
500 degrees Fahrenheit.
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00:05:41,166 --> 00:05:44,648
But Uranus also
has the coldest clouds
in the solar system,
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I'm talking nearly
400 degrees below zero.
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00:05:55,310 --> 00:05:58,270
What kind of ocean is this?
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00:05:58,444 --> 00:06:00,272
Is it made of ammonia?
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00:06:00,446 --> 00:06:02,970
Water?
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00:06:03,144 --> 00:06:07,975
Some scientists think it may
be an ocean of liquid diamonds.
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00:06:08,149 --> 00:06:12,589
Note to space agencies,
might be worth another visit.
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00:06:18,246 --> 00:06:21,946
Then there's that thing
about it being sideways.
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00:06:22,120 --> 00:06:27,604
Uranus revolves around the sun
at a roughly 90 degree angle
to its own orbital plane.
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00:06:27,778 --> 00:06:31,869
What could have
happened to Uranus that
it got knocked on its ass?
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00:06:33,131 --> 00:06:37,701
Our best guess is that
it went something like this.
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Uranus was in
a terrible accident.
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00:06:47,145 --> 00:06:50,540
[crashing].
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00:06:50,844 --> 00:06:53,717
[crashing].
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00:06:53,891 --> 00:06:59,984
After the second blow,
the rotational axis of
Uranus tipped 98 degrees.
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00:07:03,640 --> 00:07:05,685
There's another world in
our solar system that we don't
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00:07:05,859 --> 00:07:09,080
think of as having a ring.
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00:07:09,254 --> 00:07:12,170
The rings of Jupiter were
so dim that no ground-based
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00:07:12,344 --> 00:07:14,912
telescope ever saw them.
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00:07:15,086 --> 00:07:18,785
They were discovered when
Voyager 1 came flying by.
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00:07:24,269 --> 00:07:28,273
Our Saturn is graced
by the loveliest, largest,
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00:07:28,447 --> 00:07:32,973
and brightest ring
system of any around our sun.
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00:07:33,408 --> 00:07:36,542
It's the most distant
planet that can be seen
with the naked eye,
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00:07:36,716 --> 00:07:40,024
and it made quite an
impression on our ancestors.
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00:07:49,207 --> 00:07:53,124
When I think of the
Babylonians of 3,500
years ago looking up
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00:07:53,298 --> 00:07:55,648
at the planets and stars,
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00:07:55,822 --> 00:07:58,303
I wonder how unlikely it would
have seemed that one of their
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00:07:58,477 --> 00:08:01,959
species would actually
send an emissary to that
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00:08:02,133 --> 00:08:05,266
distant point of light.
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00:08:13,797 --> 00:08:18,236
We are in the Deep Space
Network room at NASA's
Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
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00:08:19,106 --> 00:08:24,329
In this place, the most
ambitious voyages of discovery
are directed and monitored.
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00:08:25,809 --> 00:08:28,115
Why are these
people so emotional?
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00:08:28,289 --> 00:08:30,465
They have committed
their professional lives to
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00:08:30,640 --> 00:08:34,731
a collaboration
with this robot.
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00:08:41,781 --> 00:08:45,002
And now that partnership
of decades is about to end
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00:08:45,176 --> 00:08:48,266
in a most violent way.
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00:08:48,440 --> 00:08:50,877
The pathway from our
Earthbound helplessness to
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00:08:51,051 --> 00:08:55,229
our presence in Saturn's
skies is about to unfold.
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00:09:03,673 --> 00:09:07,546
TYSON: What is that
shimmering, unsteady
thing we're looking at?
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00:09:07,720 --> 00:09:12,203
That's what Galileo Galilei
asked himself in 1610 when he
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00:09:12,377 --> 00:09:15,598
became the first human
to see Saturn as more than
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00:09:15,772 --> 00:09:19,036
just a point of light.
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00:09:21,821 --> 00:09:24,476
So, this is the telescope
that made the modern
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00:09:24,650 --> 00:09:27,479
scientific revolution possible.
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00:09:27,653 --> 00:09:30,700
You know, you
really started something.
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00:09:30,874 --> 00:09:34,834
You looked through that
thing and found the cosmos.
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00:09:35,879 --> 00:09:39,186
That's not to say you didn't
make your share of mistakes.
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00:09:39,360 --> 00:09:42,102
You guessed wrong at
what you thought you saw,
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00:09:42,276 --> 00:09:44,714
believing that Saturn
sported two symmetrical moons
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on either side of it.
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00:09:47,542 --> 00:09:50,328
Two years later, when
you took a second look,
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00:09:50,502 --> 00:09:54,767
you were shocked to find
that your "moons" had vanished.
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00:09:54,941 --> 00:09:57,901
This was because both
worlds, Earth and Saturn,
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00:09:58,075 --> 00:10:02,122
were in motion,
and the two worlds had changed
in position to each other.
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00:10:02,296 --> 00:10:05,822
You were now looking at
Saturn's rings, edge-on.
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00:10:06,518 --> 00:10:10,043
The Saturn ring system
is 175,000 miles across,
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00:10:10,217 --> 00:10:14,395
but on average only
a few hundred feet thick.
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00:10:14,569 --> 00:10:18,878
They were too thin for your
fledgling telescope to see.
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00:10:22,403 --> 00:10:26,016
But two years after that,
you took a third look.
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00:10:26,190 --> 00:10:30,281
Now, you thought
that the planet had arms.
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♪ ♪
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40 years passed, until
a Dutch astronomer named
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00:10:59,005 --> 00:11:01,747
Christiaan Huygens took
another look at Saturn with
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00:11:01,921 --> 00:11:05,272
his own greatly
improved telescope.
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00:11:18,895 --> 00:11:21,506
Huygens was the first
to know that worlds could
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00:11:21,680 --> 00:11:25,771
be circled by rings,
and Saturn was one of them.
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00:11:25,945 --> 00:11:28,513
He also discovered
Saturn's largest moon,
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00:11:28,687 --> 00:11:32,082
which would later
be known as Titan.
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00:11:32,691 --> 00:11:35,346
When it finally came time
for us to visit that world,
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00:11:35,520 --> 00:11:39,393
our spacecraft
bore Huygens's name.
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00:11:41,047 --> 00:11:43,615
In science, there are
the Galileos, the Newtons,
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00:11:43,789 --> 00:11:45,704
the Darwins, the Einsteins.
128
00:11:45,878 --> 00:11:49,055
And then there's another
kind of great scientist.
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00:11:49,229 --> 00:11:51,666
Not the kind that paints
a whole new picture of nature,
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00:11:51,841 --> 00:11:54,278
but, like Christiaan Huygens,
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00:11:54,452 --> 00:11:56,628
someone who has
much to contribute,
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00:11:56,802 --> 00:11:59,979
filling in a blank
or two on that vast canvas.
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00:12:00,153 --> 00:12:04,375
Such a scientist was
Giovanni Domenico Cassini.
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00:12:06,899 --> 00:12:10,773
He was born early
in the 17th century in
the town of Perinaldo,
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00:12:10,947 --> 00:12:13,688
in what is now Italy.
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00:12:13,863 --> 00:12:16,387
Cassini didn't
start out as a scientist.
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00:12:16,561 --> 00:12:20,913
He began his career as a
pseudo-scientist, an astrologer.
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00:12:21,566 --> 00:12:24,569
Astrology is a collection of
ideas based on the notion that
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00:12:24,743 --> 00:12:28,051
worlds have certain
human personality traits,
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00:12:28,225 --> 00:12:30,749
and that the influence
of these distant worlds,
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00:12:30,923 --> 00:12:33,491
depending on which are
rising and falling at the time
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00:12:33,665 --> 00:12:36,668
of your birth, will
determine who you are and
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00:12:36,842 --> 00:12:39,192
what your fate will be.
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00:12:39,366 --> 00:12:41,107
It's another
form of prejudice,
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00:12:41,281 --> 00:12:43,283
making unfounded
assumptions about who a person
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00:12:43,457 --> 00:12:46,939
is without bothering
to get to know them.
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00:12:47,897 --> 00:12:51,248
Astronomy and astrology
used to be the same thing,
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00:12:51,422 --> 00:12:53,293
until there was
a great awakening to our
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00:12:53,467 --> 00:12:57,210
actual circumstances
in the cosmos.
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00:12:57,907 --> 00:13:00,735
In 1543,
Nicolaus Copernicus,
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00:13:00,910 --> 00:13:03,260
a Polish cleric
demonstrated that,
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00:13:03,434 --> 00:13:05,131
contrary to
popular belief,
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00:13:05,305 --> 00:13:08,308
we were not the
center of the universe...
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00:13:08,482 --> 00:13:12,008
the Earth and the
other planets travelled
around the sun.
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00:13:12,182 --> 00:13:15,315
Demoting the Earth from
the center of the universe
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00:13:15,489 --> 00:13:18,841
was a severe blow
to human self-esteem.
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00:13:19,015 --> 00:13:20,668
More than a century later,
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00:13:20,843 --> 00:13:23,106
some people still
hadn't gotten over it,
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00:13:23,280 --> 00:13:26,109
and Giovanni Cassini
was one of them.
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00:13:26,283 --> 00:13:29,416
Cassini accepted
a terrific job offer,
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00:13:29,590 --> 00:13:31,723
an appointment
by Louis the XIV,
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00:13:31,897 --> 00:13:34,987
the legendary
sun King of France,
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00:13:35,161 --> 00:13:40,297
Louis believed himself to
be an absolute ruler whose
dominion was God's will.
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00:13:40,471 --> 00:13:43,126
But he was also the first
monarch in Europe to recognize
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00:13:43,300 --> 00:13:45,519
the great power of science.
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00:13:45,693 --> 00:13:49,697
He knew it was vital
to national security.
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00:13:51,134 --> 00:13:54,093
Louis the XIV was
inventing the first modern,
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00:13:54,267 --> 00:13:57,314
governmental, scientific
research institute,
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00:13:57,488 --> 00:14:00,708
The Paris Observatory.
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00:14:09,804 --> 00:14:12,329
Cassini told the absolute
ruler that he would not be
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00:14:12,503 --> 00:14:16,724
staying long in Paris,
a year or two, at most.
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00:14:19,075 --> 00:14:22,905
But when the King
placed his new observatory
at Cassini's disposal,
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00:14:23,079 --> 00:14:27,257
he lost all interest
in returning home
to Italy ever again.
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00:14:27,431 --> 00:14:30,521
For the next 125 years,
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00:14:30,695 --> 00:14:35,004
the Paris Observatory
would be led by a Cassini.
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00:14:37,789 --> 00:14:40,792
Cassini rewarded his
patron with a map of the Moon
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00:14:40,966 --> 00:14:44,361
that remained
cutting-edge for a century.
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00:14:44,535 --> 00:14:47,320
King Louis financed a research
expedition to South America
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00:14:47,494 --> 00:14:50,236
to obtain more accurate
measurements of longitude,
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00:14:50,410 --> 00:14:53,805
intel of enormous value to
the captains of his far-flung
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00:14:53,979 --> 00:14:57,635
fleet and to astronomers.
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00:14:58,418 --> 00:15:01,160
Cassini took all these data
and became the first person
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00:15:01,334 --> 00:15:04,163
to calculate the scale
of the Copernican solar system
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00:15:04,337 --> 00:15:07,036
that he had once rejected.
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00:15:07,210 --> 00:15:09,516
With his increasingly
powerful telescopes,
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00:15:09,690 --> 00:15:12,389
he discovered the
length of a day on Jupiter
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00:15:12,563 --> 00:15:16,219
and the bands and spots
on that planet's surface.
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00:15:16,393 --> 00:15:19,831
Cassini discovered
Jupiter's Great
Red Spot independently
189
00:15:20,005 --> 00:15:22,747
of Robert Hooke in
England, and to this day,
190
00:15:22,921 --> 00:15:25,532
they share the credit.
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00:15:25,706 --> 00:15:29,623
Cassini went on to determine
the length of the day on Mars.
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00:15:31,321 --> 00:15:35,194
He was only off
by three minutes.
193
00:15:35,368 --> 00:15:38,110
When he returned to his
observations of Jupiter,
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00:15:38,284 --> 00:15:41,113
he was stumped by the
contradictions in them.
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00:15:41,287 --> 00:15:45,117
The eclipses by Jupiter's
moons did not begin when
they were supposed to,
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00:15:45,291 --> 00:15:48,903
they varied from
observation to observation.
197
00:15:49,078 --> 00:15:52,255
Could it be that it was
due to changes in the distance
198
00:15:52,429 --> 00:15:56,737
of the Earth from Jupiter,
as the two worlds moved
through the solar system?
199
00:15:57,651 --> 00:16:00,611
If that were true, then
light could not travel at
200
00:16:00,785 --> 00:16:05,050
an infinite speed
because it was taking
longer to reach Earth.
201
00:16:05,224 --> 00:16:08,749
Was the speed of light finite?
202
00:16:08,923 --> 00:16:13,058
This idea was just
too crazy for Cassini,
too revolutionary.
203
00:16:13,232 --> 00:16:15,539
He rejected it out of hand.
204
00:16:15,713 --> 00:16:18,150
If he had followed the
evidence wherever it led,
205
00:16:18,324 --> 00:16:20,674
he would have given us the
yardstick for the cosmos that
206
00:16:20,848 --> 00:16:24,287
we still use 350 years later.
207
00:16:24,461 --> 00:16:27,159
But Cassini,
ever the conservative,
208
00:16:27,333 --> 00:16:31,120
dismissed the idea
as being just too wacky.
209
00:16:32,773 --> 00:16:34,862
Several years later,
a Danish astronomer,
210
00:16:35,037 --> 00:16:39,563
Ole Romer, became
Cassini's assistant
at the Paris Observatory.
211
00:16:39,737 --> 00:16:43,001
Romer made his own
observations of the eclipses
212
00:16:43,175 --> 00:16:46,483
of some of Jupiter's moons
and found the same discrepancies
213
00:16:46,657 --> 00:16:49,616
in the data that
Cassini had dismissed.
214
00:16:49,790 --> 00:16:52,663
But Romer recognized
them for what they were,
215
00:16:52,837 --> 00:16:56,275
Pieces of evidence for
the finite speed of light.
216
00:16:58,538 --> 00:17:00,845
There was a time, however,
when Cassini's faithfulness
217
00:17:01,019 --> 00:17:04,327
to the data was so extreme,
that he was willing to risk the
218
00:17:04,501 --> 00:17:07,156
displeasure of King Louis.
219
00:17:07,330 --> 00:17:11,551
The monarch asked
Cassini to calculate the
exact area of his realm.
220
00:17:11,725 --> 00:17:14,902
No one had ever attempted
to make an accurate map,
221
00:17:15,077 --> 00:17:17,557
much less a topographical
one that would feature all
222
00:17:17,731 --> 00:17:20,082
the mountains and rivers
and valleys of France,
223
00:17:20,256 --> 00:17:22,562
or of any other
country for that matter.
224
00:17:22,736 --> 00:17:26,175
Cassini rose to the task,
but discovered results that
225
00:17:26,349 --> 00:17:29,656
could not possibly
please the King.
226
00:17:35,314 --> 00:17:36,750
[sighs].
227
00:17:40,014 --> 00:17:41,886
Cassini told the King,
228
00:17:42,060 --> 00:17:45,542
"“I have some rather
disappointing news
for you, Your Highness.
229
00:17:47,283 --> 00:17:52,157
We all thought that France
was a whole lot bigger
than our studies, revealed.
230
00:17:52,766 --> 00:17:57,858
I'm afraid, Your Majesty,
your kingdom is much smaller
than heretofore thought."”
231
00:17:58,903 --> 00:18:00,687
[grunts].
232
00:18:00,861 --> 00:18:02,646
[gasps].
233
00:18:02,820 --> 00:18:04,691
TYSON: The King
surprised everyone with
his great good humor,
234
00:18:04,865 --> 00:18:08,130
saying, "“Why, Cassini,
you've robbed me of more land
235
00:18:08,304 --> 00:18:11,742
than all the armies of
my enemies combined."”
236
00:18:12,351 --> 00:18:16,747
[laughing].
237
00:18:17,617 --> 00:18:20,751
TYSON: And then, there
is his work on Saturn.
238
00:18:24,320 --> 00:18:28,628
He was the first
person to know what the
rings of Saturn really were.
239
00:18:28,802 --> 00:18:31,762
He proposed that
they were not solid,
240
00:18:31,936 --> 00:18:34,417
but instead composed of
countless satellites orbiting
241
00:18:34,591 --> 00:18:37,420
the planet, and he
observed that there was
242
00:18:37,594 --> 00:18:40,901
a division
between the rings.
243
00:18:41,380 --> 00:18:45,602
Cassini filled in some
of the big blanks in our
understanding of Saturn,
244
00:18:45,776 --> 00:18:50,215
but how could we
possibly ever get there?
245
00:18:52,348 --> 00:18:55,307
Accomplishing that mythic
quest was left to one whose
246
00:18:55,481 --> 00:18:58,745
tragic life would have
been completely forgotten,
247
00:18:58,919 --> 00:19:02,140
if not for what
you are about to see.
248
00:19:13,412 --> 00:19:16,894
TYSON: Weighing in at more
than 12,000 pounds at launch,
249
00:19:17,068 --> 00:19:20,854
NASA's Cassini
spacecraft is the size of a bus.
250
00:19:21,028 --> 00:19:25,294
That figure included 70 pounds
of plutonium 238 fuel,
251
00:19:25,468 --> 00:19:28,906
enough to last her
for more than 20 years.
252
00:19:29,472 --> 00:19:32,866
But that's not what
powered her mythic odyssey.
253
00:19:33,040 --> 00:19:37,654
She rode gravity's
rainbow all the way
to the outer-solar system.
254
00:19:42,485 --> 00:19:45,401
The lineage of the greatest
of human achievements stretches
255
00:19:45,575 --> 00:19:48,360
further back
than we might assume.
256
00:19:48,534 --> 00:19:52,756
Some of their roots
are buried deep inside
the tomb of lost hope.
257
00:19:54,192 --> 00:19:57,108
But somehow, dreams rise.
258
00:19:57,282 --> 00:20:00,372
The epic missions of the first
golden age of space exploration,
259
00:20:00,546 --> 00:20:01,982
and likely the next,
260
00:20:02,156 --> 00:20:04,985
were made possible
by a man whose two names,
261
00:20:05,159 --> 00:20:08,815
one real, one fake,
are equally forgotten.
262
00:20:13,994 --> 00:20:15,779
[knocking].
263
00:20:15,953 --> 00:20:16,780
[grunts].
264
00:20:16,954 --> 00:20:18,651
[knocking].
265
00:20:18,825 --> 00:20:22,438
Alexander Shargei's early
years are not well-documented,
266
00:20:22,612 --> 00:20:26,006
but it is believed that his
mother, a political activist,
267
00:20:26,180 --> 00:20:30,272
was taken from him when
he was only five years old.
268
00:20:36,103 --> 00:20:40,673
He took refuge in
his father's physics and
mathematics textbooks.
269
00:20:40,847 --> 00:20:43,850
But by the time
Alexander was 13,
270
00:20:44,024 --> 00:20:46,766
the boy had lost
his father, too.
271
00:20:46,940 --> 00:20:50,248
He lived with his grandmother,
and despite great hardship,
272
00:20:50,422 --> 00:20:53,425
he managed to
be accepted at the most
prestigious high school,
273
00:20:53,599 --> 00:20:55,645
and afterwards
gained admission to the
274
00:20:55,819 --> 00:20:58,561
best engineering
institute in the Ukraine.
275
00:20:58,735 --> 00:21:01,912
But only two months after
he arrived there, in 1914,
276
00:21:02,086 --> 00:21:04,306
he was drafted into
the Czar's army to fight
277
00:21:04,480 --> 00:21:06,177
in the First World War.
278
00:21:06,351 --> 00:21:12,096
[explosions, gunfire].
279
00:21:17,406 --> 00:21:23,934
[explosions, gunfire].
280
00:21:27,154 --> 00:21:29,374
In the hell of
war at the front,
281
00:21:29,548 --> 00:21:32,551
Alexander Shargei
conceived a scientific strategy
282
00:21:32,725 --> 00:21:36,294
for exploring the Moon,
not intended as fiction,
283
00:21:36,468 --> 00:21:39,210
but as blueprint.
284
00:21:42,953 --> 00:21:44,650
[engine blast].
285
00:21:46,348 --> 00:21:49,263
[engine blast].
286
00:21:58,795 --> 00:22:01,101
[engine blast].
287
00:22:02,538 --> 00:22:05,541
But Shargei's hell
didn't end with the war.
288
00:22:05,715 --> 00:22:08,587
Now, Shargei was forced
to navigate the treacherous
289
00:22:08,761 --> 00:22:11,851
political mine fields
of revolutionary Russia.
290
00:22:12,025 --> 00:22:15,115
He was much better at figuring
out how to get to the Moon.
291
00:22:15,681 --> 00:22:17,988
Former officers in
the Czar's army and those,
292
00:22:18,162 --> 00:22:20,077
such as Shargei,
who were forced to join
293
00:22:20,251 --> 00:22:22,253
the counter-revolutionary
White Army,
294
00:22:22,427 --> 00:22:25,387
were assumed to be
"“enemies of the people."”
295
00:22:28,955 --> 00:22:31,784
[shouting in Russian].
296
00:22:31,958 --> 00:22:34,918
TYSON: Shargei could find
no peace in the Soviet Union,
297
00:22:35,092 --> 00:22:39,096
so in desperation he
tried to escape to Poland.
298
00:22:45,319 --> 00:22:48,366
Shargei, weakened by
illness, was stopped by guards
299
00:22:48,540 --> 00:22:52,326
and turned
back from the border.
300
00:23:09,082 --> 00:23:12,085
TYSON: These were
dangerous times,
301
00:23:12,259 --> 00:23:16,176
and there was no telling
what would get you
into serious trouble.
302
00:23:21,660 --> 00:23:24,837
No one knows where Shargei
spent the next three years.
303
00:23:25,011 --> 00:23:27,318
He simply vanished.
304
00:23:27,492 --> 00:23:32,105
When at last he emerged,
Alexander Shargei was no more.
305
00:23:32,932 --> 00:23:35,369
In his desperation
to be left alone,
306
00:23:35,544 --> 00:23:38,068
he took the
name of a dead man.
307
00:23:38,242 --> 00:23:41,506
He was now Yuri Kondratyuk.
308
00:23:43,116 --> 00:23:45,031
He finally published
the book he had been dreaming
309
00:23:45,205 --> 00:23:48,295
about since his
time in the trenches.
310
00:23:48,470 --> 00:23:50,428
No publisher was interested,
311
00:23:50,602 --> 00:23:53,431
so he printed it
at his own expense.
312
00:23:54,737 --> 00:24:00,003
It was Kondratyuk's
letter to a future
no one else could see.
313
00:24:00,699 --> 00:24:04,703
He wrote it "“To Whoever Will
Read This Paper in Order to
314
00:24:04,877 --> 00:24:08,794
Build an Interplanetary Rocket."”
315
00:24:10,970 --> 00:24:12,581
In the late 1920s,
316
00:24:12,755 --> 00:24:16,585
Kondratyuk was enlisted
to design a grain elevator.
317
00:24:16,759 --> 00:24:19,239
The Soviet Union was
going through a metal shortage,
318
00:24:19,413 --> 00:24:22,678
so Kondratyuk's challenge
was to build the largest grain
319
00:24:22,852 --> 00:24:26,986
elevator possible without
using more than a single nail.
320
00:24:28,466 --> 00:24:32,426
It ended up being so big,
they named it "“the Mastodon."”
321
00:24:35,647 --> 00:24:39,477
Such was the nightmare
logic of Stalin's Soviet Union.
322
00:24:39,651 --> 00:24:42,132
You could do the heroic
in service to the state,
323
00:24:42,306 --> 00:24:45,135
successfully execute the
seemingly impossible order
324
00:24:45,309 --> 00:24:48,573
to build a colossus
with but a single nail.
325
00:24:48,747 --> 00:24:50,532
And when it was done,
326
00:24:50,706 --> 00:24:53,491
you could be
imprisoned for sabotage.
327
00:24:53,665 --> 00:24:57,277
Who but an enemy of the state
would do such a reckless thing
328
00:24:57,451 --> 00:25:02,152
as building a
colossal grain elevator
with only a single nail.
329
00:25:03,240 --> 00:25:05,677
It made no difference to
Kondratyuk's fate that the
330
00:25:05,851 --> 00:25:08,637
grain elevator functioned
for another 60 years,
331
00:25:08,811 --> 00:25:12,162
until it burned down.
332
00:25:12,641 --> 00:25:16,427
Kondratyuk was
sentenced to three years
in a special prison camp,
333
00:25:16,601 --> 00:25:19,125
something new,
called a sharashka,
334
00:25:19,299 --> 00:25:24,391
where scientists and engineers
slaved away on the nation's
most ambitious projects.
335
00:25:25,392 --> 00:25:29,092
Kondratyuk threw himself
into a wind power project,
336
00:25:29,266 --> 00:25:34,140
but still he dreamed of
exploring the solar system.
337
00:25:37,056 --> 00:25:40,233
Soon after that,
he met Sergei Korolev,
338
00:25:40,407 --> 00:25:44,847
who also dreamed of leaving
Earth to explore the cosmos.
339
00:25:45,021 --> 00:25:49,765
Korolev would later
become the father of the
Soviet rocket program.
340
00:25:50,635 --> 00:25:53,420
Korolev wanted to enlist
Kondratyuk in his fledgling
341
00:25:53,595 --> 00:25:57,163
rocket program, but
Kondratyuk was so terrified
342
00:25:57,337 --> 00:26:00,776
that any change in
his status might result
in closer scrutiny by
343
00:26:00,950 --> 00:26:04,606
the secret police,
he declined.
344
00:26:04,780 --> 00:26:09,088
If the authorities
discovered that Kondratyuk
was really Shargei,
345
00:26:09,262 --> 00:26:12,962
there was no telling
what they would do to him.
346
00:26:14,137 --> 00:26:16,095
When Germany attacked Russia,
347
00:26:16,269 --> 00:26:19,533
Kondratyuk volunteered for
armed service at the front,
348
00:26:19,708 --> 00:26:22,449
where he led a
communications outfit.
349
00:26:22,624 --> 00:26:26,062
His precise fate is unknown,
but he is believed to have
350
00:26:26,236 --> 00:26:30,762
died in battle on a
February night in 1942.
351
00:26:32,198 --> 00:26:37,987
Alexander Shargei, aka
Yuri Kondratyuk, was only 44.
352
00:26:38,770 --> 00:26:41,251
That was the
end of his story,
353
00:26:41,425 --> 00:26:44,384
but not his dream.
354
00:26:44,558 --> 00:26:47,561
In the early days
of the Apollo program,
355
00:26:47,736 --> 00:26:50,869
the scientists and engineers
struggled to figure out how
356
00:26:51,043 --> 00:26:55,526
a rocket could leave the Earth
and land directly on the Moon.
357
00:26:55,700 --> 00:26:57,659
They were stymied.
358
00:26:57,833 --> 00:26:59,965
They couldn't figure it out.
359
00:27:00,139 --> 00:27:03,621
You need a big powerful
rocket to reach the Moon.
360
00:27:03,795 --> 00:27:05,449
How could you land such
a thing on the surface
361
00:27:05,623 --> 00:27:08,670
of another world
without crashing it?
362
00:27:11,716 --> 00:27:14,414
Being able to guarantee that
it could take off again and
363
00:27:14,588 --> 00:27:19,158
bring your crew safely home,
was even more of a longshot.
364
00:27:19,332 --> 00:27:21,813
This approach, known
as "“Direct Ascent,"
365
00:27:21,987 --> 00:27:27,210
seemed like a dead-end
to a NASA engineer named
John Houbolt and his colleagues.
366
00:27:28,472 --> 00:27:32,128
One version of the story goes,
two space scientists had kept
367
00:27:32,302 --> 00:27:36,088
the spark of
Kondratyuk's dream alive.
368
00:27:36,262 --> 00:27:40,092
They delivered his 40
year-old manuscript to Houbolt.
369
00:27:52,365 --> 00:27:55,238
KONDRATYUK: First of all,
to the question of the work,
370
00:27:55,412 --> 00:27:57,980
let it not frighten you...
371
00:28:02,680 --> 00:28:05,639
Speaking about the possibility
of flight implementation,
372
00:28:05,814 --> 00:28:09,469
just only remember that there
is nothing improbable on the
373
00:28:09,643 --> 00:28:12,516
theoretical side of the flight
of a rocket into space...
374
00:28:12,690 --> 00:28:14,648
MAN [over radio]: One, zero.
375
00:28:14,823 --> 00:28:21,351
[engine blast].
376
00:28:42,154 --> 00:28:48,421
[engine blast].
377
00:28:57,474 --> 00:28:59,781
ASTRONAUT [over radio]:
37 degrees.
378
00:28:59,955 --> 00:29:01,391
MAN [over radio]: It's still
looking very good.
379
00:29:01,565 --> 00:29:03,393
You're go.
380
00:29:03,567 --> 00:29:07,266
ASTRONAUT [over radio]:
We got an alarm. Bravo One.
381
00:29:07,745 --> 00:29:09,660
MAN 2 [over radio]: Bravo One.
Rocket 1201 alarm.
382
00:29:09,834 --> 00:29:11,227
MAN [over radio]: 1201 alarm.
383
00:29:11,401 --> 00:29:12,794
MAN 3 [over radio]:
Standby for go, Flight.
384
00:29:12,968 --> 00:29:14,708
MAN [over radio]:
Okay, we're go.
385
00:29:14,883 --> 00:29:16,232
MAN 2 [over radio]: We're go.
Sync tight. We're go.
386
00:29:16,406 --> 00:29:17,929
MAN 3 [over radio]:
Altitude 1600.
387
00:29:18,103 --> 00:29:19,539
MAN 2 [over radio]:
Eagle looking great.
388
00:29:19,713 --> 00:29:20,976
ASTRONAUT [over radio]:
Tranquility base here.
389
00:29:21,150 --> 00:29:24,849
The eagle has landed.
390
00:29:25,023 --> 00:29:27,417
The surface appears
to be very fine grained
391
00:29:27,591 --> 00:29:28,722
as you get close to it.
392
00:29:28,897 --> 00:29:30,986
It's almost like a powder.
393
00:29:35,033 --> 00:29:37,383
TYSON: NASA picked up
Kondratyuk's vision of a
394
00:29:37,557 --> 00:29:41,735
Lunar Orbiter Rendezvous and
took it all the way to the Moon.
395
00:29:42,432 --> 00:29:46,175
But Kondratyuk's
horizon extended far beyond.
396
00:29:48,220 --> 00:29:51,136
Kondratyuk envisioned
the first reconnaissance of
397
00:29:51,310 --> 00:29:54,574
the solar system by
swinging round the planets,
398
00:29:54,748 --> 00:29:57,534
and using the force
of their gravity to slingshot
399
00:29:57,708 --> 00:30:00,537
the craft farther
out into space.
400
00:30:01,059 --> 00:30:04,715
He dreamt that we would
swing from world to world as
401
00:30:04,889 --> 00:30:08,110
our ancestors had done
from tree to tree,
402
00:30:10,634 --> 00:30:15,378
bending gravity to human needs
on a slightly grander scale.
403
00:30:15,552 --> 00:30:19,861
But what gravity giveth,
it can also taketh away.
404
00:30:29,131 --> 00:30:33,396
TYSON: Why do some worlds
have rings, and others don't?
405
00:30:35,920 --> 00:30:38,357
Why no rings for Earth?
406
00:30:38,531 --> 00:30:40,794
Or Mars?
407
00:30:40,969 --> 00:30:43,928
We wouldn't recognize
Saturn without them.
408
00:30:44,102 --> 00:30:46,452
He looks naked
without his rings,
409
00:30:46,626 --> 00:30:49,499
but how did he get
them in the first place?
410
00:30:49,673 --> 00:30:53,155
This is exactly what
the French astronomer
EÉdouard Roche asked
411
00:30:53,329 --> 00:30:57,899
himself when he
looked at Saturn through
his telescope in 1848.
412
00:31:02,555 --> 00:31:05,994
Roche speculated
that Saturn's rings
were the debris of a moon,
413
00:31:06,168 --> 00:31:08,605
or moons, that
had ventured too close,
414
00:31:08,779 --> 00:31:12,217
and were pulled apart
by the massive planet.
415
00:31:18,354 --> 00:31:25,143
♪ ♪
416
00:31:27,580 --> 00:31:32,020
Roche was able to
devise an equation that
applies to all worlds.
417
00:31:32,194 --> 00:31:34,805
It tells you how closely
a body can come to a planet
418
00:31:34,979 --> 00:31:38,504
before it's pulled
apart by the planet's
tidal forces of gravity,
419
00:31:38,678 --> 00:31:42,247
and is turned into a ring.
420
00:31:44,075 --> 00:31:47,470
That's the Roche limit.
421
00:31:47,644 --> 00:31:50,255
But until NASA's Cassini
spacecraft executed a series
422
00:31:50,429 --> 00:31:53,041
of daredevil maneuvers
in the Saturn system,
423
00:31:53,215 --> 00:31:55,130
there was a vigorous
scientific debate about
424
00:31:55,304 --> 00:31:57,523
when his rings formed.
425
00:31:57,697 --> 00:31:59,395
Some astronomers
suggested they were nearly
426
00:31:59,569 --> 00:32:01,832
as old as the planet itself.
427
00:32:02,006 --> 00:32:04,966
More than 4 billion years ago,
when the planet coalesced out
428
00:32:05,140 --> 00:32:09,013
of the disc of gas and dust
that surrounded the newborn sun,
429
00:32:09,187 --> 00:32:13,975
a moon, or moons, likely
violated Saturn's Roche limit...
430
00:32:15,585 --> 00:32:18,457
Others thought the
rings to be fairly recent.
431
00:32:18,631 --> 00:32:21,547
Perhaps, only 100
million years old or so.
432
00:32:21,721 --> 00:32:25,725
And the Cassini spacecraft
proved them right.
433
00:32:27,553 --> 00:32:31,470
What is Earth's
own Roche limit?
434
00:32:33,124 --> 00:32:36,519
If the Moon were ever to come
closer than 12,000 miles,
435
00:32:36,693 --> 00:32:40,262
which, by the way,
it's absolutely in no
danger of doing.
436
00:32:50,185 --> 00:32:52,665
And it's a good thing, too,
437
00:32:52,839 --> 00:32:56,974
because I like our
Moon right where it is.
438
00:33:03,981 --> 00:33:06,375
There's only one other moon
in the solar system that moves
439
00:33:06,549 --> 00:33:08,551
me like ours does.
440
00:33:08,725 --> 00:33:10,944
Maybe it's because it's
the only one with a thick
441
00:33:11,119 --> 00:33:13,991
atmosphere like Earth's, and
the kind of surface features,
442
00:33:14,165 --> 00:33:17,647
lakes and mountains,
that remind me of home.
443
00:33:17,821 --> 00:33:21,825
All of this was hidden
from view by a dense layer
444
00:33:21,999 --> 00:33:25,307
of orange smog, until
the European Space Agency
445
00:33:25,481 --> 00:33:28,614
collaborated with NASA
to send a spacecraft to land
446
00:33:28,788 --> 00:33:31,835
on his mysterious surface.
447
00:33:32,009 --> 00:33:35,099
Yes, that would be
the one named after you,
448
00:33:35,273 --> 00:33:40,757
Christiaan Huygens,
first to see that world
through your telescope.
449
00:33:48,373 --> 00:33:51,420
After an interplanetary
voyage of seven years,
450
00:33:51,594 --> 00:33:55,250
the Cassini-Huygens spacecraft
arrived in the Saturn system,
451
00:33:55,424 --> 00:33:58,122
the fourth of our
ships to venture there.
452
00:33:58,296 --> 00:34:03,127
But the first to send a
probe to explore the surface
of Saturn's moon, Titan
453
00:34:09,090 --> 00:34:12,267
and to reveal a moon of far
greater complexity and splendor
454
00:34:12,441 --> 00:34:15,879
than our own rather
dull and lifeless Moon.
455
00:34:27,325 --> 00:34:31,112
As Carl Sagan had predicted
more than two decades before,
456
00:34:31,286 --> 00:34:33,853
there were seas of
methane, and ethane,
457
00:34:34,027 --> 00:34:37,074
and there was water-ice.
458
00:34:38,771 --> 00:34:41,600
When Cassini first
arrived in 2004 at Saturn's
459
00:34:41,774 --> 00:34:46,039
northern hemisphere, it
was in the depths of winter.
460
00:34:46,214 --> 00:34:48,999
And the Sun didn't come
out until five years later,
461
00:34:49,173 --> 00:34:52,437
when Saturn's
northern spring began.
462
00:34:52,611 --> 00:34:56,659
Is it just me, or is this
whirling hexagon at Saturn's
463
00:34:56,833 --> 00:35:01,054
North Pole every bit as exotic
as the fantasies our ancient
464
00:35:01,229 --> 00:35:04,188
ancestors had of these worlds?
465
00:35:04,362 --> 00:35:07,104
The geometrically regular
hexagonal shape of this
466
00:35:07,278 --> 00:35:11,413
feature brings to mind the
handiwork of intelligence,
467
00:35:11,587 --> 00:35:16,505
terraforming,
re-working the surface
for some unknown purpose.
468
00:35:17,506 --> 00:35:20,596
But it's actually the result
of the sudden change in wind
469
00:35:20,770 --> 00:35:25,427
speeds as vast upwellings
of ammonia rise near the poles.
470
00:35:25,601 --> 00:35:28,125
It's the mother
of all hurricanes,
471
00:35:28,299 --> 00:35:30,736
a frenzy of thunder
and lightning,
472
00:35:30,910 --> 00:35:34,131
containing countless
hurricanes within it.
473
00:35:34,653 --> 00:35:37,961
Spring can be a violent,
stormy season, on Earth, too.
474
00:35:38,135 --> 00:35:41,617
But it was during Saturn's
seven year-long summer that
475
00:35:41,791 --> 00:35:45,795
Cassini was commanded
to take her own life.
476
00:36:04,466 --> 00:36:10,167
♪ ♪
477
00:36:10,341 --> 00:36:13,823
TYSON: There's a human conceit
that at the moment of death,
478
00:36:13,997 --> 00:36:17,218
we re-live our
greatest memories.
479
00:36:21,787 --> 00:36:25,269
You are riffling through the
memory bank of a doomed robot,
480
00:36:25,443 --> 00:36:29,360
about to carry out
the cruelest command.
481
00:36:44,897 --> 00:36:51,426
♪ ♪
482
00:37:12,534 --> 00:37:18,322
♪ ♪
483
00:37:39,343 --> 00:37:46,132
♪ ♪
484
00:38:06,022 --> 00:38:12,289
♪ ♪
485
00:38:32,222 --> 00:38:38,663
♪ ♪
486
00:38:39,142 --> 00:38:42,319
The mission planners at
NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory
487
00:38:42,493 --> 00:38:45,583
call this the "“ball of yarn,"”
488
00:38:45,757 --> 00:38:50,022
13 years of exploration
through the Saturn system.
489
00:38:53,852 --> 00:38:58,509
From the time
of her launch in 1997 and
throughout her epic voyage,
490
00:38:58,683 --> 00:39:05,168
she has used the gravity
assist conceived 100 years
before by Yuri Kondratyuk.
491
00:39:06,299 --> 00:39:08,693
But it was her supply of
rocket fuel that made it
492
00:39:08,867 --> 00:39:11,914
possible for her Earthbound
controllers to steer her into
493
00:39:12,088 --> 00:39:15,396
new trajectories
of exploration.
494
00:39:15,570 --> 00:39:20,226
In April of 2017, Cassini
was running low on that fuel.
495
00:39:20,401 --> 00:39:23,882
It was time for her most
daring maneuvers of all,
496
00:39:24,056 --> 00:39:27,799
before she was to be
sent into a final death dive.
497
00:39:38,723 --> 00:39:41,944
These are the mission
scientists of Cassini,
498
00:39:42,118 --> 00:39:43,989
some of whom have been
working on the project since
499
00:39:44,163 --> 00:39:48,298
the 1990s, when it
was no more than a dream.
500
00:39:48,472 --> 00:39:52,476
They know that
Cassini must die.
501
00:39:52,650 --> 00:39:55,436
It's too dangerous to
let her wander aimlessly.
502
00:39:55,610 --> 00:39:58,351
She might crash into one of
the moons in the Saturn system
503
00:39:58,526 --> 00:40:01,006
where life might be hiding.
504
00:40:01,180 --> 00:40:04,053
This would violate
NASA's planetary protection
505
00:40:04,227 --> 00:40:08,187
conventions on quarantine
in the book of space laws.
506
00:40:08,884 --> 00:40:11,234
If left to chance,
Cassini could alter the
507
00:40:11,408 --> 00:40:15,891
possible biological destiny
of Titan or Enceladus.
508
00:40:18,502 --> 00:40:22,854
A terrible command
must now be given.
509
00:40:31,428 --> 00:40:34,649
Cassini is so far away,
it will take the message,
510
00:40:34,823 --> 00:40:36,694
traveling at
the speed of light,
511
00:40:36,868 --> 00:40:39,175
more than an
hour to reach her.
512
00:40:39,349 --> 00:40:42,483
Every microchip in her
has been programmed to resist
513
00:40:42,657 --> 00:40:45,529
the commands
she's now receiving.
514
00:40:45,703 --> 00:40:48,924
The inner-turmoil of the
loyal robot commanded to defy
515
00:40:49,098 --> 00:40:52,580
her own instincts
must be fierce.
516
00:40:52,754 --> 00:40:55,539
The same engineers who
ordered her to protect herself
517
00:40:55,713 --> 00:41:00,718
in every situation now force
her to plunge to her death.
518
00:41:02,328 --> 00:41:04,679
They must be obeyed.
519
00:41:04,853 --> 00:41:06,594
MAN [over radio]:
System lead ace.
520
00:41:06,768 --> 00:41:10,423
We have telemetry
AOS at zero one.
521
00:41:10,598 --> 00:41:13,818
One, niner.
One two.
522
00:41:15,603 --> 00:41:17,779
TYSON: She fights off the
immense forces by struggling
523
00:41:17,953 --> 00:41:20,695
to right herself
one last time.
524
00:41:20,869 --> 00:41:23,611
She fires her
thrusters at 100%,
525
00:41:23,785 --> 00:41:26,483
all the while faithfully
sending back more data than
526
00:41:26,657 --> 00:41:29,399
her designers
ever hoped she would.
527
00:41:29,573 --> 00:41:31,183
WOMAN [over radio]: Project
Manager. Flight Director.
528
00:41:31,357 --> 00:41:33,185
MAN [over radio]: Go ahead.
529
00:41:33,359 --> 00:41:36,275
WOMAN [over radio]: Okay. We'd call loss of signal at 11:55:46.
530
00:41:37,929 --> 00:41:40,802
TYSON: She fights the brutal
atmospheric resistance until
531
00:41:40,976 --> 00:41:43,239
her fuel tanks are empty,
532
00:41:43,413 --> 00:41:46,372
and there's no
more fight left in her.
533
00:41:48,026 --> 00:41:52,161
MAN [over radio]: Project
manager on, maybe a trickle
of telemetry left, but,
534
00:41:52,335 --> 00:41:56,774
just heard the signal
from the spacecraft is gone
535
00:41:56,948 --> 00:42:00,996
and within the next 45 seconds
so will be the spacecraft.
536
00:42:14,139 --> 00:42:19,144
♪ ♪
537
00:42:19,318 --> 00:42:24,497
TYSON: Official time of
death: 11:55 universal time.
538
00:42:27,065 --> 00:42:31,504
There are all kinds of
stories in the struggle
to understand the cosmos.
539
00:42:31,679 --> 00:42:34,638
Sometimes your
dreams die with you,
540
00:42:34,812 --> 00:42:39,164
but sometimes the scientists
of another age pick them up,
541
00:42:39,338 --> 00:42:43,081
and take them to the
Moon, and far beyond.
542
00:42:45,736 --> 00:42:49,566
The name of Yuri
Kondratyuk was forgotten,
543
00:42:49,740 --> 00:42:53,309
but there was
one who remembered.
544
00:42:56,399 --> 00:42:59,750
When Neil Armstrong returned
from his trip to the Moon,
545
00:42:59,924 --> 00:43:03,406
he made a pilgrimage to
the childhood home of the man
546
00:43:03,580 --> 00:43:06,627
who made his
mythic voyage possible.
547
00:43:08,890 --> 00:43:13,634
♪ ♪
548
00:43:53,108 --> 00:43:55,023
Captioned by
Cotter Captioning Services.
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