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1
00:00:10,800 --> 00:00:13,733
EVER WORRY
ABOUT PICKING UP A BUG?
2
00:00:16,467 --> 00:00:21,233
WHAT IF WE HAVE ALL CAUGHT
SOMETHING...
3
00:00:21,233 --> 00:00:23,233
SOMETHING UNIDENTIFIABLE
4
00:00:23,233 --> 00:00:25,733
AND FROM UNKNOWN ORIGINS?
5
00:00:30,133 --> 00:00:32,200
NOT FROM EACH OTHER.
6
00:00:32,200 --> 00:00:33,733
FROM THE HEAVENS.
7
00:00:36,100 --> 00:00:39,400
DROPS OF RAIN COULD BE
BRINGING US VISITORS
8
00:00:39,400 --> 00:00:43,300
FROM ANOTHER PLANET --
ALIENS INVADING OUR BLOODLINES
9
00:00:43,300 --> 00:00:47,633
OR MAYBE EVEN
INFECTING OUR TECHNOLOGY.
10
00:00:47,633 --> 00:00:51,067
THEY COULD BE HIDDEN
IN PACKETS OF DIGITAL DATA,
11
00:00:51,067 --> 00:00:54,500
IN A FORM
WE DON'T EVEN RECOGNIZE AS LIFE.
12
00:00:54,500 --> 00:01:00,100
ALIEN INTELLIGENCE MAY BE
TRACKING OUR EVERY MOVE.
13
00:01:00,100 --> 00:01:04,300
WE HAVEN'T FOUND
ANY EXTRATERRESTRIALS YET,
14
00:01:04,300 --> 00:01:08,933
BUT MAYBE WE'RE LOOKING
IN THE WRONG PLACES.
15
00:01:08,933 --> 00:01:11,433
ARE ALIENS INSIDE US?
16
00:01:16,467 --> 00:01:20,900
SPACE, TIME, LIFE ITSELF.
17
00:01:23,400 --> 00:01:27,867
THE SECRETS OF THE COSMOS
LIE THROUGH THE WORMHOLE.
18
00:01:32,167 --> 00:01:35,167
-- Captions by VITAC --
www.vitac.com
19
00:01:35,167 --> 00:01:38,200
CAPTIONS PAID FOR BY
DISCOVERY COMMUNICATIONS
20
00:01:40,067 --> 00:01:44,800
THE SIZE OF THE UNIVERSE
IS REALLY HARD TO COMPREHEND.
21
00:01:44,800 --> 00:01:46,433
HUNDREDS OF BILLIONS OF STARS
22
00:01:46,433 --> 00:01:50,900
IN OUR GALAXY AND BILLIONS
OF GALAXIES BEYOND.
23
00:01:50,900 --> 00:01:55,533
IT SEEMS IMPOSSIBLE TO IMAGINE
THAT THE ONLY PLACE LIFE
24
00:01:55,533 --> 00:01:58,333
EXISTS IS HERE ON EARTH.
25
00:01:58,333 --> 00:02:02,367
ARE WE THE ONLY INTELLIGENT
LIFE-FORM IN THE COSMOS?
26
00:02:02,367 --> 00:02:06,633
IF NOT,
THEN WHERE ARE THE OTHERS?
27
00:02:06,633 --> 00:02:11,200
IN THE PAST, WE'VE ALWAYS
LOOKED UP TO THE HEAVENS.
28
00:02:11,200 --> 00:02:13,867
BUT TO FIND ALIEN LIFE,
29
00:02:13,867 --> 00:02:19,100
MAYBE WE ONLY NEED TO LOOK DOWN,
WITHIN OUR WORLD
30
00:02:19,100 --> 00:02:21,700
AND INSIDE OUR BODIES.
31
00:02:26,900 --> 00:02:31,933
THIS MAN HAS ALIEN INTRUDERS
INSIDE OF HIM RIGHT NOW.
32
00:02:31,933 --> 00:02:36,867
CEDRIC FESCHOTTE IS A GENETICIST
AT THE UNIVERSITY OF UTAH.
33
00:02:36,867 --> 00:02:39,133
HE'S WELL AWARE THAT HE,
34
00:02:39,133 --> 00:02:41,500
LIKE EVERY LIVING
BEING ON THE PLANET,
35
00:02:41,500 --> 00:02:45,067
HOSTS FOREIGN VIRUSES
AND BACTERIA.
36
00:02:45,067 --> 00:02:49,233
BUT CEDRIC IS FOCUSED
ON MORE INSIDIOUS INTRUDERS.
37
00:02:49,233 --> 00:02:51,633
SEE THEM IN GENOME SEQUENCES.
38
00:02:51,633 --> 00:02:53,067
MANY COPIES,
39
00:02:53,067 --> 00:02:56,533
BUT WE REALLY DON'T UNDERSTAND
HOW THEY GOT THERE.
40
00:02:56,533 --> 00:03:01,300
Freeman: THESE ALIEN ENTITIES
ARE CALLED TRANSPOSONS.
41
00:03:01,300 --> 00:03:04,667
THEY'RE PIECES OF DNA
WHICH SNEAK IN FROM THE OUTSIDE
42
00:03:04,667 --> 00:03:08,100
AND INSERT THEMSELVES
INTO OUR GENES.
43
00:03:08,100 --> 00:03:11,833
SO THEY COPY AND PASTE
TO NEW PLACES IN THE GENOME.
44
00:03:11,833 --> 00:03:14,767
THIS REPLICATION IS INDEPENDENT
FROM THE REPLICATION
45
00:03:14,767 --> 00:03:16,167
OF THE WHOLE SET.
46
00:03:16,167 --> 00:03:21,133
AND THEY DO THIS MUCH MORE OFTEN
THAN THE SET ACTUALLY REPLICATE.
47
00:03:21,133 --> 00:03:24,400
Freeman: THEY'RE NOT JUST
INVADING HUMAN CELLS.
48
00:03:24,400 --> 00:03:29,967
VIRTUALLY EVERY LIVING THING
ON EARTH CONTAINS TRANSPOSONS.
49
00:03:29,967 --> 00:03:32,767
Feschotte: IN FACT, THEY ARE
THE SINGLE LARGEST COMPONENTS
50
00:03:32,767 --> 00:03:37,200
OF THE GENOME OF MANY PLANTS,
MANY ANIMALS AS WELL.
51
00:03:37,200 --> 00:03:40,300
WE LIKE TO CALL
THEM SPACE INVADERS.
52
00:03:40,300 --> 00:03:45,067
Freeman:
OUR DNA COMES TO US IN A DIRECT
LINE FROM OUR ANCESTORS,
53
00:03:45,067 --> 00:03:48,500
GENERATION AFTER GENERATION.
54
00:03:48,500 --> 00:03:52,533
AND THAT GENETIC INHERITANCE
ALSO INCLUDES THE TRANSPOSONS
55
00:03:52,533 --> 00:03:57,467
THAT SNUCK
INTO OUR ANCESTORS' DNA.
56
00:03:57,467 --> 00:03:59,233
EVERY ONCE IN A WHILE,
57
00:03:59,233 --> 00:04:04,133
A NEW TRANSPOSON
MYSTERIOUSLY FINDS ITS WAY IN,
58
00:04:04,133 --> 00:04:07,733
LIKE A SKATEBOARD THAT SUDDENLY
APPEARS AND BECOMES PART
59
00:04:07,733 --> 00:04:12,733
OF THE WAY CEDRIC'S ANCESTOR
MOVED THROUGH THE WORLD.
60
00:04:12,733 --> 00:04:15,600
THESE ALIEN INTRUDERS
CAN CONTINUE MULTIPLYING
61
00:04:15,600 --> 00:04:18,233
AND PASSING DOWN
TO SUCCESSIVE GENERATIONS
62
00:04:18,233 --> 00:04:20,067
UNTIL A SINGLE TRANSPOSON
63
00:04:20,067 --> 00:04:24,067
EXISTS IN THE ENTIRE POPULATION
OF A SPECIES.
64
00:04:27,733 --> 00:04:31,633
AND TRANSPOSONS ARE SO GOOD
AT REPLICATING INSIDE OF US
65
00:04:31,633 --> 00:04:36,633
THAT HALF OF OUR DNA
IS NOW ALIEN.
66
00:04:41,167 --> 00:04:43,333
WHEN THE TRANSPOSON JUMP
INTO THE CHROMOSOME,
67
00:04:43,333 --> 00:04:45,300
IT'S LIKE A MUTATION.
68
00:04:45,300 --> 00:04:48,067
SOMETHING NEW WAS INTRODUCED
THERE.
69
00:04:48,067 --> 00:04:50,067
SO MOST OF THE TRANSPOSONS
IN YOUR GENOME
70
00:04:50,067 --> 00:04:51,500
DON'T REALLY AFFECT YOU,
71
00:04:51,500 --> 00:04:54,733
JUST LIKE THESE BUNNY EARS TODAY
WON'T REALLY AFFECT MY SKATING.
72
00:04:54,733 --> 00:04:57,367
Freeman: OTHER TRANSPOSONS
CAN BE HELPFUL.
73
00:04:57,367 --> 00:04:59,767
IN FACT, ONE OF THESE INTRUDERS
74
00:04:59,767 --> 00:05:04,067
BECAME THE FOUNDATION
FOR OUR IMMUNE SYSTEM.
75
00:05:04,067 --> 00:05:06,500
IT'S LIKE A HELMET
SUDDENLY APPEARING TO PROTECT
76
00:05:06,500 --> 00:05:08,933
CEDRIC'S HEAD.
77
00:05:08,933 --> 00:05:11,800
THIS TRANSPOSON ARRIVED
MILLIONS OF YEARS AGO
78
00:05:11,800 --> 00:05:15,133
AND GAVE US THE ABILITY
TO CREATE ANTIBODIES,
79
00:05:15,133 --> 00:05:19,633
A CRUCIAL LINE OF DEFENSE
AGAINST PATHOGENS.
80
00:05:19,633 --> 00:05:20,867
Feschotte:
AND WITHOUT THIS TRANSPOSON,
81
00:05:20,867 --> 00:05:23,100
WE JUST PROBABLY
WOULD NOT BE HERE TODAY.
82
00:05:23,100 --> 00:05:28,467
Freeman: THE TRANSPOSONS
CAN ALSO CAUSE PROBLEMS.
83
00:05:28,467 --> 00:05:30,967
SOMETIMES, TRANSPOSONS
CAN BE HARMFUL, TOO,
84
00:05:30,967 --> 00:05:33,733
LIKE THIS BLINDFOLD ON MY HEAD.
85
00:05:33,733 --> 00:05:36,600
CANT FIND MY SKATEBOARD NOW.
86
00:05:36,600 --> 00:05:39,133
THERE'S OVER
100 DIFFERENT GENETIC DISEASE
87
00:05:39,133 --> 00:05:41,400
TIED TO TRANSPOSITION EVENTS.
88
00:05:41,400 --> 00:05:42,967
THIS CAN REALLY BE SO BAD
89
00:05:42,967 --> 00:05:45,100
THAT IT COULD LEAD
TO EXTINCTION OF A SPECIES,
90
00:05:45,100 --> 00:05:49,933
JUST LIKE A VIRUS COULD SPREAD
AND TURN INTO A PANDEMIC.
91
00:05:49,933 --> 00:05:51,567
Freeman:
CEDRIC THINKS IT'S POSSIBLE
92
00:05:51,567 --> 00:05:54,267
THAT TRANSPOSONS
BREAK INTO OUR CELLS
93
00:05:54,267 --> 00:05:57,633
BY ATTACHING THEMSELVES
TO VIRUSES.
94
00:05:57,633 --> 00:05:59,067
Feschotte: THEY COULD PIGGYBACK
ONTO A VIRUS.
95
00:05:59,067 --> 00:06:01,333
AND THEN THIS VIRUS
CAN INFECT A NEW CELL.
96
00:06:01,333 --> 00:06:02,733
AND THEN THE TRANSPOSON
97
00:06:02,733 --> 00:06:07,100
CAN INFILTRATE THAT NEW
INDIVIDUAL OR THAT NEW SPECIES.
98
00:06:07,100 --> 00:06:09,533
Freeman: AS THE VIRUS
GOES ABOUT ITS BUSINESS,
99
00:06:09,533 --> 00:06:14,200
DISRUPTING OUR DNA,
THE TRANSPOSON SNEAKS IN, TOO,
100
00:06:14,200 --> 00:06:16,633
AND NEVER LEAVES.
101
00:06:16,633 --> 00:06:20,433
BUT THE BIGGEST MYSTERY
OF ALL IS WHERE THESE BITS
102
00:06:20,433 --> 00:06:25,200
OF SELF-REPLICATING DNA
COME FROM IN THE FIRST PLACE.
103
00:06:25,200 --> 00:06:26,967
THEY ARE SO ABUNDANT,
104
00:06:26,967 --> 00:06:28,633
YET WE KNOW VERY LITTLE
ABOUT THEM.
105
00:06:28,633 --> 00:06:32,067
IN FACT, IT'S REALLY LIKE
THE DARK MATTER OF THE GENOME.
106
00:06:38,133 --> 00:06:42,400
COULD THE SPACE INVADERS
TAKING UP SO MUCH ROOM
107
00:06:42,400 --> 00:06:46,700
IN OUR DNA HAVE ACTUALLY COME
FROM OUTER SPACE?
108
00:06:46,700 --> 00:06:48,733
WE STILL HAVEN'T FOUND
ANY OTHER SIGNS
109
00:06:48,733 --> 00:06:51,133
OF LIFE IN OUR SOLAR SYSTEM.
110
00:06:51,133 --> 00:06:54,067
THAT MEANS ALIEN PIECES OF DNA
111
00:06:54,067 --> 00:06:58,300
WOULD HAVE TO COME
FROM A DISTANT STAR SYSTEM.
112
00:06:58,300 --> 00:07:02,500
BUT HOW COULD ANYTHING
BIOLOGICAL
113
00:07:02,500 --> 00:07:05,367
SURVIVE THAT KIND OF TRIP?
114
00:07:08,133 --> 00:07:10,633
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
ASTROPHYSICIST
115
00:07:10,633 --> 00:07:14,767
FRED ADAMS
BELIEVES HE HAS AN ANSWER.
116
00:07:14,767 --> 00:07:18,300
ACCORDING TO A THEORY,
KNOWN AS PANSPERMIA,
117
00:07:18,300 --> 00:07:20,200
LIFE SPREADS AROUND THE UNIVERSE
118
00:07:20,200 --> 00:07:24,300
WHEN A COMET
OR ASTEROID HITS A PLANET.
119
00:07:24,300 --> 00:07:28,267
THE IMPACT SENDS DEBRIS SHOOTING
ALL THE WAY UP INTO SPACE
120
00:07:28,267 --> 00:07:32,267
AND EVENTUALLY ONTO THE SURFACE
OF ANOTHER PLANET.
121
00:07:32,267 --> 00:07:36,067
WE SEE METEORITES FROM MARS
ON A SOMEWHAT REGULAR BASIS.
122
00:07:36,067 --> 00:07:40,067
SO WE DO KNOW THAT THERE'S
TRANSFER FROM MARS TO EARTH.
123
00:07:40,067 --> 00:07:43,567
Freeman: HOWEVER, MARTIAN ROCKS
DON'T CONTAIN LIFE.
124
00:07:43,567 --> 00:07:45,600
AND OUR OTHER
NEIGHBORING PLANETS
125
00:07:45,600 --> 00:07:47,633
DON'T APPEAR TO HAVE ANY,
EITHER.
126
00:07:47,633 --> 00:07:49,233
SO FRED STARTED WONDERING
127
00:07:49,233 --> 00:07:52,233
IF LIFE COULD'VE MADE
A MUCH LONGER JOURNEY TO EARTH
128
00:07:52,233 --> 00:07:55,933
FROM OUTSIDE OUR OWN
SOLAR SYSTEM.
129
00:07:55,933 --> 00:07:58,400
IN ORDER TO BE TRANSFERRED,
THE ELEMENTS OF LIFE,
130
00:07:58,400 --> 00:08:01,200
BASICALLY BACTERIAL
KIND OF ORGANISMS,
131
00:08:01,200 --> 00:08:03,700
HAVE TO BE ENCASED IN ROCK.
132
00:08:03,700 --> 00:08:07,067
Freeman: THE ROCK PROVIDES
PROTECTION FROM EXTREME COLD,
133
00:08:07,067 --> 00:08:11,933
HEAT, AND DAMAGING RADIATION.
134
00:08:11,933 --> 00:08:18,133
THE SHIELD NEEDS TO BE
A LITTLE BIGGER THAN THIS BALL.
135
00:08:18,133 --> 00:08:19,867
IN ORDER FOR SOLAR SYSTEMS
TO SHARE ROCKS,
136
00:08:19,867 --> 00:08:21,267
TWO THINGS HAVE TO HAPPEN.
137
00:08:21,267 --> 00:08:23,700
THE FIRST IS THAT THE SOLAR
SYSTEMS HAVE TO EJECT ROCKS
138
00:08:23,700 --> 00:08:25,300
FROM THEIR IMMEDIATE VICINITY.
139
00:08:25,300 --> 00:08:27,267
AND THE SECOND THING
IS THAT ANOTHER SOLAR SYSTEM
140
00:08:27,267 --> 00:08:29,867
HAS TO CAPTURE THEM.
141
00:08:29,867 --> 00:08:32,900
Freeman: A LARGE ENOUGH IMPACT
FROM AN ASTEROID OR A COMET
142
00:08:32,900 --> 00:08:35,067
COULD EASILY
PRODUCE ENOUGH ENERGY
143
00:08:35,067 --> 00:08:38,267
TO SHOOT DEBRIS
OUT OF A SOLAR SYSTEM.
144
00:08:38,267 --> 00:08:41,533
BUT WHETHER IT CAN HIT A PLANET
ORBITING ANOTHER SUN
145
00:08:41,533 --> 00:08:44,067
IS MUCH LESS CERTAIN.
146
00:08:44,067 --> 00:08:45,600
SPACE IS RELENTLESSLY EMPTY,
147
00:08:45,600 --> 00:08:47,833
WHICH MAKES ROCK TRANSFER
BETWEEN SOLAR SYSTEMS
148
00:08:47,833 --> 00:08:50,067
VERY DIFFICULT.
149
00:08:50,067 --> 00:08:52,533
Freeman: THERE'S AN AVERAGE
OF FOUR TO FIVE LIGHT-YEARS
150
00:08:52,533 --> 00:08:55,567
BETWEEN SOLAR SYSTEMS
IN OUR GALAXY.
151
00:08:55,567 --> 00:08:58,800
EVEN IF YOU COULD LAUNCH
A SPACE ROCK THAT FAR,
152
00:08:58,800 --> 00:09:00,933
WHAT ARE THE CHANCES
OF HITTING ANOTHER PLANET
153
00:09:00,933 --> 00:09:04,067
UP TO 30 TRILLION MILES AWAY?
154
00:09:04,067 --> 00:09:06,367
OKAY, LET'S CONSIDER
A SIMPLE ANALOGY.
155
00:09:06,367 --> 00:09:09,367
EACH OF THESE LACROSSE PLAYERS
WILL REPRESENT A SOLAR SYSTEM,
156
00:09:09,367 --> 00:09:12,333
AND THE BALL WILL REPRESENT
A LIFE-BEARING ROCK.
157
00:09:12,333 --> 00:09:14,600
AS THE PLAYERS THROW THE BALL
BACK AND FORTH TO EACH OTHER,
158
00:09:14,600 --> 00:09:16,300
IT'S LIKE A ROCK
BEING TRANSFERRED
159
00:09:16,300 --> 00:09:17,967
FROM ONE SOLAR SYSTEM
TO ANOTHER.
160
00:09:17,967 --> 00:09:21,233
LET'S SEE WHAT HAPPENS.
161
00:09:21,233 --> 00:09:26,200
Freeman:
SUPPOSE THE LENGTH OF A LACROSSE
FIELD REPRESENTS A LIGHT-YEAR.
162
00:09:26,200 --> 00:09:30,467
EVEN IF A PLAYER COULD THROW
A BALL FOUR OR FIVE FIELDS AWAY,
163
00:09:30,467 --> 00:09:33,233
CONSIDER HOW UNLIKELY
IT WOULD BE FOR THAT PLAYER
164
00:09:33,233 --> 00:09:35,233
TO TOSS A BALL BLINDLY
165
00:09:35,233 --> 00:09:38,367
AND HAVE IT LAND
IN THE POCKET OF A TEAMMATE.
166
00:09:38,367 --> 00:09:41,300
AND DISTANCE
ISN'T THE ONLY FACTOR.
167
00:09:41,300 --> 00:09:43,800
SOLAR SYSTEMS IN OUR GALAXY
168
00:09:43,800 --> 00:09:47,233
ARE ALSO FLYING AROUND
EACH OTHER
169
00:09:47,233 --> 00:09:51,333
120 TIMES FASTER
THAN THE SPEED OF SOUND.
170
00:09:51,333 --> 00:09:55,100
SO NOW THE TEAMMATE
HAS TO BE RUNNING FULL SPEED.
171
00:09:55,100 --> 00:09:58,900
EVEN WHEN AN ALIEN ROCK'S
TRAJECTORY IS ON TARGET,
172
00:09:58,900 --> 00:10:01,767
IT'S ALMOST ALWAYS
MOVING TOO FAST FOR GRAVITY
173
00:10:01,767 --> 00:10:04,933
IN THE NEW SOLAR SYSTEM
TO CATCH IT.
174
00:10:04,933 --> 00:10:06,400
IMAGINE THE DIFFICULTY
175
00:10:06,400 --> 00:10:09,100
IN CATCHING A SPEEDING LACROSSE
BALL FROM HUNDREDS OF YARDS
176
00:10:09,100 --> 00:10:14,300
AWAY WHILE RUNNING
AND WITH A BROKEN NET.
177
00:10:14,300 --> 00:10:15,667
NOT SURPRISINGLY,
178
00:10:15,667 --> 00:10:18,400
WHEN FRED RAN THE NUMBERS
CALCULATING THE DISTANCE
179
00:10:18,400 --> 00:10:20,867
BETWEEN EARTH
AND OTHER SOLAR SYSTEMS,
180
00:10:20,867 --> 00:10:24,367
FACTORING IN THE MOVEMENTS
OF STARS AND PLANETS,
181
00:10:24,367 --> 00:10:27,267
IT SEEMED IMPOSSIBLE
THAT AN ALIEN ROCK
182
00:10:27,267 --> 00:10:30,067
COULD EVER FIND EARTH
FROM SO FAR AWAY.
183
00:10:30,067 --> 00:10:32,967
BUT THEN FRED
REALIZED SOMETHING HE'D MISSED,
184
00:10:32,967 --> 00:10:36,967
SOMETHING THAT SUDDENLY MADE IT
A LOT MORE LIKELY THAT ALIENS
185
00:10:36,967 --> 00:10:39,033
COULD HAVE LANDED HERE.
186
00:10:39,033 --> 00:10:41,700
FOUR AND A HALF BILLION
YEARS AGO,
187
00:10:41,700 --> 00:10:43,867
THINGS WERE A LOT DIFFERENT.
188
00:10:43,867 --> 00:10:45,333
ALIEN SUNS
189
00:10:45,333 --> 00:10:49,267
AND THEIR SURROUNDING PLANETS
CROWDED EARTH'S NIGHT SKY.
190
00:10:49,267 --> 00:10:50,633
NEIGHBORING SOLAR SYSTEMS
191
00:10:50,633 --> 00:10:55,033
WERE ROUGHLY 10 TIMES CLOSER
THAN THEY ARE TODAY.
192
00:10:55,033 --> 00:10:58,400
NOW THE LACROSSE PLAYERS CAN BE
DOZENS OF YARDS FROM EACH OTHER
193
00:10:58,400 --> 00:11:00,600
INSTEAD OF HUNDREDS.
194
00:11:00,600 --> 00:11:01,600
IN THE EARLY PART
195
00:11:01,600 --> 00:11:03,133
OF THE EVOLUTION
OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM,
196
00:11:03,133 --> 00:11:07,733
THE SOLAR SYSTEM
WAS LIVING IN A DENSE CLUSTER.
197
00:11:07,733 --> 00:11:11,267
Freeman:
AND SOLAR SYSTEMS BACK THEN
WERE MOVING AROUND EACH OTHER
198
00:11:11,267 --> 00:11:14,533
40 TIMES MORE SLOWLY THAN TODAY.
199
00:11:14,533 --> 00:11:16,467
ON THE LACROSSE FIELD,
200
00:11:16,467 --> 00:11:19,133
THAT MAKES COMPLETING A PASS
A LOT SIMPLER.
201
00:11:19,133 --> 00:11:22,900
Adams: IF THE PLAYERS ARE CLOSE
TOGETHER AND MOVING SLOWLY,
202
00:11:22,900 --> 00:11:25,167
IT'S EASY FOR THEM
TO PASS THE BALL FROM ONE PERSON
203
00:11:25,167 --> 00:11:26,433
TO THE OTHER.
204
00:11:26,433 --> 00:11:30,133
Freeman: IF FRED IS RIGHT,
BILLIONS OF YEARS AGO,
205
00:11:30,133 --> 00:11:31,633
OUR HOME PLANET
206
00:11:31,633 --> 00:11:36,300
WOULD'VE BEEN IN POSITION TO
SNARE ANCIENT ALIEN ORGANISMS.
207
00:11:36,300 --> 00:11:39,100
COULD THEY HAVE SEEDED LIFE
ON EARTH?
208
00:11:39,100 --> 00:11:41,733
THIS BIOLOGIST THINKS THEY DID
209
00:11:41,733 --> 00:11:45,667
AND THAT THEY'RE STILL
RAINING DOWN ON US TODAY.
210
00:11:45,667 --> 00:11:50,600
HE SAYS HE HAS PROOF
THAT ORGANISMS FROM OUTER SPACE
211
00:11:50,600 --> 00:11:55,133
ARE IN OUR ATMOSPHERE RIGHT NOW.
212
00:11:58,200 --> 00:12:00,200
THE SEEDS OF LIFE ON EARTH
213
00:12:00,200 --> 00:12:02,767
MAY HAVE ARRIVED BILLIONS
OF YEARS AGO
214
00:12:02,767 --> 00:12:05,967
FROM A DISTANT ALIEN WORLD.
215
00:12:05,967 --> 00:12:09,067
BUT IF LIFE GOT HERE
BY HIDING ON A METEORITE
216
00:12:09,067 --> 00:12:13,100
FALLEN FROM THE SKY...
217
00:12:13,100 --> 00:12:16,067
COULD IT STILL BE
RAINING DOWN ON US RIGHT NOW?
218
00:12:22,400 --> 00:12:25,567
MILTON WAINWRIGHT
IS A MICROBIOLOGIST
219
00:12:25,567 --> 00:12:29,067
AT THE UNIVERSITY OF SHEFFIELD
IN ENGLAND.
220
00:12:29,067 --> 00:12:31,100
HE BELIEVES HE'S FOUND EVIDENCE
221
00:12:31,100 --> 00:12:36,700
THAT EXTRATERRESTRIAL LIFE FALLS
LIKE RAIN FROM THE HEAVENS.
222
00:12:36,700 --> 00:12:40,400
Wainwright:
SO THE BASIC IDEA OF PANSPERMIA
IS THAT LIFE CAME FROM SPACE.
223
00:12:40,400 --> 00:12:41,667
THERE WAS NO LIFE ON EARTH.
224
00:12:41,667 --> 00:12:45,900
THAT LIFE WAS DELIVERED
BY ASTEROIDS AND COMETS.
225
00:12:45,900 --> 00:12:48,733
NOW, NEO-PANSPERMIA,
NEO MEANING NEW, UH,
226
00:12:48,733 --> 00:12:52,400
SUGGESTS THAT LIFE
IS CONTINUING TO COME FROM SPACE
227
00:12:52,400 --> 00:12:55,433
AT THIS VERY MINUTE.
228
00:12:55,433 --> 00:12:58,833
Freeman: IN 2013, MILTON AND
HIS TEAM COLLECTED SAMPLES
229
00:12:58,833 --> 00:13:03,600
FROM THE STRATOSPHERE
SOME 16 MILES UP.
230
00:13:03,600 --> 00:13:08,900
THAT'S THREE TIMES HIGHER
THAN COMMERCIAL JETLINERS FLY.
231
00:13:08,900 --> 00:13:12,100
THE LOWER ATMOSPHERE
IS FULL OF LIFE,
232
00:13:12,100 --> 00:13:16,133
BUT MILTON THINKS
THE STRATOSPHERE IS, TOO.
233
00:13:16,133 --> 00:13:17,967
HIS CONTROVERSIAL CLAIM
234
00:13:17,967 --> 00:13:22,167
IS THAT IT CONTAINS LIFE FORMS
FROM OUTER SPACE.
235
00:13:22,167 --> 00:13:25,900
THE SUGGESTION BY THE CRITICS
IS THIS MATERIAL IS GOING UP
236
00:13:25,900 --> 00:13:27,867
AND NOT COMING DOWN FROM SPACE.
237
00:13:27,867 --> 00:13:29,600
IT'S JUST EARTH MATERIAL.
238
00:13:29,600 --> 00:13:32,967
NOW, THERE'S A NUMBER OF REASONS
WHY WE THINK THAT'S WRONG.
239
00:13:32,967 --> 00:13:34,700
Freeman:
MILTON COUNTERS THAT HIS SAMPLES
240
00:13:34,700 --> 00:13:39,933
CAME FROM FAR TOO HIGH TO HAVE
BEEN BLOWN UPWARD BY THE WIND.
241
00:13:39,933 --> 00:13:42,067
Wainwright: PHYSICS TELLS US
THAT THE PARTICLES
242
00:13:42,067 --> 00:13:45,467
WE HAVE ARE TOO BIG
TO REACH THE STRATOSPHERE.
243
00:13:45,467 --> 00:13:46,867
NOW, THAT'S JUST PHYSICS.
244
00:13:46,867 --> 00:13:48,233
AND YOU CAN'T ARGUE
WITH PHYSICS.
245
00:13:48,233 --> 00:13:50,867
YOU CAN'T ARGUE
WITH NEWTON'S LAWS.
246
00:13:50,867 --> 00:13:53,833
Freeman: BUT MILTON IS AWARE
THAT THE ONLY WAY HE'S GOING
247
00:13:53,833 --> 00:13:58,733
TO CONVINCE THE SKEPTICS
IS TO FIND MORE ALIENS.
248
00:13:58,733 --> 00:14:02,067
IF MICROORGANISMS OR ANY LIFE
IS COMING IN FROM SPACE,
249
00:14:02,067 --> 00:14:03,633
WE HAVE TO GO OUT AND CATCH IT.
250
00:14:03,633 --> 00:14:06,467
[ AIR HISSING ]
251
00:14:06,467 --> 00:14:11,100
Freeman: AND THAT'S EXACTLY
WHAT MILTON IS DOING.
252
00:14:11,100 --> 00:14:14,067
HE AND HIS TEAM
ARE CONDUCTING A NEW SERIES
253
00:14:14,067 --> 00:14:18,600
OF HIGH-ALTITUDE MISSIONS.
254
00:14:18,600 --> 00:14:22,633
YEP. BON VOYAGE,
STRATOSPHERE SAMPLER.
255
00:14:22,633 --> 00:14:25,133
WHOA!
256
00:14:27,400 --> 00:14:30,267
THE TEAM WAITS FOR ABOUT
90 MINUTES WHILE THE BALLOON
257
00:14:30,267 --> 00:14:33,867
CLIMBS 80,000 FEET.
258
00:14:33,867 --> 00:14:40,167
ONCE THERE, A DRAWER MOUNTED
INSIDE THE PAYLOAD OPENS.
259
00:14:40,167 --> 00:14:42,500
SO THIS IS WHAT HAPPENS
IN THE STRATOSPHERE.
260
00:14:42,500 --> 00:14:43,900
THE DRAWER OPENS.
261
00:14:43,900 --> 00:14:47,567
THE SAMPLES ARE COLLECTED
ON ELECTRON MICROSCOPE STUBS.
262
00:14:47,567 --> 00:14:51,167
WE CAN TAKE THOSE DIRECTLY FROM
HERE, UNDER STERILE CONDITIONS,
263
00:14:51,167 --> 00:14:53,067
INTO THE ELECTRON MICROSCOPE.
264
00:14:53,067 --> 00:14:54,767
Freeman: SIXTEEN MILES UP,
265
00:14:54,767 --> 00:14:57,767
THE AIR PRESSURE IS SO LOW
THAT THE BALLOON
266
00:14:57,767 --> 00:15:02,067
CONTINUES TO EXPAND
UNTIL IT RUPTURES
267
00:15:02,067 --> 00:15:05,667
AND TUMBLES BACK TO EARTH
WITH THIS PRECIOUS CARGO.
268
00:15:05,667 --> 00:15:06,867
Wainwright:
THIS IS A FISHING TRIP.
269
00:15:06,867 --> 00:15:08,067
WE'RE SENDING THESE BALLOONS UP.
270
00:15:08,067 --> 00:15:09,267
WE DON'T KNOW
WHAT WE'RE CATCHING.
271
00:15:09,267 --> 00:15:10,933
SO, ON SOME TRIPS,
WE'LL CATCH NOTHING.
272
00:15:10,933 --> 00:15:12,400
ON SOME TRIPS,
WE'LL CATCH SOMETHING.
273
00:15:12,400 --> 00:15:15,300
AND MAYBE WE'LL GO
FOR FIVE LAUNCHES WITH NOTHING,
274
00:15:15,300 --> 00:15:16,800
AND THEN THE SIXTH LAUNCH,
275
00:15:16,800 --> 00:15:19,900
WE GET AN AMAZING ARRAY
OF ORGANISMS.
276
00:15:19,900 --> 00:15:24,700
Freeman:
HE'S HOPING HIS LATEST LAUNCH
WILL YIELD SOMETHING LIKE THIS.
277
00:15:24,700 --> 00:15:26,500
THESE ARE PHOTOS
OF SAMPLES MILTON
278
00:15:26,500 --> 00:15:31,067
AND HIS TEAM COLLECTED
ON THEIR FIRST MISSION IN 2013.
279
00:15:31,067 --> 00:15:34,133
AND MILTON BELIEVES
THEY CONTAIN EVIDENCE
280
00:15:34,133 --> 00:15:37,967
OF EXTRATERRESTRIAL LIFE.
281
00:15:37,967 --> 00:15:40,467
Wainwright: THIS IS THE FIRST
AMAZING ORGANISM WE FOUND.
282
00:15:40,467 --> 00:15:42,867
IF WE GO TO A TEXTBOOK,
283
00:15:42,867 --> 00:15:46,433
FOR ALGAE, BACTERIA, WE
DON'T SEE SOMETHING LIKE THIS.
284
00:15:46,433 --> 00:15:48,200
Freeman:
MILTON'S SUPPOSED ALIENS
285
00:15:48,200 --> 00:15:50,933
ARE ONLY
ABOUT 30 MICRONS ACROSS,
286
00:15:50,933 --> 00:15:54,733
ROUGHLY TWICE THE THICKNESS
OF A HUMAN HAIR.
287
00:15:54,733 --> 00:15:57,067
Wainwright: AT FIRST, I WAS
VERY UPSET ABOUT THIS STRUCTURE
288
00:15:57,067 --> 00:15:59,067
BECAUSE I THOUGHT
IT WAS A -- A POLLEN GRAIN.
289
00:15:59,067 --> 00:16:00,800
BUT WHEN WE
DO THE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS,
290
00:16:00,800 --> 00:16:03,700
WE FOUND IT WAS PRIMARILY
TITANIUM.
291
00:16:03,700 --> 00:16:06,100
AND YOU CAN SEE THAT THERE'S
MATERIAL COMING OUT OF THE BALL.
292
00:16:06,100 --> 00:16:09,333
AND WHEN WE ANALYZE THIS,
IT TURNS OUT TO BE BIOLOGICAL.
293
00:16:09,333 --> 00:16:11,067
THIS IS CARBON AND OXYGEN.
294
00:16:11,067 --> 00:16:12,600
IT'S BIOLOGICAL.
295
00:16:12,600 --> 00:16:16,300
Freeman:
NO LIFE FORM YET DISCOVERED
HAS A TITANIUM SHELL.
296
00:16:16,300 --> 00:16:18,133
THIS MIGHT BE THE FIRST.
297
00:16:18,133 --> 00:16:21,600
AND, MORE CRUCIAL
TO MILTON'S CASE,
298
00:16:21,600 --> 00:16:24,667
NO EARTHLY ORGANISM
WOULD BE MOVING FAST ENOUGH
299
00:16:24,667 --> 00:16:27,667
TO LEAVE AN IMPACT CRATER
ON THE COLLECTOR.
300
00:16:27,667 --> 00:16:30,333
Wainwright: WE SEE THAT THERE'S
AN IMPACT CRATER HERE.
301
00:16:30,333 --> 00:16:33,833
SO THIS BALL WAS COMING IN FROM
SPACE, IMPACTED THE SAMPLER,
302
00:16:33,833 --> 00:16:36,133
AND CAUSED A CRATER.
303
00:16:36,133 --> 00:16:38,467
THE IMPACT EVENT
MEANS IT'S COMING FROM OUTSIDE.
304
00:16:38,467 --> 00:16:41,400
IT IS NOT LAZILY DRIFTING UP
FROM THE EARTH.
305
00:16:41,400 --> 00:16:43,400
IT'S COMING AT A GREAT SPEED.
306
00:16:45,433 --> 00:16:49,100
MILTON THINKS COMETS
MIGHT BE THE SOURCE.
307
00:16:49,100 --> 00:16:50,467
Wainwright:
THE TEMPERATURE IS RIGHT.
308
00:16:50,467 --> 00:16:51,767
THE AMOUNT OF WATER IS RIGHT.
309
00:16:51,767 --> 00:16:55,067
THE AMOUNT OF CARBON
AND ORGANIC MATERIAL IS RIGHT.
310
00:16:55,067 --> 00:16:57,133
Freeman: DEBRIS FROM THEIR
FROZEN TAILS COULD BE
311
00:16:57,133 --> 00:17:00,633
LITTERING OUR ATMOSPHERE
WITH ALIEN ORGANISMS.
312
00:17:03,233 --> 00:17:06,367
HOPING TO REPLICATE THE SUCCESS
OF HIS FIRST LAUNCH,
313
00:17:06,367 --> 00:17:09,900
MILTON HAS ANOTHER HALF DOZEN
PLANNED.
314
00:17:09,900 --> 00:17:12,733
THE BIG FEAR I HAVE IS
THAT WE GOT THESE AMAZING IMAGES
315
00:17:12,733 --> 00:17:14,300
AND WE NEVER REPEAT IT.
316
00:17:14,300 --> 00:17:17,067
NOW, IN SCIENCE, OF COURSE,
A ONE-OFF IS NOTHING.
317
00:17:17,067 --> 00:17:20,067
WE NEED TO GET A REPETITION
OF SOMETHING.
318
00:17:20,067 --> 00:17:23,200
Freeman: EVEN IF MILTON
DOES FIND MORE ALIEN MICROBES,
319
00:17:23,200 --> 00:17:28,067
HE CAUTIONS THAT THEY MIGHT LOOK
MORE FAMILIAR THAN WE EXPECT.
320
00:17:28,067 --> 00:17:30,433
IF THEY'VE BEEN
ARRIVING FOR EONS,
321
00:17:30,433 --> 00:17:34,533
WE MAY ALREADY SHARE A LOT
IN COMMON WITH THEIR BIOLOGY.
322
00:17:34,533 --> 00:17:37,567
EVERYONE EXPECTS SOMETHING
FROM SPACE TO BE SPECIAL.
323
00:17:37,567 --> 00:17:40,267
THERE'S NOT NECESSARILY
ANYTHING SPECIAL ABOUT THEM.
324
00:17:40,267 --> 00:17:41,867
IF THEY'RE COMING IN,
THEY'VE BEEN COMING IN
325
00:17:41,867 --> 00:17:43,067
FROM MILLIONS OF YEARS.
326
00:17:43,067 --> 00:17:44,133
THEY'RE HERE.
327
00:17:44,133 --> 00:17:46,200
WE ARE PART OF SPACE.
328
00:17:46,200 --> 00:17:48,600
THESE ORGANISMS ARE PART
OF OUR BIOLOGY.
329
00:17:51,633 --> 00:17:54,400
Freeman: IF ALIEN MICROBES
ARE CAPABLE OF REACHING EARTH
330
00:17:54,400 --> 00:17:56,700
FROM ACROSS THE GALAXY,
331
00:17:56,700 --> 00:17:59,367
THEN COULD INTELLIGENT
EXTRATERRESTRIALS
332
00:17:59,367 --> 00:18:02,067
ALSO COME HERE?
333
00:18:02,067 --> 00:18:04,867
WE'VE SEEN NO SIGN OF THEM.
334
00:18:04,867 --> 00:18:10,333
OR ARE WE SEARCHING
FOR THE WRONG KIND OF SIGNAL?
335
00:18:15,400 --> 00:18:18,067
IF INTELLIGENT ALIENS
WERE TO SEND US A MESSAGE
336
00:18:18,067 --> 00:18:22,267
FROM A DISTANT PLANET,
WOULD WE HEAR IT?
337
00:18:22,267 --> 00:18:24,133
200 YEARS AGO,
338
00:18:24,133 --> 00:18:26,367
NO ONE WOULD HAVE PICKED UP
A MORSE CODE
339
00:18:26,367 --> 00:18:29,233
ON A TELEGRAPH WIRE,
340
00:18:29,233 --> 00:18:33,567
MUCH LESS A VOICE
ON THE CELLULAR NETWORK.
341
00:18:33,567 --> 00:18:36,067
PERHAPS WE JUST DON'T HAVE
THE TECHNOLOGY YET
342
00:18:36,067 --> 00:18:38,233
TO ANSWER A CALL FROM AN ALIEN.
343
00:18:41,333 --> 00:18:44,267
UNIVERSITY OF HAWAII PHYSICIST
JOHN LEARNED
344
00:18:44,267 --> 00:18:49,133
THINKS ALIEN MESSAGES
MAY BE WITHIN OUR REACH.
345
00:18:49,133 --> 00:18:53,067
WE CANNOT GUESS WHAT SOME
EXTRATERRESTRIAL INTELLIGENCE
346
00:18:53,067 --> 00:18:55,233
MAY BE HAVING IN MIND
347
00:18:55,233 --> 00:18:58,400
FOR WHY THEY WOULD COMMUNICATE
OR HOW THEY WOULD COMMUNICATE.
348
00:18:58,400 --> 00:19:01,967
SO THE BEST WE CAN DO IS JUST
LOOK TO SEE WHAT IS THERE.
349
00:19:01,967 --> 00:19:04,233
Freeman: IF EXTRATERRESTRIALS
ARE OUT THERE
350
00:19:04,233 --> 00:19:07,467
AND CAN SEND MESSAGES
THROUGHOUT THE GALAXY,
351
00:19:07,467 --> 00:19:11,233
JOHN SAYS THEY'LL BE USING
COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGY
352
00:19:11,233 --> 00:19:15,267
VERY DIFFERENT FROM OUR OWN.
353
00:19:15,267 --> 00:19:18,800
WHEN WE SEND MESSAGES
OVER LONG DISTANCES ON EARTH,
354
00:19:18,800 --> 00:19:24,233
WE RELY ON PULSES OF LIGHT
OR RADIO WAVES.
355
00:19:24,233 --> 00:19:27,133
HOWEVER, USING LIGHT
FOR INTERSTELLAR COMMUNICATION
356
00:19:27,133 --> 00:19:29,233
WOULD BE SPOTTY AT BEST.
357
00:19:31,300 --> 00:19:34,500
Learned:
THERE'S A LOT OF DUST AND GAS
OUT THERE IN THE UNIVERSE,
358
00:19:34,500 --> 00:19:36,700
AND THAT SCATTERS LIGHT.
359
00:19:36,700 --> 00:19:40,933
SO IT WOULDN'T DO TO TRY
TO HAVE LIGHT SIGNALING
360
00:19:40,933 --> 00:19:44,400
FROM EVEN OUR OWN
GALACTIC CENTER.
361
00:19:44,400 --> 00:19:46,800
Freeman: AND MESSAGES SENT
WITH RADIO WAVES
362
00:19:46,800 --> 00:19:50,467
WOULD HAVE A LOT OF INTERFERENCE
TO FIGHT THROUGH.
363
00:19:50,467 --> 00:19:53,533
THERE'S HISS COMING
FROM ALL OVER THE UNIVERSE,
364
00:19:53,533 --> 00:19:56,067
FROM ALL THE STARS AND GALAXIES.
365
00:19:56,067 --> 00:20:00,567
SO THERE'S BACKGROUND NOISE
THAT YOU HAVE TO GET AROUND.
366
00:20:00,567 --> 00:20:03,567
BY TUNING AROUND
WITH THIS RADIO,
367
00:20:03,567 --> 00:20:06,733
THERE'S ALL KIND OF NOISE
THAT COMES AND GOES.
368
00:20:06,733 --> 00:20:11,067
YOU HAVE TO FIND A FREQUENCY
WHERE THE EXTRATERRESTRIALS
369
00:20:11,067 --> 00:20:13,567
WOULD BE CHOOSING
TO COMMUNICATE.
370
00:20:13,567 --> 00:20:16,800
THE PROBLEM IN TUNING IN IS
THERE'S NO SCHEDULE
371
00:20:16,800 --> 00:20:18,967
AND NO LIST OF -- OF STATIONS.
372
00:20:18,967 --> 00:20:22,133
SO WE DON'T KNOW QUITE
WHERE TO LOOK.
373
00:20:22,133 --> 00:20:23,900
Freeman: JOHN THINKS
THERE'S A BETTER TECHNOLOGY
374
00:20:23,900 --> 00:20:27,233
TO SEND MESSAGES
ACROSS THE GALAXY.
375
00:20:27,233 --> 00:20:31,633
ALIENS MIGHT BE USING A TINY
PARTICLE CALLED A NEUTRINO
376
00:20:34,033 --> 00:20:37,000
THEY'RE SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
PRODUCED BY NUCLEAR REACTIONS,
377
00:20:37,000 --> 00:20:39,800
LIKE THOSE IN OUR SUN,
378
00:20:39,800 --> 00:20:42,500
AND VIOLENT EVENTS,
LIKE EXPLODING STARS
379
00:20:42,500 --> 00:20:45,933
AND GAMMA RAY BURSTS.
380
00:20:45,933 --> 00:20:48,500
THE MOST INTRIGUING PROPERTY
OF NEUTRINOS
381
00:20:48,500 --> 00:20:51,100
IS THAT THEY ARE SO SMALL
THEY CAN PASS THROUGH MATTER
382
00:20:51,100 --> 00:20:53,033
AS IF IT WASN'T THERE.
383
00:20:53,033 --> 00:20:55,533
THE KIND OF DENSE MATTER
THAT STOPS ALL LIGHT
384
00:20:55,533 --> 00:20:59,833
AND MOST RADIO WAVES
CAN'T STOP NEUTRINOS.
385
00:20:59,833 --> 00:21:02,633
THEY PASS RIGHT THROUGH THINGS.
386
00:21:02,633 --> 00:21:04,267
COMING THROUGH THE WALLS,
387
00:21:04,267 --> 00:21:06,600
COMING UP OUT OF THE GROUND
HERE.
388
00:21:06,600 --> 00:21:10,433
WE'RE IN A BREEZE
OF ABOUT A MILLION NEUTRINOS
389
00:21:10,433 --> 00:21:13,067
THROUGH YOUR THUMBNAIL
PER SECOND.
390
00:21:13,067 --> 00:21:15,233
Freeman: IN FACT,
IF THERE WAS SUCH A THING
391
00:21:15,233 --> 00:21:17,467
A SUNBLOCK FOR NEUTRINOS,
392
00:21:17,467 --> 00:21:19,067
A NEUTRINO PROTECTION FACTOR
393
00:21:19,067 --> 00:21:24,667
OF 1 TRILLION
OR MORE WOULDN'T SUFFICE.
394
00:21:24,667 --> 00:21:28,167
EVEN THOUGH JUST A THIN LAYER
OF THIS ON MY HAND
395
00:21:28,167 --> 00:21:33,067
IS GOOD ENOUGH FOR PHOTONS, UH,
IT WOULD HAVE TO BE VASTLY,
396
00:21:33,067 --> 00:21:36,267
VASTLY THICKER FOR STOPPING
NEUTRINOS.
397
00:21:36,267 --> 00:21:38,533
AND, IN FACT, THIS UMBRELLA,
398
00:21:38,533 --> 00:21:41,500
WHICH STOPS THE PHOTONS
FROM THE SUN JUST FINE,
399
00:21:41,500 --> 00:21:42,867
WOULDN'T DO THE JOB.
400
00:21:42,867 --> 00:21:45,400
IT WOULD HAVE TO BE A LEAD
UMBRELLA A LIGHT-YEAR THICK
401
00:21:45,400 --> 00:21:48,900
TO DO THE JOB.
402
00:21:48,900 --> 00:21:51,167
Freeman: JOHN THINKS
AN ALIEN CIVILIZATION
403
00:21:51,167 --> 00:21:54,167
MIGHT DECIDE TO CREATE A BEAM
OF NEUTRINOS
404
00:21:54,167 --> 00:21:55,567
AND PULSE THEM,
405
00:21:55,567 --> 00:22:00,133
MANUFACTURING A MESSAGE
IN A KIND OF COSMIC MORSE CODE.
406
00:22:02,900 --> 00:22:05,467
BUT BECAUSE NEUTRINOS
ARE SO GHOSTLY,
407
00:22:05,467 --> 00:22:08,833
THEY'RE EXTREMELY TOUGH
TO DETECT OR MEASURE.
408
00:22:08,833 --> 00:22:10,900
THE LARGEST DETECTOR ON EARTH,
409
00:22:10,900 --> 00:22:14,867
CALLED IceCube, LIES BURIED
UNDER NEARLY THREE KILOMETERS
410
00:22:14,867 --> 00:22:17,567
OF ICE AT THE SOUTH POLE.
411
00:22:17,567 --> 00:22:19,533
86 STRANDS OF SENSORS
412
00:22:19,533 --> 00:22:23,167
WAIT FOR ONE OF THE NEUTRINOS
STREAMING THROUGH EARTH
413
00:22:23,167 --> 00:22:24,233
TO BUMP INTO ONE
414
00:22:24,233 --> 00:22:27,433
OF THE ELECTRONS
IN THE SURROUNDING ICE.
415
00:22:27,433 --> 00:22:31,500
IceCube PICKS UP ONLY A HANDFUL
OF NEUTRINO COLLISIONS
416
00:22:31,500 --> 00:22:34,167
EACH YEAR.
417
00:22:34,167 --> 00:22:37,500
NEUTRINOS VARY IN ENERGY.
418
00:22:37,500 --> 00:22:41,767
THE HIGHEST-ENERGY NEUTRINOS
ARE THE MOST RARE.
419
00:22:41,767 --> 00:22:45,100
THERE'S A GREAT CONTROVERSY
GOING ON RIGHT NOW ABOUT,
420
00:22:45,100 --> 00:22:46,800
WHAT ARE THE SOURCE OF THESE?
421
00:22:46,800 --> 00:22:49,067
WHAT -- WHAT ARE THE MECHANISMS
422
00:22:49,067 --> 00:22:51,967
THAT PRODUCE
THESE HIGH ENERGIES?
423
00:22:51,967 --> 00:22:53,867
Freeman:
BECAUSE THEY'RE SO RARE,
424
00:22:53,867 --> 00:22:56,900
JOHN BELIEVES THEY COULD BE
GREAT COMMUNICATION TOOLS
425
00:22:56,900 --> 00:22:58,433
FOR ALIENS.
426
00:22:58,433 --> 00:23:00,533
IF ONE
OF THESE HIGH-ENERGY NEUTRINOS
427
00:23:00,533 --> 00:23:04,700
MAKES CONTACT
WITH AN ELECTRON INSIDE IceCube,
428
00:23:04,700 --> 00:23:07,233
WE'LL KNOW IT.
429
00:23:07,233 --> 00:23:10,467
IT'LL MAKE
THIS LITTLE EXPLOSION,
430
00:23:10,467 --> 00:23:15,500
WHICH IS SO CHARACTERISTIC THAT
WE COULD IDENTIFY IT UNIQUELY.
431
00:23:15,500 --> 00:23:17,133
IF YOU SAW ONE,
432
00:23:17,133 --> 00:23:19,900
IT WOULD CERTAINLY GET
YOUR ATTENTION.
433
00:23:19,900 --> 00:23:22,633
Freeman: PHYSICISTS CALL
THIS CHARACTERISTIC BURST
434
00:23:22,633 --> 00:23:25,067
THE GLASHOW RESONANCE.
435
00:23:25,067 --> 00:23:28,967
THE WAY A HIGH-ENERGY NEUTRINO
INTERACTS WITH AN ELECTRON
436
00:23:28,967 --> 00:23:33,967
IS SIMILAR TO WHAT HAPPENS
WHEN MUSIC MEETS A WINE GLASS.
437
00:23:34,367 --> 00:23:36,400
[ WINE GLASS RESONATES ]
438
00:23:36,400 --> 00:23:37,967
HEY, GUYS.
HEY.
439
00:23:37,967 --> 00:23:42,667
ALL MATTER
HAS A NATURAL FREQUENCY.
440
00:23:42,667 --> 00:23:45,100
WHEN ENERGY
FROM AN OUTSIDE SOURCE
441
00:23:45,100 --> 00:23:47,733
MATCHES THAT NATURAL FREQUENCY,
442
00:23:47,733 --> 00:23:51,467
THE OBJECT WILL VIBRATE
MUCH MORE THAN USUAL.
443
00:23:51,467 --> 00:23:54,267
THAT'S KNOWN AS RESONANCE.
444
00:23:54,267 --> 00:23:56,600
SO WHAT WE'VE GOT HERE IS A --
445
00:23:56,600 --> 00:24:00,433
A GLASS, HOPEFULLY,
A NICE, RESONANT GLASS.
446
00:24:00,433 --> 00:24:02,800
AND WE'VE GOT A SPEAKER,
447
00:24:02,800 --> 00:24:05,367
WHICH IS ATTACHED
TO AN AMPLIFIER.
448
00:24:05,367 --> 00:24:08,267
AND WE'RE DRIVING
ACOUSTIC ENERGY, SOUND,
449
00:24:08,267 --> 00:24:10,633
VERY HIGH-INTENSITY SOUND
TOWARD THIS.
450
00:24:10,633 --> 00:24:13,067
AND WE'LL TRY TO HIT
THE RESONANCE IN THE GLASS
451
00:24:13,067 --> 00:24:15,400
AND BREAK THE GLASS.
452
00:24:15,400 --> 00:24:16,800
Freeman:
YOU CAN THINK OF EACH NOTE
453
00:24:16,800 --> 00:24:21,133
AS A DIFFERENT ENERGY LEVEL
NEUTRINO AND THE WINE GLASS
454
00:24:21,133 --> 00:24:22,833
AS THE ELECTRON.
455
00:24:26,667 --> 00:24:30,100
FIRST, JOHN TRIES VARIOUS NOTES
ON AN ORGAN.
456
00:24:30,500 --> 00:24:33,067
[ ORGAN PLAYS ]
457
00:24:40,800 --> 00:24:42,567
NOW THE SINGER.
458
00:24:42,567 --> 00:24:45,533
[ VOCALIZING ]
459
00:24:53,433 --> 00:24:56,067
FINALLY, THE GUITAR PLAYER.
460
00:24:56,067 --> 00:24:59,100
[ SOLO PLAYS ]
461
00:25:15,433 --> 00:25:18,400
Learned:
IT'S A MATTER OF, UH,
462
00:25:18,400 --> 00:25:19,900
GETTING THE RIGHT FREQUENCY,
463
00:25:19,900 --> 00:25:22,867
GETTING ENOUGH ENERGY
RIGHT ON THE RIGHT FREQUENCY.
464
00:25:22,867 --> 00:25:24,400
MAN, THAT'S GONE.
465
00:25:24,400 --> 00:25:27,600
Freeman: THE GLASHOW RESONANCE
IS THE EXPLOSION THAT RESULTS
466
00:25:27,600 --> 00:25:33,333
WHEN JUST THE RIGHT TYPE
OF HIGH-ENERGY NEUTRINO ARRIVES.
467
00:25:33,333 --> 00:25:34,633
JOHN THINKS A STRING
468
00:25:34,633 --> 00:25:38,400
OF THESE RARE EXPLOSIONS
WOULDN'T BE A COINCIDENCE
469
00:25:38,400 --> 00:25:43,567
BUT RATHER A SIGN OF AN EXTRA
TERRESTRIAL INTELLIGENCE.
470
00:25:43,567 --> 00:25:47,067
Learned:
AND IF WE SEE THOSE NEUTRINOS
COMING FROM THE SAME DIRECTION,
471
00:25:47,067 --> 00:25:48,267
THEN WE CERTAINLY
472
00:25:48,267 --> 00:25:51,400
KNOW THAT THAT IS NOT
A NATURAL PHENOMENAL.
473
00:25:51,400 --> 00:25:53,867
WOULD BE
THE GREATEST DISCOVERY EVER.
474
00:25:53,867 --> 00:25:55,333
I CAN'T THINK OF ANYTHING
475
00:25:55,333 --> 00:25:57,767
THAT WOULD BE
A MORE AMAZING DISCOVERY
476
00:25:57,767 --> 00:26:02,433
THAN TO FIND THE FIRST SIGNS
OF EXTRATERRESTRIAL LIFE.
477
00:26:02,433 --> 00:26:05,933
IT WOULD CHANGE OUR WORLD.
478
00:26:05,933 --> 00:26:10,067
Freeman:
AS EXCITING AS IT WOULD BE
TO FIND AN ALIEN MESSAGE,
479
00:26:10,067 --> 00:26:15,267
THE SIMPLE ACT OF READING IT
COULD THREATEN OUR EXISTENCE.
480
00:26:15,267 --> 00:26:19,800
ALIEN COMMUNICATION COULD CARRY
A LOT MORE THAN A GREETING.
481
00:26:26,167 --> 00:26:29,767
THE MOMENT OF FIRST CONTACT
WITH AN ALIEN CIVILIZATION
482
00:26:29,767 --> 00:26:35,067
WILL BE THE MOST IMPORTANT EVENT
IN HUMAN HISTORY.
483
00:26:35,067 --> 00:26:38,067
BUT IF WE ALREADY MISSED IT?
484
00:26:38,067 --> 00:26:43,900
WHAT IF AN ALIEN MESSAGE HAS
ARRIVED AND WE DIDN'T NOTICE?
485
00:26:43,900 --> 00:26:46,233
MAYBE IT'S HERE RIGHT NOW,
486
00:26:46,233 --> 00:26:49,667
HIDING INSIDE OUR TECHNOLOGY.
487
00:26:52,933 --> 00:26:54,400
ANDREW SIEMION
488
00:26:54,400 --> 00:26:57,667
SPECIALIZES IN THE SEARCH FOR
EXTRATERRESTRIAL INTELLIGENCE
489
00:26:57,667 --> 00:27:02,067
AT U.C. BERKELEY'S
SETI RESEARCH CENTER.
490
00:27:02,067 --> 00:27:03,367
HE AND HIS COLLEAGUES
491
00:27:03,367 --> 00:27:06,867
ARE LOOKING FOR UNUSUAL SIGNALS
IN OUTER SPACE,
492
00:27:06,867 --> 00:27:13,133
HOPING TO FIND ONE THAT MIGHT
COME FROM AN ALIEN CIVILIZATION.
493
00:27:13,133 --> 00:27:15,967
I THINK THAT OUR FIRST ENCOUNTER
WITH VERY ADVANCED LIFE
494
00:27:15,967 --> 00:27:19,233
PROBABLY WILL NOT COME
IN A SPACESHIP LANDING
495
00:27:19,233 --> 00:27:22,833
IN GOLDEN GATE PARK.
496
00:27:22,833 --> 00:27:25,233
IT'S QUITE LIKELY
THAT IT WILL COME VIA A SIGNAL
497
00:27:25,233 --> 00:27:28,300
THAT WE JUST
HAPPEN TO EAVESDROP ON.
498
00:27:28,300 --> 00:27:31,500
Freeman: BUT IT MAY BE THAT
ALIENS ARE ALREADY LISTENING
499
00:27:31,500 --> 00:27:33,500
TO OUR RADIO SIGNALS.
500
00:27:33,500 --> 00:27:36,767
IF THERE WERE VERY ADVANCED LIFE
NEARBY TO EARTH,
501
00:27:36,767 --> 00:27:38,767
THEY'VE MONITORED
OUR RADIO SIGNALS
502
00:27:38,767 --> 00:27:40,133
THAT HAVE LEFT THIS PLANET.
503
00:27:40,133 --> 00:27:44,167
AND SO THEY ALMOST CERTAINLY
KNOW QUITE A LOT ABOUT US.
504
00:27:44,167 --> 00:27:47,933
SINCE THE 1960s,
COMMUNICATIONS SATELLITES
505
00:27:47,933 --> 00:27:52,200
HAVE BEEN RELAYING INFORMATION
FROM ONE COMPUTER TO ANOTHER.
506
00:27:52,200 --> 00:27:58,233
AND THAT INFORMATION
HAS BEEN LEAKING OUT INTO SPACE.
507
00:27:58,233 --> 00:28:01,133
IF ALIENS UNDERSTAND
HOW OUR COMPUTER NETWORKS
508
00:28:01,133 --> 00:28:05,333
OPERATE AND KNOW THAT WE'RE
ACTIVELY LISTENING FOR THEM,
509
00:28:05,333 --> 00:28:09,500
ANDREW BELIEVES THEY COULD TAKE
ADVANTAGE OF THE SITUATION.
510
00:28:09,500 --> 00:28:11,900
THEY COULD DELIVER
A DIGITAL VIRUS
511
00:28:11,900 --> 00:28:14,800
AND KNOW
THAT WE'D SCOOP IT RIGHT UP.
512
00:28:14,800 --> 00:28:18,433
WE GATHER MILLIONS
OF RADIO SIGNALS FROM SPACE
513
00:28:18,433 --> 00:28:22,433
EACH YEAR IN OUR SEARCH
FOR INTELLIGENT COMMUNICATION.
514
00:28:22,433 --> 00:28:24,967
THOSE SIGNALS GO
STRAIGHT TO OUR COMPUTERS
515
00:28:24,967 --> 00:28:28,367
SO RESEARCHERS CAN ANALYZE THEM.
516
00:28:28,367 --> 00:28:30,633
HUNTING FOR EVIDENCE
OF ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY,
517
00:28:30,633 --> 00:28:31,867
THESE RADIO SIGNALS,
518
00:28:31,867 --> 00:28:35,333
IS KIND OF LIKE HUNTING
FOR EASTER EGGS.
519
00:28:35,333 --> 00:28:37,367
WE'RE LOOKING
FOR THAT ONE SMALL NUGGET
520
00:28:37,367 --> 00:28:39,967
THAT STANDS OUT
FROM THE LANDSCAPE.
521
00:28:39,967 --> 00:28:42,267
THE SIGNALS THAT WE LOOK FOR
ARE VERY, VERY WEAK,
522
00:28:42,267 --> 00:28:46,067
SO WE HAVE TO SIFT
THROUGH ALL OF THE NOISE,
523
00:28:46,067 --> 00:28:48,867
NOISE PRODUCED FROM OTHER
ASTROPHYSICAL SOURCES,
524
00:28:48,867 --> 00:28:51,333
QUASARS AND PULSARS.
525
00:28:51,333 --> 00:28:54,967
Freeman: ONCE SETI RESEARCHERS
GATHER POTENTIAL ALIEN SIGNALS,
526
00:28:54,967 --> 00:28:57,067
THEY TAKE A CLOSER LOOK.
527
00:28:57,067 --> 00:28:59,900
BUT ANALYZING THE SIGNAL
ON ONE OF OUR COMPUTERS
528
00:28:59,900 --> 00:29:03,133
WOULDN'T BE ENOUGH TO UNLEASH
AN ALIEN VIRUS.
529
00:29:03,133 --> 00:29:05,633
RESEARCHERS WOULD HAVE
TO RUN THE CODE.
530
00:29:05,633 --> 00:29:06,767
WE HAVE TO TAKE THAT DATA,
531
00:29:06,767 --> 00:29:08,733
AND WE HAVE TO RUN IT
ON A COMPUTER.
532
00:29:08,733 --> 00:29:13,967
AND THAT'S SORT OF AKIN
TO OPENING ONE OF THESE EGGS.
533
00:29:13,967 --> 00:29:17,800
Freeman: ADVANCED ALIEN HACKERS
WOULD PROBABLY NOTICE,
534
00:29:17,800 --> 00:29:21,900
AND THEY'D LIKELY KNOW THERE'S
ANOTHER WAY INTO OUR NETWORKS,
535
00:29:21,900 --> 00:29:25,400
A WAY THAT WOULDN'T BE DEPENDENT
ON A DECISION BY ONE OF US
536
00:29:25,400 --> 00:29:27,500
TO RUN THEIR CODE.
537
00:29:27,500 --> 00:29:30,300
HUNDREDS OF RADIO ANTENNAS
ON EARTH ARE SPECIFICALLY
538
00:29:30,300 --> 00:29:34,067
DESIGNED TO EXCHANGE
COMPUTER CODE WITH EACH OTHER
539
00:29:34,067 --> 00:29:37,933
AND IMMEDIATELY RUN
THOSE PROGRAMS.
540
00:29:37,933 --> 00:29:40,300
Siemion: A SIGNAL
THAT WAS SENT BY ANOTHER SPECIES
541
00:29:40,300 --> 00:29:42,167
TO ONE OF THOSE ANTENNAS
542
00:29:42,167 --> 00:29:45,367
COULD BE RECEIVED
AND EXECUTED IN THE SAME WAY
543
00:29:45,367 --> 00:29:47,833
THAT IT EXECUTES CODE
THAT IT RECEIVES FROM --
544
00:29:47,833 --> 00:29:50,800
FROM HUMAN TRANSMISSIONS.
545
00:29:50,800 --> 00:29:53,067
Freeman:
IN FACT, AN ALIEN CODE
546
00:29:53,067 --> 00:29:59,333
COULD ALREADY BE HERE, OPERATING
UNDETECTED IN OUR NETWORKS.
547
00:29:59,333 --> 00:30:02,700
THE WHOLE IDEA OF A VIRUS
OR A TROJAN HORSE IS TO --
548
00:30:02,700 --> 00:30:04,000
IS TO RUN SOME CODE
549
00:30:04,000 --> 00:30:06,200
ON A COMPUTER
OR ON A COMPUTER NETWORK
550
00:30:06,200 --> 00:30:08,067
THAT NO ONE
KNOWS ANYTHING ABOUT.
551
00:30:08,067 --> 00:30:13,567
IT -- IT RUNS ITSELF, UH,
SURREPTITIOUSLY UNDER THE RADAR.
552
00:30:13,567 --> 00:30:16,500
Freeman: HUMAN HACKERS HAVE
ALREADY SHOWN IT'S POSSIBLE
553
00:30:16,500 --> 00:30:20,067
TO HIDE COMPUTER VIRUSES
FOR LONG PERIODS.
554
00:30:20,067 --> 00:30:21,833
THE STUXNET VIRUS,
555
00:30:21,833 --> 00:30:24,833
DEVELOPED IN SECRET
BY THE U.S. AND ISRAEL,
556
00:30:24,833 --> 00:30:27,533
LURKED IN THE NETWORK
OF AN IRANIAN NUCLEAR FACILITY
557
00:30:27,533 --> 00:30:33,500
FOR OVER A YEAR, SLOWLY DAMAGING
HUNDREDS OF IRANIAN CENTRIFUGES.
558
00:30:33,500 --> 00:30:37,100
THE VIRUS SENT SIGNALS
TO THE PLANT'S CONTROL ROOM,
559
00:30:37,100 --> 00:30:40,600
INDICATING
EVERYTHING WAS NORMAL,
560
00:30:40,600 --> 00:30:45,667
UNTIL THE CENTRIFUGES
FINALLY BROKE IN 2010.
561
00:30:45,667 --> 00:30:50,200
A PROGRAM FROM AN ADVANCED
CIVILIZATION COULD GO UNNOTICED
562
00:30:50,200 --> 00:30:54,433
FOR MUCH LONGER AND BE
FAR MORE DESTRUCTIVE.
563
00:30:54,433 --> 00:30:57,433
WE MIGHT BE ABLE TO RECOGNIZE IT
BECAUSE IT WOULD BE A --
564
00:30:57,433 --> 00:30:58,800
A PIECE OF COMPUTER CODE
565
00:30:58,800 --> 00:31:01,400
THAT WE HAD NEVER SEEN
BEFORE THAT WAS DEVISED BY A --
566
00:31:01,400 --> 00:31:04,500
A COMPLETELY DIFFERENT SPECIES.
567
00:31:04,500 --> 00:31:08,533
Freeman:
COULD ALIENS PROGRAMS ALREADY
BE INSIDE OUR TECHNOLOGY,
568
00:31:08,533 --> 00:31:12,967
PREPARING AN ATTACK
ON OUR NETWORKS?
569
00:31:12,967 --> 00:31:18,400
OR IS THERE PERHAPS AN EVEN MORE
UNNERVING POSSIBILITY?
570
00:31:18,400 --> 00:31:22,133
THE ALIENS THEMSELVES MAY BE
IN OUR NETWORKS
571
00:31:22,133 --> 00:31:24,767
AS DIGITAL LIFE-FORMS.
572
00:31:24,767 --> 00:31:29,733
IF SO, THIS MAN BELIEVES
HE KNOWS HOW TO FIND THEM.
573
00:31:34,433 --> 00:31:39,233
COULD ALIEN VISITORS
HAVE ALREADY ARRIVED ON EARTH?
574
00:31:39,233 --> 00:31:40,333
PERHAPS THEY HAVE,
575
00:31:40,333 --> 00:31:43,633
AND WE JUST DON'T RECOGNIZE
THEM.
576
00:31:43,633 --> 00:31:46,767
MAYBE THEY AREN'T MADE
OF FLESH AND BLOOD OR METAL
577
00:31:46,767 --> 00:31:50,700
OR ANYTHING WE CAN TOUCH.
578
00:31:50,700 --> 00:31:55,700
WHAT IF ALIENS
ARE DIGITAL LIFE FORMS?
579
00:32:01,833 --> 00:32:05,067
CHRIS ADAMI
OF MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
580
00:32:05,067 --> 00:32:09,433
IS AN EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGIST
AND A COMPUTER SCIENTIST.
581
00:32:09,433 --> 00:32:12,733
HE STUDIES THE BORDER BETWEEN
LIFE AS WE KNOW IT
582
00:32:12,733 --> 00:32:15,167
AND LIFE AS IT MIGHT BE.
583
00:32:15,167 --> 00:32:17,633
WHAT WE REALLY WANT TO DO
IS HAVE A DEFINITION
584
00:32:17,633 --> 00:32:20,933
THAT DOES NOT DEPEND
ON THE VERY SPECIFICS
585
00:32:20,933 --> 00:32:24,367
OF THE FORM OF LIFE
THAT WE ENCOUNTER HERE ON EARTH.
586
00:32:24,367 --> 00:32:26,233
WHAT IS LIFE?
587
00:32:26,233 --> 00:32:30,367
THE DICTIONARY WILL SAY
IT INVOLVES METABOLISM, GROWTH,
588
00:32:30,367 --> 00:32:34,067
REACTION TO STIMULI,
AND REPRODUCTION.
589
00:32:34,067 --> 00:32:37,833
SO PLANTS AND ANIMALS
ARE OBVIOUSLY ALIVE.
590
00:32:37,833 --> 00:32:39,633
BUT WHAT ABOUT A ROBOT?
591
00:32:39,633 --> 00:32:43,133
WE COULD IMAGINE A ROBOT
LIKE THAT TO BE ALIVE IF,
592
00:32:43,133 --> 00:32:47,433
IN FACT, IT COULD NOT ONLY
BUILD ANOTHER ROBOT JUST LIKE IT
593
00:32:47,433 --> 00:32:49,767
BUT ALSO, IN FACT,
594
00:32:49,767 --> 00:32:53,367
MAKES COPIES
OF THE PROGRAMMING AND INSERTS
595
00:32:53,367 --> 00:32:57,133
THAT INTO THE BABY ROBOT
THAT IT MAKES.
596
00:32:57,133 --> 00:32:58,600
IF IT IS DOING THAT,
597
00:32:58,600 --> 00:33:02,467
IT WILL BE ABLE TO CREATE
A POPULATION OF ROBOTS.
598
00:33:02,467 --> 00:33:04,467
BUT THIS THING
IS ACTUALLY NOT ALIVE.
599
00:33:04,467 --> 00:33:08,567
IT WAS PROGRAMMED BY THE PEOPLE
WHO BUILT THIS PLANT.
600
00:33:08,567 --> 00:33:13,867
IT DOES NOT ACTUALLY HAVE
THE CAPACITY TO SELF-PERPETUATE.
601
00:33:13,867 --> 00:33:16,067
Freeman: BECAUSE A ROBOT'S
OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS
602
00:33:16,067 --> 00:33:18,433
COME FROM AN OUTSIDE ENTITY,
603
00:33:18,433 --> 00:33:22,067
IT CAN'T ADAPT OR EVOLVE
ON ITS OWN.
604
00:33:24,333 --> 00:33:26,100
BUT THAT DOESN'T MEAN
THAT SOMETHING ARTIFICIAL
605
00:33:26,100 --> 00:33:28,200
CAN'T BE ALIVE.
606
00:33:28,200 --> 00:33:30,667
CHRIS BELIEVES
ALIEN DIGITAL LIFE FORMS
607
00:33:30,667 --> 00:33:34,300
COULD DO EVERYTHING WE DO --
CONSUME RESOURCES,
608
00:33:34,300 --> 00:33:37,900
REPRODUCE,
EVOLVE, ALL INSIDE A COMPUTER.
609
00:33:37,900 --> 00:33:40,067
HE KNOWS BECAUSE HE
AND HIS COLLEAGUES
610
00:33:40,067 --> 00:33:44,900
CREATED ORGANISMS
JUST LIKE THAT.
611
00:33:44,900 --> 00:33:46,333
THEIR DIGITAL ORGANISMS
612
00:33:46,333 --> 00:33:49,300
LIVE IN VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENT
CALLED AVIDA.
613
00:33:52,167 --> 00:33:54,433
EACH DOT IS AN AVIDIAN.
614
00:33:54,433 --> 00:33:58,467
DIFFERENT COLORS
REPRESENT DIFFERENT SPECIES.
615
00:33:58,467 --> 00:34:00,933
Adami: THEY'RE MORE LIKE
COMPUTER VIRUSES
616
00:34:00,933 --> 00:34:03,700
THAT CAN REPLICATE AND MAKE
COPIES OF THEMSELVES
617
00:34:03,700 --> 00:34:06,200
EXCEPT THESE ARE SPECIAL
IN THE SENSE THAT,
618
00:34:06,200 --> 00:34:07,500
WHEN THEY MAKE COPIES
OF THEMSELVES,
619
00:34:07,500 --> 00:34:09,567
THEY MIGHT MAKE FLAWED COPIES,
620
00:34:09,567 --> 00:34:11,400
IN A SENSE OF MUTATIONS.
621
00:34:11,400 --> 00:34:15,067
SO THESE COPIES CAN ACTUALLY
EVOLVE IN A DARWINIAN MANNER,
622
00:34:15,067 --> 00:34:16,900
JUST LIKE IT WOULD BE DOING
IN A PETRI DISH.
623
00:34:16,900 --> 00:34:20,667
BUT IN THIS CASE,
THEY ARE DIGITAL ORGANISMS.
624
00:34:20,667 --> 00:34:22,200
Freeman:
THE SURVIVAL OF ANY SPECIES
625
00:34:22,200 --> 00:34:25,967
DEPENDS ON HAVING JUST
THE RIGHT RATE OF MUTATIONS.
626
00:34:25,967 --> 00:34:28,833
ZERO MUTATIONS WOULD MEAN
AVIDIANS COULD ONLY COPY
627
00:34:28,833 --> 00:34:32,100
THEMSELVES AND NEVER EVOLVE.
628
00:34:32,100 --> 00:34:34,867
WITH TOO MANY MUTATIONS,
THE NEW VERSION
629
00:34:34,867 --> 00:34:40,067
WOULD NO LONGER BE A PROGRAM,
JUST RANDOM BITS OF DATA.
630
00:34:40,067 --> 00:34:42,133
CHRIS PROGRAMMED
HIS VIRTUAL ORGANISMS
631
00:34:42,133 --> 00:34:44,200
TO MUTATE EVERY GENERATION.
632
00:34:44,200 --> 00:34:47,700
IN OTHER WORDS, AVIDIANS EVOLVE.
633
00:34:49,733 --> 00:34:51,900
I'M STANDING IN THE MIDDLE
OF A GRID THAT IS GOING TO HELP
634
00:34:51,900 --> 00:34:53,800
US UNDERSTAND HOW AVIDA WORKS.
635
00:34:53,800 --> 00:34:56,233
AND I'M GONNA BE PLAYING
THE ROLE OF DIGITAL ORGANISMS.
636
00:34:56,233 --> 00:34:58,667
AND I'M GONNA DO IT LIKE THIS.
637
00:34:58,667 --> 00:35:00,067
THE DIFFERENT COLOR SHIRTS
638
00:35:00,067 --> 00:35:03,967
THAT I WEAR REPRESENT
DIFFERENT DIGITAL ORGANISMS.
639
00:35:03,967 --> 00:35:05,833
Freeman: THE GRID REPRESENTS
A LIMITED AMOUNT
640
00:35:05,833 --> 00:35:11,200
OF COMPUTER PROCESSING POWER
OVER WHICH THE AVIDIANS COMPETE.
641
00:35:11,200 --> 00:35:15,733
AVIDA IS DESIGNED
TO REWARD COMPLEX CALCULATIONS,
642
00:35:15,733 --> 00:35:18,733
WHICH WE CAN REPRESENT
WITH MOVEMENTS.
643
00:35:18,733 --> 00:35:21,233
MAKE A SIMPLE
FAIRLY USELESS MOVEMENT,
644
00:35:21,233 --> 00:35:23,067
LIKE RAISING ONE ARM,
645
00:35:23,067 --> 00:35:25,733
AND THE PROGRAM
DOESN'T REPLICATE.
646
00:35:25,733 --> 00:35:27,900
MAKE A COMPLEX, USEFUL MOVEMENT,
647
00:35:27,900 --> 00:35:30,367
LIKE GOING
FROM SITTING TO STANDING,
648
00:35:30,367 --> 00:35:33,533
AND THE PROGRAM CAN COPY ITSELF.
649
00:35:33,533 --> 00:35:36,367
THE MORE COPIES
OF THE SAME PROGRAM THERE ARE,
650
00:35:36,367 --> 00:35:39,267
THE MORE COMPUTING POWER
THEY CAN GRAB.
651
00:35:41,967 --> 00:35:44,833
JUST LIKE REAL LIFE,
AVIDIANS PICK UP NEW MOVEMENTS
652
00:35:44,833 --> 00:35:48,833
AND NEW COMBINATIONS
THROUGH TRIAL AND ERROR.
653
00:35:48,833 --> 00:35:53,500
GOING FROM SITTING TO JUMPING
IS A HIGHLY COMPLEX MOVEMENT.
654
00:35:53,500 --> 00:35:57,867
THAT REPRESENTS A COMPLEX
CALCULATION.
655
00:35:57,867 --> 00:35:59,467
YOU START
WITH SIMPLE CALCULATION,
656
00:35:59,467 --> 00:36:02,567
MAYBE AN ADDITION,
MAYBE A SMALL SUBTRACTION.
657
00:36:02,567 --> 00:36:04,667
IF YOU COULD DO MULTIPLICATION,
YOU CAN AN ACTUALLY
658
00:36:04,667 --> 00:36:07,133
DO BETTER THAN THAN JUST POOR
ADDERS AND SUBTRACTORS.
659
00:36:07,133 --> 00:36:09,300
THEN SOMEBODY DOING
SQUARE ROOTS OR LOGARITHMS
660
00:36:09,300 --> 00:36:10,933
OR INTEGRALS WOULD DOMINATE
661
00:36:10,933 --> 00:36:14,700
OVER THOSE THAT ARE JUST
THE PURE MULTIPLIERS.
662
00:36:14,700 --> 00:36:18,667
Freeman: THE RED AVIDIANS LOOK
LIKE THEY'RE GOING TO TAKE OVER.
663
00:36:18,667 --> 00:36:22,267
BUT THEN YELLOW STANDS UP
AND EXECUTES A NEW,
664
00:36:22,267 --> 00:36:25,400
HIGHLY COMPLEX
JUMPING JACK MOVE.
665
00:36:25,400 --> 00:36:27,167
SUDDENLY, YELLOW STARTS
666
00:36:27,167 --> 00:36:29,900
REPLICATING FASTER
THAN THE OTHER COLORS.
667
00:36:32,500 --> 00:36:34,400
Adami: VERY QUICKLY, YOU'LL SEE
A YELLOW TYPE TAKING OVER,
668
00:36:34,400 --> 00:36:36,067
WHICH THEN IS FOLLOWED
BY A RED TYPE
669
00:36:36,067 --> 00:36:37,300
AND THEN AN ORANGE TYPE.
670
00:36:37,300 --> 00:36:39,700
AND YOU'LL SEE
MANY DIFFERENT COLORS EMERGE,
671
00:36:39,700 --> 00:36:42,300
TAKE OVER,
AND THEN GO EXTINCT AGAIN
672
00:36:42,300 --> 00:36:45,267
IN A LONG, LONG PERIOD
OF EVOLUTION.
673
00:36:45,267 --> 00:36:48,700
Freeman: STUDYING AVIDIANS MAKES
CHRIS FEEL CONFIDENT THAT,
674
00:36:48,700 --> 00:36:52,567
IF DIGITAL ALIENS
ARE HIDING INSIDE OUR NETWORKS,
675
00:36:52,567 --> 00:36:54,867
HE'LL BE ABLE TO FIND THEM.
676
00:36:54,867 --> 00:36:58,100
HE'S FOUND
A TELLTALE SIGNATURE OF LIFE,
677
00:36:58,100 --> 00:37:01,067
WHETHER IT'S BIOLOGICAL
OR DIGITAL.
678
00:37:03,700 --> 00:37:05,133
LIKE ALL LIFE FORMS,
679
00:37:05,133 --> 00:37:09,267
AVIDIANS ARE BORN WITH A FINITE
SET OF INSTRUCTIONS.
680
00:37:09,267 --> 00:37:13,567
IF CHRIS REMOVES THE REWARDS
THAT CAUSE AVIDIANS TO EVOLVE,
681
00:37:13,567 --> 00:37:14,933
THEN EACH INSTRUCTION
682
00:37:14,933 --> 00:37:18,267
WILL BE USED
AT ROUGHLY THE SAME FREQUENCY.
683
00:37:18,267 --> 00:37:20,733
BUT LIVING AVIDIANS
FIND CERTAIN INSTRUCTIONS
684
00:37:20,733 --> 00:37:24,867
MORE VALUABLE THAN OTHERS
AND USE THEM FAR MORE OFTEN.
685
00:37:24,867 --> 00:37:28,400
THAT IS CHRIS' SIGNATURE
OF LIFE.
686
00:37:28,400 --> 00:37:31,667
BIOLOGICAL LIFE
HAS AN EQUIVALENT SIGNATURE.
687
00:37:31,667 --> 00:37:34,733
THE PATTERN OF AMINO ACIDS
USED IN OUR BODIES
688
00:37:34,733 --> 00:37:36,800
IS VERY DIFFERENT
FROM THE RANDOM PATTERN
689
00:37:36,800 --> 00:37:38,567
IN NONLIVING MATTER.
690
00:37:42,067 --> 00:37:43,467
BUT COULD ALIENS
691
00:37:43,467 --> 00:37:47,833
BE EVEN CLOSER TO US
THAN INSIDE OUR TECHNOLOGY?
692
00:37:50,867 --> 00:37:53,833
THIS PHYSICIST BELIEVES
AN ENDLESS VARIETY OF ALIENS
693
00:37:53,833 --> 00:37:55,900
MAY BE ONLY A FRACTION
OF AN INCH
694
00:37:55,900 --> 00:37:58,933
AWAY FROM EVERY PART
OF OUR WORLD
695
00:37:58,933 --> 00:38:02,233
BUT COULD REMAIN FOREVER
OUT OF REACH.
696
00:38:10,433 --> 00:38:14,300
WE ASSUME THAT, IF ALIEN LIFE
IS ALREADY ON EARTH,
697
00:38:14,300 --> 00:38:17,733
IT HAD TO HAVE TRAVELED HERE
FROM SOMEWHERE ELSE.
698
00:38:17,733 --> 00:38:21,433
WHETHER PRIMITIVE MICROBES
OR ADVANCED BEINGS,
699
00:38:21,433 --> 00:38:26,333
THE ASSUMPTION IS THEY HAD
TO COVER VAST DISTANCES.
700
00:38:26,333 --> 00:38:31,133
BUT WHAT IF ALIENS HAVE ALWAYS
BEEN RIGHT NEXT TO US,
701
00:38:31,133 --> 00:38:34,533
LIVING ON A DIFFERENT PLANE
OF REALITY?
702
00:38:43,433 --> 00:38:46,367
THEORETICAL PHYSICIST
ALEJANDRO JENKINS
703
00:38:46,367 --> 00:38:49,667
IS CONSTANTLY AMAZED
BY THE DIVERSITY OF LIFE
704
00:38:49,667 --> 00:38:53,300
IN HIS NATIVE COSTA RICA.
705
00:38:53,300 --> 00:38:56,233
BUT HE'S NOTICED THAT
THE SEEMINGLY ENDLESS VARIETY
706
00:38:56,233 --> 00:38:57,500
OF PLANTS, ANIMALS,
707
00:38:57,500 --> 00:39:03,267
AND INSECTS TEND TO CLUSTER
IN SEPARATE DOMAINS.
708
00:39:03,267 --> 00:39:06,667
THINK OF THE DIFFERENCE
BETWEEN THE CANOPY ECOSYSTEM
709
00:39:06,667 --> 00:39:09,067
THAT YOU HAVE ON THE TREE TOPS.
710
00:39:09,067 --> 00:39:11,233
AND THEN THERE WOULD BE
ENTIRELY DIFFERENT ECOSYSTEM,
711
00:39:11,233 --> 00:39:13,600
UM, RIGHT HERE, ON --
ON THE -- ON THE BEACH FLOOR.
712
00:39:13,600 --> 00:39:16,067
MAYBE YOU CAN ALSO THINK
OF ANOTHER ECOSYSTEM
713
00:39:16,067 --> 00:39:17,767
ON THE SURFACE OF THE OCEAN.
714
00:39:22,833 --> 00:39:26,067
Freeman: ALEJANDRO BELIEVES OUR
UNIVERSE MAY BE LIKE ONE
715
00:39:26,067 --> 00:39:28,100
OF THESE ECOSYSTEMS,
716
00:39:28,100 --> 00:39:31,667
SURROUNDED BY AN INCREDIBLE
VARIETY OF ALIEN LIFE,
717
00:39:31,667 --> 00:39:34,100
NOT IN NEARBY STAR SYSTEMS,
718
00:39:34,100 --> 00:39:36,400
BUT RIGHT UNDER OUR NOSES.
719
00:39:39,167 --> 00:39:41,667
HE THINKS THE ALIENS
COULD BE WITHIN FRACTIONS
720
00:39:41,667 --> 00:39:43,267
OF AN INCH OF YOU,
721
00:39:43,267 --> 00:39:47,433
ME, THIS SPIDER,
EVERYTHING.
722
00:39:47,433 --> 00:39:52,233
IF THAT'S TRUE,
THEN WHERE EXACTLY ARE THEY?
723
00:39:52,233 --> 00:39:54,667
THEY WOULD BE DISPLACED
IN ANOTHER ADDITIONAL DIMENSION
724
00:39:54,667 --> 00:39:57,533
THAT IS NOT ONE
OF THE THREE DIMENSIONS THAT --
725
00:39:57,533 --> 00:40:01,200
THAT WE SEE IN EVERYDAY LIFE.
726
00:40:01,200 --> 00:40:04,267
Freeman:
MANY PHYSICISTS ARE CONVINCED
THERE ARE DIMENSIONS
727
00:40:04,267 --> 00:40:09,567
OF SPACE AND TIME
THAT WE CANNOT DETECT.
728
00:40:09,567 --> 00:40:15,100
COULD ALIENS BE LIVING RIGHT
AMONG US YET STILL OUT OF REACH?
729
00:40:15,100 --> 00:40:17,233
Jenkins:
IT'S HARD TO THINK IN TERMS
OF MORE THAN THREE DIMENSIONS.
730
00:40:17,233 --> 00:40:19,733
SO LET'S SUPPOSE THAT INSTEAD OF
LIVING IN THREE DIMENSIONS,
731
00:40:19,733 --> 00:40:20,967
WE LIVED IN TWO.
732
00:40:20,967 --> 00:40:23,800
SO, UH, THE SURFACE
OF A -- OF A PLAYING CARD
733
00:40:23,800 --> 00:40:25,100
IS TWO DIMENSIONAL.
734
00:40:25,100 --> 00:40:28,367
BUT IF YOU HAVE A --
AN ADDITIONAL THIRD DIMENSION,
735
00:40:28,367 --> 00:40:32,667
YOU CAN STACK AS MANY CARDS
AS YOU WANT.
736
00:40:32,667 --> 00:40:34,367
SO I CAN HAVE THIS CARD,
737
00:40:34,367 --> 00:40:35,867
BUT RIGHT -- RIGHT BELOW IT,
738
00:40:35,867 --> 00:40:38,233
I CAN HAVE A DIFFERENT ONE
AND SO FORTH.
739
00:40:38,233 --> 00:40:40,967
SO PERHAPS OUR WORLD,
OUR UNIVERSE,
740
00:40:40,967 --> 00:40:43,767
IS JUST ONE PARTICULAR SLICE
741
00:40:43,767 --> 00:40:47,100
THROUGH THAT HIGHER DIMENSIONAL
SPACE.
742
00:40:47,100 --> 00:40:49,133
YOU WOULD HAVE TO MOVE
ONLY A VERY TINY DISTANCE
743
00:40:49,133 --> 00:40:52,667
IN THIS OTHER ADDITIONAL
DIRECTION IN ORDER TO GET THERE.
744
00:40:52,667 --> 00:40:54,133
Freeman:
ALEJANDRO BELIEVES THE LIFE
745
00:40:54,133 --> 00:40:57,400
THAT MAY EXIST IN THESE
EXTRA-DIMENSIONAL UNIVERSES
746
00:40:57,400 --> 00:41:01,400
COULD BE IN A FORM
THAT'S HARD FOR US TO RECOGNIZE.
747
00:41:01,400 --> 00:41:04,100
WE WOULD EXPECT ON -- ON --
ON THEORETICAL GROUNDS
748
00:41:04,100 --> 00:41:06,933
THAT A LOT OF THESE OTHER
UNIVERSES WOULD HAVE
749
00:41:06,933 --> 00:41:09,233
DIFFERENT MATTER CONTENTS
AND DIFFERENT KINDS OF --
750
00:41:09,233 --> 00:41:11,067
OF FORCES BETWEEN --
751
00:41:11,067 --> 00:41:12,933
BETWEEN THE PARTICLE,
UPON THE MATTER.
752
00:41:12,933 --> 00:41:14,833
PERHAPS IN SOME CASES,
EVEN THOUGH THE FORCES
753
00:41:14,833 --> 00:41:16,867
ARE DIFFERENT, UH,
754
00:41:16,867 --> 00:41:19,900
YOU WOULD STILL BE ABLE
TO GET A FORM OF LIFE.
755
00:41:22,467 --> 00:41:25,200
Freeman: IN THIS WILD SECTION
OF COSTA RICA,
756
00:41:25,200 --> 00:41:27,767
MOST CREATURES IN ONE ECOSYSTEM
757
00:41:27,767 --> 00:41:33,100
ARE UNAWARE THE LIVING THINGS
IN AN ADJACENT ECOSYSTEM EXIST.
758
00:41:33,100 --> 00:41:35,633
Jenkins:
WHAT WE HAVE HERE IS A LINE
759
00:41:35,633 --> 00:41:39,067
OF ANTS THAT'S CARRYING LEAVES
BACK TO ITS NEST.
760
00:41:39,067 --> 00:41:41,900
AND I IMAGINE THAT,
AS THEY MOVE DOWN THE TRUNK,
761
00:41:41,900 --> 00:41:43,333
THEY'RE ONLY AWARE OF THE FACT
762
00:41:43,333 --> 00:41:46,533
THAT THEY CAN MOVE UP OR DOWN
TO THEIR LEFT OR TO THEIR RIGHT.
763
00:41:46,533 --> 00:41:49,133
AND WE KNOW THAT THERE'S
ANOTHER DIMENSION
764
00:41:49,133 --> 00:41:51,400
IN WHICH THE ANT CANNOT MOVE.
765
00:41:51,400 --> 00:41:53,067
IT'S NOT LIKE THEY'RE BUTTERFLY.
766
00:41:53,067 --> 00:41:55,667
CANNOT FLY AWAY
IN THAT DIRECTION.
767
00:41:55,667 --> 00:41:58,067
SO MAYBE THEY'RE NOT AWARE OF
THE FACT THAT THERE'S SOMETHING
768
00:41:58,067 --> 00:42:00,300
ELSE OUT THERE.
769
00:42:00,300 --> 00:42:02,433
Freeman:
WE MIGHT BE LIKE THE ANTS,
770
00:42:02,433 --> 00:42:06,367
UNABLE TO SEE OTHER UNIVERSES
AROUND US.
771
00:42:06,367 --> 00:42:10,733
COULD WE EVER FIND ANOTHER
DIMENSION OR EVEN TRAVEL THERE?
772
00:42:10,733 --> 00:42:13,667
ALEJANDRO THINKS PROBABLY NOT.
773
00:42:13,667 --> 00:42:15,100
IT WOULD SEEM
LIKE WE WOULD NEVER BE ABLE
774
00:42:15,100 --> 00:42:16,467
TO SEE THOSE OTHER UNIVERSES
775
00:42:16,467 --> 00:42:20,500
BECAUSE LIGHT WOULD NOT BE ABLE
TO CROSS THAT DIVIDE.
776
00:42:24,067 --> 00:42:26,600
THE OLD SAYING
ABOUT THE SEARCH FOR ALIENS
777
00:42:26,600 --> 00:42:30,833
WAS, "THE TRUTH IS OUT THERE."
778
00:42:30,833 --> 00:42:35,200
WELL, THERE'S A GOOD CHANCE
THAT THEY'RE ALSO IN HERE.
779
00:42:35,200 --> 00:42:37,900
WHEN WE DISCOVER ALIENS, WILL WE
780
00:42:37,900 --> 00:42:42,067
ALSO DISCOVER A COMPLETELY NEW
CONCEPT OF LIFE, CONSCIOUSNESS,
781
00:42:42,067 --> 00:42:43,900
AND INTELLIGENCE?
782
00:42:43,900 --> 00:42:45,933
I CERTAINLY HOPE SO.
783
00:42:45,933 --> 00:42:48,133
THE ONLY THING
WE REALLY KNOW FOR SURE
784
00:42:48,133 --> 00:42:50,967
IS THAT OUR CIVILIZATION
IS JUST A TINY SPECK
785
00:42:50,967 --> 00:42:53,300
IN THE GREATER SCHEME OF THINGS.
786
00:42:53,300 --> 00:42:55,633
AND WE'LL NEVER STOP WONDERING
787
00:42:55,633 --> 00:42:59,667
WHO ELSE MIGHT SHARE
THIS UNIVERSE WITH US.
63531
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