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WWW.MY-SUBS.COM
1
00:00:09,664 --> 00:00:13,332
Inside every head in every home
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00:00:13,401 --> 00:00:15,201
is the most complex object
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we've discovered
in the universe,
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00:00:18,106 --> 00:00:21,407
the human brain.
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I've spent many years of
my life trying to decipher
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the mysteries of the brain,
7
00:00:26,214 --> 00:00:30,282
and yet I'm still in awe
every time I hold one.
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And that's because although
this marvel of biology
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seems so alien to us,
somehow, it is us.
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00:00:40,595 --> 00:00:43,095
Until recently, activity coursed
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through these cells.
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00:00:45,900 --> 00:00:49,068
This was Barbara.
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She had opinions and passions,
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she loved, she had her own life,
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and this is where
all of that happened,
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just as it does
for each one of us.
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00:01:06,354 --> 00:01:10,956
This 3-pound organ is made up
of hundreds of billions of cells
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00:01:11,025 --> 00:01:14,460
with a quadrillion connections
between them.
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These cells fire trillions of
electrochemical signals
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every second of your life.
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Somehow, all this wet
biological stuff results
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in the experience of being you.
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I'm going to explore
a fundamental question
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about our lives.
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What shapes who you become?
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This is the story of how
your life shapes your brain,
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and how your brain
shapes your life.
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What makes you you?
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For a long time, the answer was
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an immortal soul, or spirit:
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Something that goes
beyond mere matter
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and gives you your life
and your identity.
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But the modern study of the
brain tells a different story:
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Who we are can only be
understood in terms of
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the 3-pound organ in our heads.
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The story of becoming you
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begins with a remarkable fact.
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We are born utterly helpless,
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and this helplessness
lasts longer in humans
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than in any other species.
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00:02:52,460 --> 00:02:55,160
Compare human babies
to our cousins
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across the animal kingdom.
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What's mummy doing?
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Many newborn animals arrive
ready for the world.
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They have life skills
built in right from birth.
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A baby zebra can run when
it's just 45 minutes old.
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Baby giraffes learn how
to stand within hours.
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Dolphins are born swimming.
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Now, that would seem
to be an advantage,
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00:03:31,932 --> 00:03:34,566
but put any of these animals
in an ecosystem
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not tailored to them,
and they won't survive.
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Oh, look at that animal.
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What is that?
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In contrast, my son arri is two
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and he's still dependent on me,
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but one day, he could
live in Alaska
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or in the Sahara or on the moon.
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In other words, he can
adapt to any environment.
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All right.
That was fun, huh?
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00:03:58,592 --> 00:04:01,760
And that's thanks to the unique
and spectacular way
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00:04:01,829 --> 00:04:06,999
that the human brain can mold
to fit the world around it.
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Humans come to the table
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pre-programmed for
certain things,
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like absorbing language or
mimicking facial expressions,
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but the thing that's
really remarkable about humans
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is the degree to which
their brains are unfinished,
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and this leads to a period
of prolonged helplessness.
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But the plan is simple.
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Instead of hard-wiring
everything the way a rhino does,
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let life experience wire up
the rest of the brain.
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Arrive with something
that's a little bit sloppy
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and tune it up on the fly.
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We learn on the job.
It sounds risky,
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but that's exactly what
young human brains do.
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00:04:50,111 --> 00:04:53,879
And it gives us
an extraordinary advantage
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as we grow and learn and adapt.
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00:04:59,687 --> 00:05:03,922
What's the secret behind
the flexibility of young brains?
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Well, it's not about
growing new cells.
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The number of cells is the same
in children and in adults.
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Instead, the secret lies in
how those cells are connected.
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This 5-year-old
has essentially all of
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the brain cells
he's going to have.
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But what's happening
inside his head
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is very different than what's
happening inside mine.
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In the brain of a newborn baby,
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the neurons are only
starting to communicate.
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But then, over the first
two years of life,
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those neurons begin connecting
extremely rapidly,
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forming as many as two million
new connections every second.
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By age two, a typical neuron has
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more than 15,000 connections.
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That is almost twice as many
as found in an adult.
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So what happens in between?
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Well, after the age of two,
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the growth is halted.
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The process of becoming someone
is about pruning back
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the possibilities that
are already present.
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You become who you are
not because of
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what grows in your brain,
but because of what is removed.
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As we grow and learn new skills,
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we reduce the number of
connections in our brain...
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in favor of focusing
on a smaller number
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of stronger connections.
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As you learn to read,
your circuitry gets carved
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to interpret squiggles
on a page.
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The connections go from being
universal to being specific.
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Those links you don't
use, you lose.
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Over the course of childhood,
brain circuitry is
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00:07:13,020 --> 00:07:15,854
wired up according to experience
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and interaction
with the environment.
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But this dependence on
the outside world is a gamble.
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The outside world won't always
provide what a brain needs.
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I'm going to try...
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Ha ha ha!
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This is the Jensen
family from Milwaukee.
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Carol, bill, their sons tom
and John, and daughter Victoria.
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These are no ordinary children:
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All three were adopted
from a Romanian orphanage
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when they were just 4 years old.
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00:08:12,012 --> 00:08:15,747
So it was 1996
we came to the United States,
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and then that was when I turned
almost 4, on August 5 of 1996.
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So, yeah.
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In 1989, at the fall
of nicolai ceausescu's regime,
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there were 170,000 children
in Romanian orphanages.
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The children were often
kept in appalling conditions,
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left to cry
without human contact.
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You'd walk into a room
and you'd be surrounded
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by little kids who
you've never seen before...
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And they want to jump in your
arms or sit in your lap
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or hold your hand
or walk off with you.
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And this sort of indiscriminate
behavior is sort of
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the hallmark feature of kids who
have grown up in an institution.
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It's so overwhelming
that your tendency is
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00:09:17,011 --> 00:09:20,078
to get very emotional and so
we'd have to keep that in check
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00:09:20,147 --> 00:09:22,648
because you didn't want to
do that in front of the kids.
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Dr. Charles Nelson witnessed
the children's behavior
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and wondered if it went beyond
mere loneliness or distress.
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Had all that neglect impacted
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00:09:35,796 --> 00:09:38,263
the physical structure
of their brains?
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00:09:39,767 --> 00:09:41,767
Particularly
postnatally, brains need
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00:09:41,835 --> 00:09:43,135
experience in order to develop.
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The developing brain is
seeking out information
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and seeking out experiences
and if they don't get those,
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the brain doesn't know
how to get wired up
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and built correctly.
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The kids in the institution,
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they have iqs in
the 60s and 70s,
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their language is very delayed,
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00:10:00,754 --> 00:10:02,587
they have severe
attachment problems,
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00:10:02,656 --> 00:10:05,691
and they show signs of
an underdeveloped brain.
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00:10:05,759 --> 00:10:08,827
They had small heads and their
eeg activity was very reduced.
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00:10:11,765 --> 00:10:13,265
Dr. Nelson
began looking at
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00:10:13,333 --> 00:10:16,935
the electrical activity
in these children's brains.
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00:10:17,004 --> 00:10:20,272
He was astounded to discover
that the children had
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00:10:20,340 --> 00:10:23,008
dramatically reduced
neural activity.
156
00:10:24,678 --> 00:10:26,912
But there was more.
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He found evidence that
children placed into families
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before the age of two
generally recovered.
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But for those who didn't
leave the institution
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until older than two,
their brain development
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was compromised.
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The lack of experiences
leads the brain
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to wire incorrectly because it
doesn't have any input into it.
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And as a result, neurons
don't know which other neurons
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they should be
communicating with.
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Nelson's work revealed that when
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the brain is starved of the
things it needs, like touch,
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stimulation, love, a child's
development is stunted.
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00:11:13,827 --> 00:11:16,061
The only record
the Jensen children have
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00:11:16,130 --> 00:11:19,464
of their early years is
a couple of polaroids.
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In the orphanage,
we really didn't speak any,
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like, a known language.
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So when, like, my mom
asked the taxi driver
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00:11:35,082 --> 00:11:38,383
what we were speaking, the taxi
driver was like, "gibberish."
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The jensens were all
adopted after the age of two.
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In the orphanage, it's hard.
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It was rough. It was,
uh, it wasn't easy.
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Uh, kids didn't get
much attention.
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Almost 20 years have
passed since they left Romania.
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They still live with
the consequences
181
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of that early neglect.
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Tom has adhd, and
he has learning disabilities,
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but not to the same extent
that John has.
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For John, it... i think
it started out hard
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and it continues to be hard.
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We went to doctors,
psychiatrists, physicians,
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helping me out through the tough
times that I have right now,
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so it's working, so I like it.
189
00:12:38,512 --> 00:12:40,679
With the support
of a loving family,
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00:12:40,747 --> 00:12:43,515
the Jensen children
are finding ways to cope
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00:12:43,584 --> 00:12:46,251
with the scars of
their early childhood.
192
00:12:49,289 --> 00:12:52,657
What we experience in our
early years goes a long way
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toward defining who we become.
194
00:13:01,702 --> 00:13:05,003
Experience prunes
the brain, but that's not
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the only thing that
shapes who you are
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00:13:07,908 --> 00:13:10,709
because no matter what kind
of life you've led,
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00:13:10,777 --> 00:13:13,778
the brain is also on
a predetermined schedule
198
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dictated by genetics.
199
00:13:15,782 --> 00:13:20,352
And that means there are
major changes in store.
200
00:13:28,061 --> 00:13:29,527
In our teenage years,
201
00:13:29,596 --> 00:13:32,063
hormones course
around our bodies,
202
00:13:32,132 --> 00:13:35,467
causing dramatic
physical transformations.
203
00:13:37,304 --> 00:13:39,638
But out of sight,
our brains are undergoing
204
00:13:39,706 --> 00:13:42,908
equally monumental changes,
205
00:13:42,976 --> 00:13:45,677
ones that profoundly affect
how we behave
206
00:13:45,746 --> 00:13:48,613
and react to
the world around us.
207
00:13:51,018 --> 00:13:52,918
We all intuit
that teenagers have
208
00:13:52,986 --> 00:13:56,521
a different view on the world
than children or adults.
209
00:13:56,590 --> 00:14:00,425
But what's not always obvious is
that the way teens see the world
210
00:14:00,494 --> 00:14:03,662
is not simply a choice
or an attitude.
211
00:14:03,730 --> 00:14:06,464
Instead, it's the consequence
of a changing brain
212
00:14:06,533 --> 00:14:08,500
that's right on schedule.
213
00:14:08,568 --> 00:14:13,171
Who they are right now is
biological and inevitable.
214
00:14:18,912 --> 00:14:21,379
To get a sense
of the teen brain at work,
215
00:14:21,448 --> 00:14:23,782
we're running an experiment.
216
00:14:26,586 --> 00:14:29,554
With the help of my
graduate student Ricky savjani,
217
00:14:29,623 --> 00:14:32,457
we're going to rig up
volunteers of different ages
218
00:14:32,526 --> 00:14:35,727
to a machine that
measures stress levels
219
00:14:35,796 --> 00:14:38,029
by gauging changes
in their sweat glands.
220
00:14:38,098 --> 00:14:40,699
Hi there.
I'm Dr. eagleman.
221
00:14:40,767 --> 00:14:43,635
Then we have them
sit in a shop window
222
00:14:43,704 --> 00:14:45,670
to be gawked at by passersby.
223
00:14:47,841 --> 00:14:49,841
Ok, cue the curtain.
224
00:14:53,013 --> 00:14:54,446
First up, an adult.
225
00:15:00,287 --> 00:15:02,487
Louisa's stress response
seems to be
226
00:15:02,556 --> 00:15:06,424
holding about steady,
at a pretty low level.
227
00:15:06,493 --> 00:15:10,929
It's clear that she's
responding to people being there
228
00:15:10,998 --> 00:15:14,966
but her stress response
is simply not going up.
229
00:15:17,371 --> 00:15:20,305
But in the same situation,
the teen brain
230
00:15:20,374 --> 00:15:22,841
responds very differently.
231
00:15:31,685 --> 00:15:34,986
Oh, wow, that's a big response.
232
00:15:35,055 --> 00:15:37,422
I've got to auto scale
her heartbeat
233
00:15:37,491 --> 00:15:38,890
'cause it's gone up so much.
234
00:15:38,959 --> 00:15:39,959
Yeah.
235
00:15:42,295 --> 00:15:44,462
Her galvanic skin response
is really high now.
236
00:15:44,531 --> 00:15:46,464
It just keeps going up.
237
00:15:46,533 --> 00:15:48,867
It suggests she's stressed out.
238
00:15:53,140 --> 00:15:55,206
Hi, Zander.
How are you?
239
00:15:55,275 --> 00:15:56,674
I'm good.
Good, good.
240
00:15:59,046 --> 00:16:01,046
The more that
he averts his gaze,
241
00:16:01,114 --> 00:16:04,149
the higher his stress
response is going.
242
00:16:04,217 --> 00:16:07,085
So this is presumably
his response,
243
00:16:07,154 --> 00:16:08,653
is to pretend like
he's not there.
244
00:16:14,428 --> 00:16:17,695
What words would you use
to describe how it felt?
245
00:16:17,764 --> 00:16:21,199
Awkward.
Weird, pretty much.
246
00:16:21,268 --> 00:16:24,302
It was different, having
people just, like, stare at you
247
00:16:24,371 --> 00:16:26,938
and not knowing what
they were thinking.
248
00:16:30,377 --> 00:16:33,011
So why the big
difference in response between
249
00:16:33,080 --> 00:16:35,713
the adults and the teenagers?
250
00:16:35,782 --> 00:16:38,483
The answer involves
an area of the brain
251
00:16:38,552 --> 00:16:40,785
called the medial
prefrontal cortex.
252
00:16:46,560 --> 00:16:49,861
It becomes active when
you think about yourself,
253
00:16:49,930 --> 00:16:51,896
especially the
emotional significance
254
00:16:51,965 --> 00:16:54,099
of a situation to yourself.
255
00:16:56,069 --> 00:16:59,270
As one grows from
childhood into adolescence,
256
00:16:59,339 --> 00:17:01,873
the activity in this area rises,
257
00:17:01,942 --> 00:17:04,309
peaking around 15 years old.
258
00:17:04,377 --> 00:17:09,481
Now, social situations carry
a lot of emotional weight.
259
00:17:11,251 --> 00:17:13,351
In adults, the stress response
from that
260
00:17:13,420 --> 00:17:16,988
feeling of being looked at
is relatively modest.
261
00:17:18,959 --> 00:17:22,494
But in teenagers, that
same experience causes
262
00:17:22,562 --> 00:17:26,598
social emotions to go
into overdrive.
263
00:17:26,666 --> 00:17:31,369
The result is a stress response
of high intensity.
264
00:17:35,075 --> 00:17:37,909
It's not just about
self-consciousness.
265
00:17:37,978 --> 00:17:40,512
The development of the teen
brain has other consequences...
266
00:17:44,151 --> 00:17:47,819
Including poor impulse control.
267
00:17:47,888 --> 00:17:51,389
Parts of the prefrontal cortex
are still developing.
268
00:17:51,458 --> 00:17:53,057
Those parts are
involved in simulating
269
00:17:53,126 --> 00:17:55,760
the consequences of actions,
270
00:17:55,829 --> 00:17:58,296
and that translates into
greater risk-taking.
271
00:18:05,705 --> 00:18:09,174
But what happens when
things calm down?
272
00:18:09,242 --> 00:18:12,377
Once the rush of our
teenage years is over,
273
00:18:12,445 --> 00:18:15,413
do our brains stop changing?
274
00:18:15,482 --> 00:18:18,683
Is who we are fixed in stone
once we reach adulthood?
275
00:18:21,021 --> 00:18:23,588
Well, it's true that
most of the dramatic shifts
276
00:18:23,657 --> 00:18:26,658
in brain structure are done
by our early twenties...
277
00:18:28,795 --> 00:18:32,030
And for a long time researchers
thought that was that.
278
00:18:34,834 --> 00:18:37,635
But I've come to London
to look at a pioneering study
279
00:18:37,704 --> 00:18:40,071
that reveals how
even in adulthood,
280
00:18:40,140 --> 00:18:44,008
our brains can undergo
radical physical changes.
281
00:18:57,924 --> 00:18:59,023
The study of the knowledge is
282
00:18:59,092 --> 00:19:02,994
640 quarter mile radius areas...
283
00:19:03,063 --> 00:19:07,799
24,000 streets and roads
that need to be learnt...
284
00:19:07,867 --> 00:19:11,769
50,000 places of interest.
285
00:19:11,838 --> 00:19:14,272
What is known as "the knowledge"
286
00:19:14,341 --> 00:19:16,474
is a test of recall...
287
00:19:16,543 --> 00:19:19,143
Of all the streets in London.
288
00:19:19,212 --> 00:19:24,816
The driver of every black cab
has to pass it to get a license.
289
00:19:24,884 --> 00:19:27,285
Bayswater road from
marble arch, round park Lane...
290
00:19:31,224 --> 00:19:33,458
It's one of
the world's most difficult
291
00:19:33,526 --> 00:19:37,895
feats of memory, and completing
it usually takes
292
00:19:37,964 --> 00:19:40,698
over 4 years of intensive study.
293
00:19:43,069 --> 00:19:46,437
People will spend
3 to 4 hours a day
294
00:19:46,506 --> 00:19:49,173
reciting pretend journeys.
295
00:19:51,444 --> 00:19:54,579
That starts to make them...
"see it" is the term we use...
296
00:19:54,648 --> 00:19:55,648
how to get around London.
297
00:19:57,717 --> 00:20:01,586
The unique mental challenge
of passing "the knowledge"
298
00:20:01,655 --> 00:20:04,956
made it of particular interest
to a group of neuroscientists.
299
00:20:08,295 --> 00:20:12,330
They began doing brain scans
of the drivers before,
300
00:20:12,399 --> 00:20:16,467
during, and after
the rigorous training.
301
00:20:16,536 --> 00:20:19,404
They were interested
in an area of the brain
302
00:20:19,472 --> 00:20:22,707
called the posterior
hippocampus.
303
00:20:22,776 --> 00:20:26,210
It underpins spatial memory.
304
00:20:26,279 --> 00:20:29,747
At the beginning, it looked
just like everyone else's,
305
00:20:29,816 --> 00:20:34,152
but by the end of the training,
it had grown physically larger.
306
00:20:36,523 --> 00:20:39,223
All the map-memorizing,
all the driving,
307
00:20:39,292 --> 00:20:41,559
all the simulation
of future routes...
308
00:20:41,628 --> 00:20:44,228
this reshaped
their brain anatomy
309
00:20:44,297 --> 00:20:47,131
to match the task at hand.
310
00:20:47,200 --> 00:20:50,468
The longer a cabbie
had been doing his job,
311
00:20:50,537 --> 00:20:52,870
the bigger the change
in that brain region.
312
00:20:55,442 --> 00:20:59,277
Even when we're adults,
our brains can still change.
313
00:21:01,915 --> 00:21:03,648
Something that can be shaped
314
00:21:03,717 --> 00:21:06,918
and hold on to that shape
is what we call plastic,
315
00:21:06,986 --> 00:21:09,053
and that's how it goes
with the adult brain:
316
00:21:09,122 --> 00:21:13,224
Experience changes it,
and it retains that change.
317
00:21:13,293 --> 00:21:16,461
It's malleable,
it has plasticity.
318
00:21:16,529 --> 00:21:19,997
That means that who you are,
and who you can be,
319
00:21:20,066 --> 00:21:22,467
is a work in progress.
320
00:21:26,573 --> 00:21:30,074
Many activities can cause
the brain to transform.
321
00:21:33,646 --> 00:21:35,880
For example, learning
a musical instrument
322
00:21:35,949 --> 00:21:38,116
can produce dramatic changes.
323
00:21:40,954 --> 00:21:43,821
Musicians can learn languages
more quickly
324
00:21:43,890 --> 00:21:46,858
and have improved memory
as a result of the way
325
00:21:46,926 --> 00:21:50,194
years of practice have
altered their brains.
326
00:21:52,732 --> 00:21:55,466
Albert Einstein's brain
was examined after death
327
00:21:55,535 --> 00:21:57,068
by researchers.
328
00:21:57,137 --> 00:21:59,937
They were hunting
for signs of genius.
329
00:22:01,941 --> 00:22:04,075
But instead, they discovered
the brain area
330
00:22:04,144 --> 00:22:07,311
devoted to operating
the fingers of the left hand
331
00:22:07,380 --> 00:22:10,014
was much larger than normal...
all thanks to his
332
00:22:10,083 --> 00:22:14,652
less commonly known passion
for playing the violin.
333
00:22:14,721 --> 00:22:16,754
Hi, Paddington
station. Ok.
334
00:22:20,226 --> 00:22:22,360
In fact,
everything we experience
335
00:22:22,429 --> 00:22:24,695
will alter the physical
structure of our brain
336
00:22:24,764 --> 00:22:28,900
in some way... Meaning that
for as long as we're alive,
337
00:22:28,968 --> 00:22:32,603
our identities aren't fixed,
but constantly changing.
338
00:22:35,208 --> 00:22:39,310
From our jobs
to falling in love,
339
00:22:39,379 --> 00:22:41,679
having kids,
340
00:22:41,748 --> 00:22:44,148
and spending time with friends.
341
00:22:46,186 --> 00:22:48,719
All of these change
the wiring of your brain
342
00:22:48,788 --> 00:22:53,090
to make you who you are,
and who you can become.
343
00:23:01,835 --> 00:23:04,168
But the brain
can also change in ways that
344
00:23:04,237 --> 00:23:06,771
we have no control over...
345
00:23:10,143 --> 00:23:11,976
Ways that can have
a terrible impact
346
00:23:12,045 --> 00:23:14,779
on our personality and actions.
347
00:23:19,819 --> 00:23:22,587
We see this in a letter
discovered by police
348
00:23:22,655 --> 00:23:24,322
in the wake of a violent tragedy
349
00:23:24,390 --> 00:23:29,260
that happened in Austin, Texas,
in the summer of 1966.
350
00:23:32,765 --> 00:23:37,134
25-year-old Charles Whitman
was a model citizen.
351
00:23:37,203 --> 00:23:39,504
He had been an eagle scout,
352
00:23:39,572 --> 00:23:42,340
he'd been honorably
discharged from the military.
353
00:23:42,408 --> 00:23:44,275
He was working as a bank teller
354
00:23:44,344 --> 00:23:46,978
and studying as
an engineering student,
355
00:23:47,046 --> 00:23:49,814
yet what he'd written pointed to
356
00:23:49,883 --> 00:23:52,617
a disturbing change
in his personality.
357
00:23:54,454 --> 00:23:57,588
"I don't really understand
myself these days.
358
00:23:57,657 --> 00:23:59,457
"I'm supposed to be an average,
359
00:23:59,526 --> 00:24:02,059
"reasonable, and intelligent
young man.
360
00:24:02,128 --> 00:24:05,863
"However, lately... i can't
recall when it started...
361
00:24:05,932 --> 00:24:09,200
"I have been a victim
of many unusual
362
00:24:09,269 --> 00:24:11,769
and irrational thoughts."
363
00:24:13,473 --> 00:24:16,207
What Whitman was describing
were thoughts
364
00:24:16,276 --> 00:24:19,010
that would lead to killing.
365
00:24:19,078 --> 00:24:21,045
Death and terror stop the campus
366
00:24:21,114 --> 00:24:23,414
of the university of Texas
in Austin,
367
00:24:23,483 --> 00:24:26,117
as a sniper's bullets force
people to scurry for cover.
368
00:24:29,255 --> 00:24:31,122
A stream of deadly accurate fire
369
00:24:31,190 --> 00:24:33,257
sends bodies crumpling
to the ground everywhere...
370
00:24:33,326 --> 00:24:37,395
On August 1, 1966,
Whitman took an elevator
371
00:24:37,463 --> 00:24:40,898
to the top of the university
of Texas tower.
372
00:24:40,967 --> 00:24:42,300
An armored truck...
373
00:24:42,368 --> 00:24:44,635
There, he started
firing indiscriminately
374
00:24:44,704 --> 00:24:46,237
at the people below.
375
00:24:46,306 --> 00:24:48,039
Victims were
being hit at a rate of
376
00:24:48,107 --> 00:24:50,141
more than one every 3 minutes.
377
00:24:50,209 --> 00:24:53,711
13 people were killed
and 33 wounded,
378
00:24:53,780 --> 00:24:57,315
until Whitman himself was
finally shot dead by the police.
379
00:24:57,383 --> 00:24:59,450
His tower
arsenal included 3 rifles,
380
00:24:59,519 --> 00:25:01,652
a shotgun, two pistols,
and a knife.
381
00:25:01,721 --> 00:25:04,221
When police reached
his house, they discovered that
382
00:25:04,290 --> 00:25:08,259
he'd killed his wife and
his mother the night before.
383
00:25:09,963 --> 00:25:11,762
There was only
one thing more surprising
384
00:25:11,831 --> 00:25:15,066
than this random act
of violence, and that is
385
00:25:15,134 --> 00:25:18,235
there was nothing really about
Charles Whitman that suggested
386
00:25:18,304 --> 00:25:20,004
he would do something like this.
387
00:25:21,674 --> 00:25:24,575
It seemed completely senseless.
388
00:25:24,644 --> 00:25:26,844
But the letter they
found in his home,
389
00:25:26,913 --> 00:25:28,980
written prior to the killings,
390
00:25:29,048 --> 00:25:33,017
suggested a possible
explanation for his actions.
391
00:25:33,086 --> 00:25:36,988
In the note, he made
an unusual request.
392
00:25:37,056 --> 00:25:41,192
"After my death, I wish that an
autopsy would be performed on me
393
00:25:41,260 --> 00:25:45,596
to see if there is any
visible physical disorder."
394
00:25:45,665 --> 00:25:48,666
Whitman's wish was granted.
395
00:25:48,735 --> 00:25:51,836
During the autopsy,
the pathologists found
396
00:25:51,904 --> 00:25:54,205
that Whitman had a brain tumor.
397
00:25:57,076 --> 00:25:58,509
It was about the size
of a nickel,
398
00:25:58,578 --> 00:26:00,811
and it was pressing against
a part of his brain
399
00:26:00,880 --> 00:26:04,582
called the amygdala, which is
involved in fear and aggression.
400
00:26:06,285 --> 00:26:09,186
This pressure on the amygdala
led to a cascade
401
00:26:09,255 --> 00:26:11,722
of consequences
in Whitman's brain,
402
00:26:11,791 --> 00:26:14,725
resulting in him taking actions
403
00:26:14,794 --> 00:26:18,629
that would otherwise be
completely out of character.
404
00:26:18,698 --> 00:26:21,599
His brain matter
had been changing,
405
00:26:21,668 --> 00:26:25,569
and who he was changed with it.
406
00:26:25,638 --> 00:26:27,805
Whitman's example is extreme,
407
00:26:27,874 --> 00:26:30,441
but other less dramatic
changes in the brain
408
00:26:30,510 --> 00:26:33,511
also alter the fabric
of who we are.
409
00:26:36,482 --> 00:26:39,417
Parkinson's disease
can lead some people...
410
00:26:39,485 --> 00:26:43,988
even the most devout...
to lose their faith,
411
00:26:44,057 --> 00:26:49,060
and a medication for Parkinson's
can lead to compulsive gambling.
412
00:26:50,563 --> 00:26:54,632
And it's not just disease
or drugs that can change us.
413
00:26:54,701 --> 00:26:59,804
From the things we consume
to the simple process of aging,
414
00:26:59,872 --> 00:27:03,941
everything contributes
to continually reshaping
415
00:27:04,010 --> 00:27:07,411
the neural networks
that amount to us.
416
00:27:15,488 --> 00:27:18,823
So who we are changes
in the course of our life
417
00:27:18,891 --> 00:27:20,958
as our brain changes.
418
00:27:22,729 --> 00:27:24,595
But thankfully,
there's one constant
419
00:27:24,664 --> 00:27:26,163
that links it all together.
420
00:27:27,667 --> 00:27:31,535
It's a pillar
of our personality...
421
00:27:33,206 --> 00:27:34,538
Memory.
422
00:27:36,776 --> 00:27:39,777
Memory sits right
at the core of our identity...
423
00:27:39,846 --> 00:27:41,779
it gives our lives a narrative,
424
00:27:41,848 --> 00:27:44,115
one that we can share,
one that has meaning.
425
00:27:45,952 --> 00:27:47,718
But there's a problem...
426
00:27:47,787 --> 00:27:49,820
memory isn't always reliable.
427
00:27:51,858 --> 00:27:55,292
To understand how
it alters and why,
428
00:27:55,361 --> 00:27:58,395
I've come up with a little
thought experiment.
429
00:27:58,464 --> 00:28:02,199
Meet 35-year-old Daisy.
430
00:28:02,268 --> 00:28:04,802
So imagine Daisy could
meet her 5-year-old self.
431
00:28:04,871 --> 00:28:08,172
Same person, same
life experiences,
432
00:28:08,241 --> 00:28:11,542
a subset of her memories.
433
00:28:11,611 --> 00:28:15,546
Or what if Daisy could
meet her 85-year-old self,
434
00:28:15,615 --> 00:28:19,350
the same person, but
experiences played out more.
435
00:28:19,418 --> 00:28:22,920
Imagine that Daisy could
meet all of her selves
436
00:28:22,989 --> 00:28:25,723
across the spectrum
of her lifetime.
437
00:28:29,295 --> 00:28:31,162
You might think
that all these Daisys
438
00:28:31,230 --> 00:28:33,931
would share the exact
same memories.
439
00:28:35,701 --> 00:28:39,270
But although their memories
relate back to the same events,
440
00:28:39,338 --> 00:28:43,073
in fact, what they remember is
likely to be quite different.
441
00:28:45,111 --> 00:28:49,079
And that's because of what
a memory actually is.
442
00:28:53,519 --> 00:28:55,653
So a few years ago,
I went out for dinner
443
00:28:55,721 --> 00:29:00,124
to celebrate my friend Cheryl's
birthday with her boyfriend Joe.
444
00:29:00,193 --> 00:29:03,260
I remember it distinctly
because it was so enjoyable.
445
00:29:05,598 --> 00:29:07,965
Everything I experienced
that evening
446
00:29:08,034 --> 00:29:11,802
triggered particular patterns
of activity in my brain,
447
00:29:11,871 --> 00:29:15,206
lighting up constellations
of cells.
448
00:29:15,274 --> 00:29:18,809
The conversation between
Joe and Cheryl.
449
00:29:18,878 --> 00:29:21,512
The smell of the coffee.
450
00:29:21,581 --> 00:29:24,515
The taste of this
little French cake.
451
00:29:24,584 --> 00:29:28,819
All of these constellations
became linked with one another
452
00:29:28,888 --> 00:29:32,389
in a vast associative
network of neurons
453
00:29:32,458 --> 00:29:35,626
that the hippocampus replayed
over and over
454
00:29:35,695 --> 00:29:38,796
until the association
became fixed,
455
00:29:38,865 --> 00:29:42,566
and that was the unique
signature of this experience.
456
00:29:44,136 --> 00:29:47,938
That would become my memory
of Cheryl's birthday.
457
00:29:49,775 --> 00:29:53,444
So is a memory simply like
watching an old video recording
458
00:29:53,512 --> 00:29:56,080
that we just call up and replay?
459
00:29:56,148 --> 00:30:00,017
It feels like that, but in
reality it's quite different.
460
00:30:01,787 --> 00:30:05,756
Memories are actually
brain states from a bygone time
461
00:30:05,825 --> 00:30:08,125
that we have to resurrect.
462
00:30:12,932 --> 00:30:14,265
So here I am 6 months later,
463
00:30:14,333 --> 00:30:16,000
in a totally different city,
and I taste
464
00:30:16,068 --> 00:30:17,801
one of these little
French cakes again,
465
00:30:17,870 --> 00:30:19,069
and it's just like
the one that I had
466
00:30:19,138 --> 00:30:21,272
at Cheryl's birthday party.
467
00:30:21,340 --> 00:30:24,074
And in my brain, this
very specific trigger
468
00:30:24,143 --> 00:30:26,911
lights up a whole web
of associations,
469
00:30:26,979 --> 00:30:29,113
like the lights of
a city coming online,
470
00:30:29,181 --> 00:30:31,715
and suddenly I'm back
in that memory.
471
00:30:34,020 --> 00:30:37,454
But it's not as rich as
I would have imagined.
472
00:30:37,523 --> 00:30:41,292
I know that
Joe and Cheryl were there,
473
00:30:41,360 --> 00:30:44,395
and Cheryl, I think,
was wearing a blue shirt.
474
00:30:44,463 --> 00:30:46,664
Or maybe it was purple.
475
00:30:46,732 --> 00:30:47,898
Actually, maybe it was green.
476
00:30:49,735 --> 00:30:52,670
The memory of Cheryl's
birthday, in my brain,
477
00:30:52,738 --> 00:30:55,205
has started to fade.
478
00:30:55,274 --> 00:30:58,275
Our memories fade gradually,
because our brain only has
479
00:30:58,344 --> 00:31:00,344
a finite number of neurons,
480
00:31:00,413 --> 00:31:04,248
which over time get used
for other memories.
481
00:31:04,317 --> 00:31:08,352
It means that the details
have now become a little hazy.
482
00:31:10,456 --> 00:31:13,724
What matters is that I remember
that we had a great time.
483
00:31:15,728 --> 00:31:17,161
But even that's
not totally certain.
484
00:31:17,229 --> 00:31:19,863
Because in the
intervening months,
485
00:31:19,932 --> 00:31:22,633
Joe and Cheryl have broken up.
486
00:31:22,702 --> 00:31:26,971
And so now I'm wondering... did I
sense any red flags there?
487
00:31:29,041 --> 00:31:31,275
The state of my
emotions right now
488
00:31:31,344 --> 00:31:35,079
changes the network
that corresponds to then.
489
00:31:35,147 --> 00:31:38,015
My present colors my past.
490
00:31:41,253 --> 00:31:42,853
What this means for all of us
491
00:31:42,922 --> 00:31:46,390
is that the same event will
be remembered differently,
492
00:31:46,459 --> 00:31:49,259
depending on where you are
at that point in your life.
493
00:31:51,731 --> 00:31:54,698
So how reliable
are our memories?
494
00:31:54,767 --> 00:31:56,967
How far can they be altered?
495
00:31:57,036 --> 00:31:59,336
And why do our brains
work that way?
496
00:32:05,144 --> 00:32:08,979
The first suggestion about
how vulnerable our memory is
497
00:32:09,048 --> 00:32:10,514
came with
the groundbreaking work
498
00:32:10,583 --> 00:32:12,950
of professor Elizabeth loftus.
499
00:32:18,657 --> 00:32:21,458
She devised this simple
experiment in which volunteers
500
00:32:21,527 --> 00:32:24,061
watched films of car crashes.
501
00:32:24,130 --> 00:32:26,630
She then asked them
a series of questions
502
00:32:26,699 --> 00:32:28,298
to test what they remembered.
503
00:32:30,569 --> 00:32:33,037
So if I ask you
a question, you know,
504
00:32:33,105 --> 00:32:37,274
how fast were the cars going
when they hit each other,
505
00:32:37,343 --> 00:32:39,076
versus how fast
were the cars going
506
00:32:39,145 --> 00:32:42,646
when they smashed
into each other,
507
00:32:42,715 --> 00:32:45,682
witnesses give different
estimates of speed.
508
00:32:45,751 --> 00:32:47,618
They think the cars
were going faster
509
00:32:47,686 --> 00:32:49,286
if you used the word smashed.
510
00:32:51,023 --> 00:32:54,425
And so this was one of my
earliest examples showing that
511
00:32:54,493 --> 00:32:57,394
leading questions can
distort the answers
512
00:32:57,463 --> 00:33:00,531
and can contaminate
a person's memory.
513
00:33:03,069 --> 00:33:06,403
The discovery that existing
memories could be distorted
514
00:33:06,472 --> 00:33:09,773
led loftus to ask
a more radical question.
515
00:33:11,343 --> 00:33:15,345
Would it be possible to implant
entirely false memories?
516
00:33:18,684 --> 00:33:22,286
To find out, she devised
another experiment.
517
00:33:25,257 --> 00:33:28,559
She recruited volunteers
and then had her team
518
00:33:28,627 --> 00:33:31,161
call their families
for information
519
00:33:31,230 --> 00:33:33,964
about events from their past.
520
00:33:34,033 --> 00:33:35,766
The researchers
then put together
521
00:33:35,835 --> 00:33:39,736
a number of stories
about their childhoods.
522
00:33:39,805 --> 00:33:41,839
3 were true.
523
00:33:41,907 --> 00:33:43,807
But one, while
sounding plausible,
524
00:33:43,876 --> 00:33:45,642
was entirely made up.
525
00:33:50,683 --> 00:33:52,716
The story involved the volunteer
526
00:33:52,785 --> 00:33:55,285
getting lost in
a shopping mall as a child...
527
00:34:00,259 --> 00:34:04,862
Then being found by
a kind old person...
528
00:34:04,930 --> 00:34:07,764
And then reunited
with her parents.
529
00:34:13,172 --> 00:34:15,639
When told the 4 stories,
530
00:34:15,708 --> 00:34:17,674
at least a quarter
of the participants
531
00:34:17,743 --> 00:34:22,112
claimed they could remember
being lost in the mall...
532
00:34:22,181 --> 00:34:23,547
even though it never happened.
533
00:34:23,616 --> 00:34:25,215
6 at the time.
534
00:34:25,284 --> 00:34:26,817
You cry or anything like that...
535
00:34:26,886 --> 00:34:29,520
Yeah, no, I did cry.
Cried a lot.
536
00:34:29,588 --> 00:34:32,723
And the experiment
didn't stop there.
537
00:34:32,791 --> 00:34:35,659
They may start to
remember a little bit about it.
538
00:34:35,728 --> 00:34:37,794
But when they come back
a week later,
539
00:34:37,863 --> 00:34:39,897
they're starting
to remember more.
540
00:34:39,965 --> 00:34:44,401
Maybe they'll talk about the
older woman who rescued them.
541
00:34:44,470 --> 00:34:47,337
"I think I heard my name
over a loudspeaker."
542
00:34:47,406 --> 00:34:49,439
Over time,
543
00:34:49,508 --> 00:34:54,011
more and more detail crept
into their false memory.
544
00:34:54,079 --> 00:34:57,247
The old lady was wearing
this crazy hat.
545
00:34:57,316 --> 00:34:59,550
"I had my favorite toy."
546
00:34:59,618 --> 00:35:02,519
"My mom was so mad."
547
00:35:02,588 --> 00:35:05,355
The invention of these
new details that go way beyond
548
00:35:05,424 --> 00:35:07,124
anything we presented to them
549
00:35:07,193 --> 00:35:08,692
as coming from their mother
550
00:35:08,761 --> 00:35:11,261
were pretty impressive to us.
551
00:35:11,330 --> 00:35:14,998
Loftus had discovered
that not only is it possible
552
00:35:15,067 --> 00:35:18,769
to implant entirely new
memories in the brain,
553
00:35:18,837 --> 00:35:22,172
we naturally embrace
and embellish them...
554
00:35:22,241 --> 00:35:27,144
unknowingly weaving fantasy into
the very fabric of who we are.
555
00:35:29,715 --> 00:35:34,051
And we're all susceptible,
even loftus herself.
556
00:35:36,755 --> 00:35:40,157
My mother had drowned
when I was 14.
557
00:35:44,163 --> 00:35:48,365
And years later, I had gone
to a birthday celebration,
558
00:35:48,434 --> 00:35:54,705
and one of my other relatives
started to talk about my mother.
559
00:35:54,773 --> 00:35:58,175
And this relative
started to tell me that
560
00:35:58,244 --> 00:35:59,509
I was the one that found
561
00:35:59,578 --> 00:36:01,612
my mother's body
in the swimming pool.
562
00:36:01,680 --> 00:36:03,580
And he was so convincing that
563
00:36:03,649 --> 00:36:05,115
I went home from that birthday
564
00:36:05,184 --> 00:36:08,151
and I started to think,
maybe I did.
565
00:36:11,190 --> 00:36:13,423
I started to think about other
things that I did remember,
566
00:36:13,492 --> 00:36:16,159
like when the firemen came,
they gave me oxygen,
567
00:36:16,228 --> 00:36:18,462
maybe I needed the oxygen
'cause I was
568
00:36:18,530 --> 00:36:21,265
so upset that I found the body,
569
00:36:21,333 --> 00:36:26,036
and I could almost visualize
my mother in the swimming pool.
570
00:36:28,207 --> 00:36:30,607
But then something
happened that would make loftus
571
00:36:30,676 --> 00:36:33,710
realize her memory
had been tricked.
572
00:36:35,648 --> 00:36:37,748
The relative called
and said, "I made a mistake",
573
00:36:37,816 --> 00:36:41,818
it wasn't you, it was the aunt,
who found the body."
574
00:36:41,887 --> 00:36:45,055
And so I thought, boy, that's...
that's what it feels like, when
575
00:36:45,124 --> 00:36:50,694
you're on your way to developing
such a rich false memory.
576
00:36:54,667 --> 00:36:57,634
Our past is not
a faithful record.
577
00:36:57,703 --> 00:36:59,970
Instead, it's a reconstruction.
578
00:37:00,039 --> 00:37:02,205
In part, it's a mythology.
579
00:37:02,274 --> 00:37:05,108
So what does this mean
for who we are?
580
00:37:05,177 --> 00:37:07,377
Well, think about
your life memories.
581
00:37:07,446 --> 00:37:09,513
Not all the details
are accurate.
582
00:37:09,581 --> 00:37:12,582
Some came from things that
people told you about yourself;
583
00:37:12,651 --> 00:37:14,451
other details were filled in by
584
00:37:14,520 --> 00:37:16,753
what you think
must have happened.
585
00:37:16,822 --> 00:37:18,355
But that's ok.
586
00:37:18,424 --> 00:37:22,159
It's all part of the evolving
story that is you.
587
00:37:28,033 --> 00:37:31,068
So why do we have memories
that are so unreliable?
588
00:37:32,638 --> 00:37:34,438
Well, as strange as it sounds,
589
00:37:34,506 --> 00:37:38,041
memory isn't just used
for recording our past.
590
00:37:41,847 --> 00:37:44,781
It also serves another
important function.
591
00:37:46,985 --> 00:37:50,454
That function would be revealed
by a singular case
592
00:37:50,522 --> 00:37:53,457
that revolutionized
neuroscience.
593
00:38:01,300 --> 00:38:04,768
How long have you
had trouble remembering things?
594
00:38:04,837 --> 00:38:08,205
I don't know myself.
I can't tell you
595
00:38:08,273 --> 00:38:10,173
because I don't remember.
596
00:38:10,242 --> 00:38:11,942
But do you think
it's been more than a year
597
00:38:12,010 --> 00:38:13,744
that you've had this problem?
598
00:38:13,812 --> 00:38:17,547
I think about that 'cause, uh,
599
00:38:17,616 --> 00:38:22,519
this is just a thought that
I'm having myself that, uh...
600
00:38:22,588 --> 00:38:26,123
I possibly have had
an operation or something.
601
00:38:26,191 --> 00:38:30,594
Henry molaison was born in 1926.
602
00:38:30,662 --> 00:38:33,497
His early life was like
any other young boy's,
603
00:38:33,565 --> 00:38:35,932
until his 10th birthday,
when he suffered
604
00:38:36,001 --> 00:38:38,668
his first epileptic seizure.
605
00:38:38,737 --> 00:38:41,972
By 16, his epilepsy
had worsened,
606
00:38:42,040 --> 00:38:46,777
and by 27, he could no longer
function normally.
607
00:38:46,845 --> 00:38:50,680
These major seizures
increased in frequency,
608
00:38:50,749 --> 00:38:54,651
up to the point where his life
was pretty much on hold.
609
00:38:56,155 --> 00:38:59,089
His doctors proposed
an experimental surgery
610
00:38:59,158 --> 00:39:01,158
that would remove
the hippocampus
611
00:39:01,226 --> 00:39:03,860
on both sides of Henry's brain,
612
00:39:03,929 --> 00:39:08,198
leaving two yawning black holes.
613
00:39:08,267 --> 00:39:11,735
The operation proceeded
without incident,
614
00:39:11,804 --> 00:39:14,304
and within a few days,
he recovered.
615
00:39:16,708 --> 00:39:19,443
Henry's epilepsy was cured.
616
00:39:19,511 --> 00:39:21,478
That was when they realized
617
00:39:21,547 --> 00:39:23,680
that he couldn't
remember anything.
618
00:39:25,384 --> 00:39:28,585
For the remaining
55 years of his life,
619
00:39:28,654 --> 00:39:33,490
he never formed a single
new long-term memory.
620
00:39:40,299 --> 00:39:42,666
And there was something more.
621
00:39:44,369 --> 00:39:46,670
What do you think
you'll do tomorrow?
622
00:39:49,641 --> 00:39:53,477
Whatever's beneficial.
623
00:39:53,545 --> 00:39:56,213
You might think when
you said... say to him,
624
00:39:56,281 --> 00:39:58,148
"what... what do you think
you'll do tomorrow?"
625
00:39:58,217 --> 00:40:01,251
He might say, "well, you know,
I'll get up, um, as usual"
626
00:40:01,320 --> 00:40:04,621
and, um, get dressed and shave
and have breakfast,"
627
00:40:04,690 --> 00:40:06,656
but he didn't even
come up with that.
628
00:40:06,725 --> 00:40:11,361
It was like he was absolutely
stuck in the present moment.
629
00:40:12,698 --> 00:40:14,831
Henry molaison's misfortune
630
00:40:14,900 --> 00:40:16,399
had revealed something profound.
631
00:40:18,537 --> 00:40:22,873
The brain areas that underline
memory are the same as those
632
00:40:22,941 --> 00:40:27,010
that are used to simulate
what's coming next.
633
00:40:27,079 --> 00:40:32,716
Both the past and the future
are creations in the brain.
634
00:40:32,784 --> 00:40:35,719
Who we are at any moment in time
635
00:40:35,787 --> 00:40:38,655
is an ongoing narrative.
636
00:40:42,628 --> 00:40:45,595
As we live longer
than ever before,
637
00:40:45,664 --> 00:40:49,499
this presents real problems
for brain health.
638
00:40:49,568 --> 00:40:52,068
Diseases like Alzheimer's
and Parkinson's
639
00:40:52,137 --> 00:40:54,037
attack our brain tissue
640
00:40:54,106 --> 00:40:56,973
and with it, who we are.
641
00:40:58,577 --> 00:41:01,478
But in the same way that
your environment and behavior
642
00:41:01,547 --> 00:41:04,114
shape your brain
when you're younger,
643
00:41:04,182 --> 00:41:07,584
they're just as important
in your later years.
644
00:41:12,357 --> 00:41:13,356
If you don't mind me asking,
645
00:41:13,425 --> 00:41:14,591
how old are you this year?
646
00:41:14,660 --> 00:41:16,426
Oh, I'm just 94.
647
00:41:16,495 --> 00:41:19,696
Ok. For how long
have you been here?
648
00:41:19,765 --> 00:41:22,098
Well, I've been in the
convent over 70 years.
649
00:41:22,167 --> 00:41:25,535
Do people live until their 100s?
650
00:41:25,604 --> 00:41:28,772
We had one I know
that went over 100.
651
00:41:28,840 --> 00:41:31,441
How was she doing
cognitively, at that age?
652
00:41:31,510 --> 00:41:33,343
She was very smart.
653
00:41:33,412 --> 00:41:34,544
She was very smart. Ok.
654
00:41:34,613 --> 00:41:36,713
She sure was, and she
didn't miss anything.
655
00:41:36,782 --> 00:41:39,749
Ha ha! Quite alert!
656
00:41:39,818 --> 00:41:43,219
Across the U.S.,
more than 1,200
657
00:41:43,288 --> 00:41:46,323
nuns, priests, and brothers
have been taking part
658
00:41:46,391 --> 00:41:48,892
in a unique research study
659
00:41:48,961 --> 00:41:53,363
exploring the effects
of aging on the brain.
660
00:41:53,432 --> 00:41:55,498
They really figured the sisters
661
00:41:55,567 --> 00:41:58,301
are a good study group because
we're kind of stable.
662
00:41:58,370 --> 00:42:00,236
You know where to find us.
663
00:42:01,940 --> 00:42:04,674
Each year, the
participants have to provide
664
00:42:04,743 --> 00:42:08,445
detailed records of
how they spend their time.
665
00:42:08,513 --> 00:42:11,514
They also commit to extensive
physical, genetic,
666
00:42:11,583 --> 00:42:15,185
and cognitive tests,
and it doesn't end there.
667
00:42:16,989 --> 00:42:20,023
When I first heard
about the study, I said... Well,
668
00:42:20,092 --> 00:42:23,460
even after I die... ha ha!...
669
00:42:23,528 --> 00:42:26,696
whatever I'm contributing
can still go on.
670
00:42:26,765 --> 00:42:29,733
After they die,
all the participants
671
00:42:29,801 --> 00:42:32,469
will give up... Their brains.
672
00:42:35,741 --> 00:42:40,377
My staff in Chicago is on call
24 hours a day, 7 days a week.
673
00:42:40,445 --> 00:42:43,713
When someone dies in New York,
they call us.
674
00:42:43,782 --> 00:42:47,517
The researchers
carefully examine the brains
675
00:42:47,586 --> 00:42:50,086
for the tell-tale
microscopic evidence
676
00:42:50,155 --> 00:42:53,056
of age-related brain disease.
677
00:42:55,761 --> 00:42:58,595
They're looking to establish
links between
678
00:42:58,664 --> 00:43:02,232
brain degeneration
and cognitive performance.
679
00:43:02,300 --> 00:43:07,170
But the first set of results
was entirely unexpected.
680
00:43:08,507 --> 00:43:10,974
When we first
started publishing it,
681
00:43:11,043 --> 00:43:13,476
a lot of people were surprised.
682
00:43:13,545 --> 00:43:15,845
It turned out
that nearly a third
683
00:43:15,914 --> 00:43:19,349
of the brains tested had
characteristic signs of
684
00:43:19,418 --> 00:43:22,452
full-blown Alzheimer's.
685
00:43:22,521 --> 00:43:29,159
♪ when I fall
on my knees.... ♪
686
00:43:29,227 --> 00:43:31,661
But the cognitive
tests revealed that
687
00:43:31,730 --> 00:43:34,631
the brain owners
had shown no symptoms
688
00:43:34,700 --> 00:43:37,100
of this terrible disease.
689
00:43:37,169 --> 00:43:41,237
Their brains were sick,
yet they remained unaffected.
690
00:43:42,874 --> 00:43:44,240
It didn't make sense.
691
00:43:44,309 --> 00:43:46,176
What had happened?
692
00:43:48,880 --> 00:43:51,147
I have a game on my smartphone...
693
00:43:51,216 --> 00:43:54,250
ruzzle. Ha ha ha!
694
00:43:54,319 --> 00:43:55,752
And some of our sisters
695
00:43:55,821 --> 00:44:00,223
have been involved in
teaching, nursing...
696
00:44:00,292 --> 00:44:02,492
Having responsibilities,
697
00:44:02,561 --> 00:44:06,362
learning new skills,
keeping the brain active.
698
00:44:06,431 --> 00:44:08,164
This was protecting the nuns
699
00:44:08,233 --> 00:44:11,935
from the cognitive symptoms
of the disease.
700
00:44:12,003 --> 00:44:14,904
I am interested
very much in science.
701
00:44:14,973 --> 00:44:16,940
I love scrabble.
702
00:44:17,008 --> 00:44:19,242
I drive the sisters
to the doctors.
703
00:44:21,146 --> 00:44:23,580
mass every day, and if I didn't
704
00:44:23,648 --> 00:44:26,549
have that, I'd be
completely nuts.
705
00:44:26,618 --> 00:44:29,686
Even as parts of
the brain tissue degenerate,
706
00:44:29,755 --> 00:44:31,888
mental and physical
activity can build
707
00:44:31,957 --> 00:44:35,091
new pathways for
solving problems.
708
00:44:36,661 --> 00:44:39,963
This is called
"cognitive reserve."
709
00:44:44,903 --> 00:44:47,937
Think of the brain
like a tool box.
710
00:44:48,006 --> 00:44:50,373
If it's a good tool box, you
have all the tools you need,
711
00:44:50,442 --> 00:44:54,377
so I might choose a ratchet
to disengage this bolt here.
712
00:44:54,446 --> 00:44:57,347
But what if I didn't have
access to this ratchet?
713
00:44:57,415 --> 00:44:59,149
I might be able to find
something else,
714
00:44:59,217 --> 00:45:01,584
like this wrench
would do the trick.
715
00:45:01,653 --> 00:45:04,788
And if I didn't have the wrench,
I could find something else,
716
00:45:04,856 --> 00:45:07,423
like this adjustable wrench.
717
00:45:07,492 --> 00:45:11,928
And it's the same idea in an
active, cognitively fit brain.
718
00:45:11,997 --> 00:45:15,098
Even as parts of
the brain degenerate,
719
00:45:15,167 --> 00:45:18,001
the brain can find
other solutions.
720
00:45:20,505 --> 00:45:23,173
By making sure
our mental tool box
721
00:45:23,241 --> 00:45:26,309
is equipped with a variety
of working tools,
722
00:45:26,378 --> 00:45:30,747
we may be able to slow down
the effects of our aging brains
723
00:45:30,816 --> 00:45:34,384
and hold on to who we are
for as long as possible.
724
00:45:36,755 --> 00:45:41,424
But who we are is more than just
the tasks we can accomplish.
725
00:45:43,061 --> 00:45:45,562
There's something else...
something that's perhaps
726
00:45:45,630 --> 00:45:49,699
the greatest mystery
about how the brain works.
727
00:45:49,768 --> 00:45:53,570
It's the sense of "I," of "me."
728
00:45:56,408 --> 00:45:58,308
I am a conscious being.
729
00:45:58,376 --> 00:46:00,343
When I think about who I am,
730
00:46:00,412 --> 00:46:02,345
it's taking place
inside this head,
731
00:46:02,414 --> 00:46:05,748
through these eyes, from this
particular point of view.
732
00:46:08,186 --> 00:46:11,754
Conscious experience is
at once the most familiar
733
00:46:11,823 --> 00:46:15,959
and the most perplexing
aspect of our identity.
734
00:46:18,997 --> 00:46:21,764
How does the physical
stuff of the brain
735
00:46:21,833 --> 00:46:26,069
equal the mental experience
of being a conscious human?
736
00:46:28,373 --> 00:46:31,574
How do billions
of brain cells produce
737
00:46:31,643 --> 00:46:34,277
the extraordinary,
unique feeling
738
00:46:34,346 --> 00:46:37,881
of being alive, of being me?
739
00:46:39,417 --> 00:46:42,619
I'm made up of
100 billion neurons.
740
00:46:42,687 --> 00:46:45,255
And when I die,
they'll still be there.
741
00:46:45,323 --> 00:46:48,191
But I won't be me anymore;
I'll be dead.
742
00:46:48,260 --> 00:46:50,994
So that means who I am
is not about
743
00:46:51,062 --> 00:46:52,929
the existence of the neurons.
744
00:46:52,998 --> 00:46:56,366
It's about what they do
and how they interact.
745
00:46:56,434 --> 00:46:58,434
Imagine that the neurons
in your brain
746
00:46:58,503 --> 00:47:01,170
are like a collection
of drummers.
747
00:47:07,212 --> 00:47:10,513
If each drummer plays
completely independently,
748
00:47:10,582 --> 00:47:13,583
the noise that emerges
is just that... noise.
749
00:47:18,089 --> 00:47:20,556
But if they start
listening to one another,
750
00:47:20,625 --> 00:47:22,625
something more emerges.
751
00:47:28,566 --> 00:47:33,002
Out of cacophony appears
a rhythm, a performance...
752
00:47:33,071 --> 00:47:36,406
a complex interaction in which
all the drummers are playing
753
00:47:36,474 --> 00:47:39,609
both as individuals
and as something greater.
754
00:47:42,347 --> 00:47:46,349
And in the same way, this is how
the experience of consciousness
755
00:47:46,418 --> 00:47:49,552
arises in the brain.
756
00:47:49,621 --> 00:47:53,856
Billions of interacting
neurons work in concert...
757
00:47:53,925 --> 00:47:56,125
and under the right
circumstances,
758
00:47:56,194 --> 00:47:58,461
they hit a sweet spot,
759
00:47:58,530 --> 00:48:02,432
the place where the singular,
private experience
760
00:48:02,500 --> 00:48:05,401
of being you emerges.
761
00:48:09,441 --> 00:48:12,008
Consciousness is
a performance our brain
762
00:48:12,077 --> 00:48:14,243
puts on for us
throughout our day.
763
00:48:18,850 --> 00:48:21,718
But there comes a time...
in fact, once a day...
764
00:48:21,786 --> 00:48:24,354
when the character of
that drumming changes
765
00:48:24,422 --> 00:48:26,756
and it takes me with it.
766
00:48:26,825 --> 00:48:28,391
The best way for me
to show you how
767
00:48:28,460 --> 00:48:30,159
is for me to go to sleep...
768
00:48:33,164 --> 00:48:35,131
Wearing this.
769
00:48:37,435 --> 00:48:41,404
I'm wearing an
electro-encephalogram, or eeg.
770
00:48:41,473 --> 00:48:45,541
It records my brain's activity,
giving an idea of how my neurons
771
00:48:45,610 --> 00:48:47,877
are interacting while I sleep.
772
00:48:52,384 --> 00:48:55,351
When you go to sleep,
your body seems to shut down,
773
00:48:55,420 --> 00:48:57,920
so you might think that
the drum beat in your brain
774
00:48:57,989 --> 00:48:59,856
would do the same.
775
00:49:03,528 --> 00:49:05,395
But the reality is
quite different.
776
00:49:07,832 --> 00:49:09,532
So at the beginning
of the night,
777
00:49:09,601 --> 00:49:12,435
this is my brain activity:
I was still awake.
778
00:49:12,504 --> 00:49:15,438
But if I go a little bit later,
I have activity
779
00:49:15,507 --> 00:49:17,607
that looks as though
I'm still awake,
780
00:49:17,675 --> 00:49:20,643
but in fact I wasn't;
I was in dream sleep here,
781
00:49:20,712 --> 00:49:23,312
which is a form
of consciousness,
782
00:49:23,381 --> 00:49:25,581
full of vision and sounds
783
00:49:25,650 --> 00:49:29,052
and strange situations
and magnified emotions.
784
00:49:29,120 --> 00:49:32,321
It's me, but a bizarre
form of me.
785
00:49:32,390 --> 00:49:34,557
But things get stranger.
786
00:49:34,626 --> 00:49:39,028
At this part of the night,
I'm in deep sleep.
787
00:49:39,097 --> 00:49:42,598
My brain is still there,
and it's still active,
788
00:49:42,667 --> 00:49:44,434
but I am gone.
789
00:49:47,806 --> 00:49:51,941
In deep sleep, our neurons
become more synchronized.
790
00:49:53,645 --> 00:49:58,114
It's impossible for a complex
rhythm to emerge from this,
791
00:49:58,183 --> 00:50:00,550
which means,
in this brain state,
792
00:50:00,618 --> 00:50:03,486
there's no hope of
conscious experience.
793
00:50:04,889 --> 00:50:07,924
No identity, no personality,
794
00:50:07,992 --> 00:50:09,859
nothing.
795
00:50:13,631 --> 00:50:17,100
I am the relationship
between my neurons.
796
00:50:17,168 --> 00:50:20,336
Change their interaction just
a little bit and I find myself
797
00:50:20,405 --> 00:50:22,872
in a dream world,
or I disappear.
798
00:50:25,043 --> 00:50:27,210
Or I return.
799
00:50:27,278 --> 00:50:30,646
When the neurons find themselves
back in their proper rhythm,
800
00:50:30,715 --> 00:50:33,182
I miraculously come back online.
801
00:50:36,121 --> 00:50:39,489
Consciousness and the sense
of being "me"
802
00:50:39,557 --> 00:50:43,559
somehow emerges from the complex
rhythms of our neurons firing.
803
00:50:49,968 --> 00:50:53,703
But why consciousness
emerges at all
804
00:50:53,771 --> 00:50:56,873
still remains one of
the great unsolved mysteries
805
00:50:56,941 --> 00:50:58,441
of modern science.
806
00:51:00,178 --> 00:51:03,012
After I finished graduate
school, I had the opportunity
807
00:51:03,081 --> 00:51:05,081
to work with one of
my scientific heroes,
808
00:51:05,150 --> 00:51:07,316
Francis crick,
who had co-discovered
809
00:51:07,385 --> 00:51:10,019
the structure of DNA.
810
00:51:10,088 --> 00:51:13,189
By the time I met him,
he had turned his attention to
811
00:51:13,258 --> 00:51:14,498
the question of consciousness...
812
00:51:14,559 --> 00:51:17,393
why does it feel like anything
to be alive.
813
00:51:17,462 --> 00:51:19,362
And I remember when
I went into his office
814
00:51:19,430 --> 00:51:21,270
that he had a lot of writing
on the chalkboard,
815
00:51:21,332 --> 00:51:23,833
but there was one word that
was written in the middle
816
00:51:23,902 --> 00:51:25,635
and it was bigger than the rest.
817
00:51:25,703 --> 00:51:27,803
That word was "meaning."
818
00:51:27,872 --> 00:51:29,405
You see, we know a lot about
819
00:51:29,474 --> 00:51:32,375
the mechanics of neurons and
networks and brain regions,
820
00:51:32,443 --> 00:51:34,877
but what we don't know
about those signals
821
00:51:34,946 --> 00:51:38,414
coursing around in the brain is
why we care about any of them,
822
00:51:38,483 --> 00:51:40,483
why anything carries meaning.
823
00:51:42,554 --> 00:51:45,421
How can the physical
cells in my brain
824
00:51:45,490 --> 00:51:48,424
cause me to care about anything?
825
00:51:48,493 --> 00:51:51,961
The meaning problem
is not yet solved,
826
00:51:52,030 --> 00:51:54,030
but here's what
I think we can say:
827
00:51:54,098 --> 00:51:56,699
The meaning of something
to you is all about
828
00:51:56,768 --> 00:51:59,202
your web of associations,
based on
829
00:51:59,270 --> 00:52:02,071
your whole history
of experiences.
830
00:52:02,140 --> 00:52:04,640
Just imagine I were to take
a piece of cloth
831
00:52:04,709 --> 00:52:06,309
and put some
colored pigments on it,
832
00:52:06,377 --> 00:52:08,778
and then put that in front
of your visual system.
833
00:52:08,846 --> 00:52:10,279
Is that likely
to trigger memories
834
00:52:10,348 --> 00:52:12,582
and fire up your imagination?
835
00:52:12,650 --> 00:52:16,519
Well, probably not, because it's
just a piece of cloth, right?
836
00:52:20,725 --> 00:52:23,392
Here it is... pigments
arranged on a cloth
837
00:52:23,461 --> 00:52:25,728
in the pattern of
a national flag.
838
00:52:30,301 --> 00:52:33,069
Presumably this triggers
something for you,
839
00:52:33,137 --> 00:52:36,639
but the meaning is unique to
your history of experiences.
840
00:52:40,578 --> 00:52:44,447
We don't perceive objects
as they are.
841
00:52:44,515 --> 00:52:47,250
We perceive them as we are.
842
00:52:50,688 --> 00:52:52,888
Each of us is
on our own trajectory...
843
00:52:52,957 --> 00:52:57,059
steered by our genes and our
experiences... and as a result,
844
00:52:57,128 --> 00:53:00,529
every brain has a different
neural reality.
845
00:53:00,598 --> 00:53:04,200
Brains end up being
as unique as snowflakes.
846
00:53:07,171 --> 00:53:10,640
Your story plays out
across a lifetime.
847
00:53:10,708 --> 00:53:12,808
Trillions of new connections are
848
00:53:12,877 --> 00:53:15,811
continually forming
and re-forming
849
00:53:15,880 --> 00:53:19,015
as we learn and create memories
850
00:53:19,083 --> 00:53:22,318
and become who we are.
851
00:53:22,387 --> 00:53:25,988
The unique connections
in your brain
852
00:53:26,057 --> 00:53:29,358
mean no one like you
has ever existed...
853
00:53:31,996 --> 00:53:35,464
Or will ever exist again.
854
00:53:35,533 --> 00:53:38,934
For me, the wonder
of the human brain is that
855
00:53:39,003 --> 00:53:42,371
from a vast network
of physical pieces and parts,
856
00:53:42,440 --> 00:53:46,842
the experience of being you
or me emerges.
857
00:53:46,911 --> 00:53:51,147
And because the physical stuff
is changing, we are, too.
858
00:53:51,215 --> 00:53:52,848
We're not fixed.
859
00:53:52,917 --> 00:53:57,820
From cradle to grave,
we are works in progress.
860
00:54:07,865 --> 00:54:11,667
"The brain with David eagleman"
861
00:54:11,736 --> 00:54:14,070
Next time on "the brain,"
862
00:54:14,138 --> 00:54:17,139
I'm going to investigate the
unexpected ways that your brain
863
00:54:17,208 --> 00:54:19,408
secretly controls everything
that you do.
864
00:54:19,477 --> 00:54:21,110
That was amazing.
865
00:54:21,179 --> 00:54:24,113
How it allows
great athletic achievement
866
00:54:24,182 --> 00:54:28,517
and makes decisions
without your awareness.
867
00:54:28,586 --> 00:54:32,054
This is the story of everything
the brain does
868
00:54:32,123 --> 00:54:35,024
that remains hidden from us.
869
00:54:35,093 --> 00:54:39,462
It's the story
of who is really in control.
870
00:54:45,603 --> 00:54:47,636
"The brain with David eagleman"
871
00:54:47,705 --> 00:54:49,038
is available on DVD.
872
00:54:49,107 --> 00:54:50,506
The companion book is
873
00:54:50,575 --> 00:54:51,941
also available.
874
00:54:52,009 --> 00:54:54,377
To order, visit
shoppbs. Org
69900
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