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1
00:00:01,935 --> 00:00:04,572
Narrator:
THIS IS AN EXPLODING STAR.
2
00:00:04,605 --> 00:00:07,175
IT'S CALLED A SUPERNOVA.
3
00:00:12,012 --> 00:00:15,149
Kaku: A SUPERNOVA
IS THE GREATEST CATACLYSM
4
00:00:15,183 --> 00:00:18,086
IN THE HISTORY
OF THE ENTIRE UNIVERSE.
5
00:00:18,119 --> 00:00:22,556
Narrator: SUPERNOVAS COME
IN DIFFERENT SIZES AND TYPES.
6
00:00:22,590 --> 00:00:24,392
ALL OF THEM ARE SO BRIGHT,
7
00:00:24,425 --> 00:00:27,928
THEY CAN BE SEEN
ACROSS THE UNIVERSE.
8
00:00:27,961 --> 00:00:31,399
A SUPERNOVA IS THE MOST VIOLENT
DEATH OF A STAR YOU CAN IMAGINE.
9
00:00:33,767 --> 00:00:36,804
Narrator: BUT THIS
VIOLENT DESTRUCTION OF A STAR
10
00:00:36,837 --> 00:00:41,008
IS ALSO THE BIRTH OF EVERYTHING
WE SEE AROUND US.
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00:00:41,041 --> 00:00:44,011
-- Captions by VITAC --
www.vitac.com
12
00:00:44,044 --> 00:00:47,047
CAPTIONS PAID FOR BY
DISCOVERY COMMUNICATIONS
13
00:00:56,590 --> 00:01:02,230
REALLY BIG STARS GO OUT
WITH A BANG, CALLED A SUPERNOVA.
14
00:01:02,263 --> 00:01:05,666
A SUPERNOVA CAN OUTSHINE
AN ENTIRE GALAXY,
15
00:01:05,699 --> 00:01:09,737
RELEASING TRILLIONS OF TIMES
THE ENERGY OF OUR SUN.
16
00:01:19,046 --> 00:01:20,948
Narrator:
THEY'RE SO VIOLENT,
17
00:01:20,981 --> 00:01:24,585
IF ONE OF THEM EXPLODED JUST
A FEW DOZEN LIGHT-YEARS AWAY,
18
00:01:24,618 --> 00:01:27,255
PLANET EARTH WOULD BE TOAST.
19
00:01:36,864 --> 00:01:40,668
A NEARBY SUPERNOVA
WOULD REALLY RUIN OUR DAY.
20
00:01:43,036 --> 00:01:44,438
FIRST OF ALL,
21
00:01:44,472 --> 00:01:48,809
THE SUDDEN BURST OF RADIATION
WOULD SCORCH THE ATMOSPHERE.
22
00:01:48,842 --> 00:01:52,380
THE ONLY PLACE TO GO
IS UNDERGROUND.
23
00:01:52,413 --> 00:01:53,681
UNDERGROUND,
24
00:01:53,714 --> 00:01:57,185
YOU COULD THEN WITHSTAND
THE BLISTERING BURST OF X-RAYS
25
00:01:57,185 --> 00:01:58,586
WHICH HIT THE EARTH.
26
00:01:58,619 --> 00:02:01,522
AND THEN IT WOULD SCORCH
ALL PLANT LIFE.
27
00:02:01,555 --> 00:02:03,857
AND WITH THE COLLAPSE
OF THE FOOD CHAIN,
28
00:02:03,891 --> 00:02:06,927
WE'RE TALKING ABOUT A POSSIBLE
EXTINCTION ON THE EARTH.
29
00:02:11,299 --> 00:02:14,235
Narrator:
SUPERNOVAS ARE KILLERS.
30
00:02:19,340 --> 00:02:23,911
BUT THEY ALSO CREATE THE BASIC
ELEMENTS THAT MAKE UP OUR WORLD.
31
00:02:27,948 --> 00:02:30,083
OUR PLANET, OUR STAR,
EVERYTHING AROUND US
32
00:02:30,117 --> 00:02:33,621
FORMED OUT OF THE DEBRIS
OF A DEAD EXPLODED STAR.
33
00:02:33,654 --> 00:02:38,292
EVERYTHING THAT MAKES UP
OUR BODIES AND THE SKYLINE
34
00:02:38,326 --> 00:02:40,361
CAME FROM SUPERNOVAE.
35
00:02:42,730 --> 00:02:45,233
ALL OF THE IRON,
ALL OF THE SILICON,
36
00:02:45,266 --> 00:02:48,602
ALL OF THE ELEMENTS THAT WENT
INTO THESE BUILDINGS.
37
00:02:48,636 --> 00:02:50,971
THE THINGS THAT MAKE UP
MY BLOOD, MY BODY,
38
00:02:51,004 --> 00:02:52,673
THE GOLD IN MY WEDDING RING --
39
00:02:52,706 --> 00:02:55,743
EVERYTHING YOU SEE HERE
IS A SUPERNOVA.
40
00:03:04,252 --> 00:03:06,720
Narrator: BUT OUR SUN
WON'T BECOME A SUPERNOVA.
41
00:03:06,754 --> 00:03:08,121
IT'S TOO SMALL.
42
00:03:20,268 --> 00:03:25,373
LIKE ALL STARS, IT'S BASICALLY
A GIANT NUCLEAR REACTOR.
43
00:03:28,141 --> 00:03:31,812
THE FUSION REACTOR
INSIDE A STAR BURNS HYDROGEN,
44
00:03:31,845 --> 00:03:34,615
THE SIMPLEST,
MOST COMMON ELEMENT.
45
00:03:38,286 --> 00:03:41,922
THE REACTION FUSES
HYDROGEN ATOMS TOGETHER...
46
00:03:43,691 --> 00:03:46,494
...PRODUCING HELIUM AND ENERGY.
47
00:03:52,433 --> 00:03:54,868
AND WHEN THE HYDROGEN RUNS OUT,
48
00:03:54,902 --> 00:03:58,906
STARS KEEP BURNING
BY FUSING HELIUM INTO CARBON...
49
00:04:00,308 --> 00:04:03,311
...THEN CARBON INTO OXYGEN.
50
00:04:06,079 --> 00:04:08,982
WHEN SMALL STARS LIKE OUR SUN
MAKE CARBON,
51
00:04:09,016 --> 00:04:11,319
THEY BEGIN TO DIE.
52
00:04:11,319 --> 00:04:13,521
Dr. Kirshner:
DURING THE LIFETIME OF A STAR,
53
00:04:13,554 --> 00:04:15,623
THERE'S A BALANCE
BETWEEN GRAVITY PULLING IN
54
00:04:15,656 --> 00:04:17,024
AND PRESSURE PUSHING OUT.
55
00:04:17,057 --> 00:04:20,428
FOR A STAR THAT'S GENERATING
ENERGY, THERE'S NO PROBLEM.
56
00:04:20,461 --> 00:04:23,731
BUT ONCE ENERGY GENERATION
SWITCHES OFF,
57
00:04:23,764 --> 00:04:27,167
THE PRESSURE GOES AWAY,
AND GRAVITY WINS.
58
00:04:29,337 --> 00:04:33,574
Narrator:
NOW GRAVITY BEGINS TO CRUSH
THE CENTER OF THE STAR.
59
00:04:38,111 --> 00:04:42,015
THE STAR'S OUTER LAYERS
ARE PUSHED OUTWARDS.
60
00:04:43,751 --> 00:04:48,989
THEY EXPAND INTO A HUGE BALL
OF GAS CALLED A RED GIANT.
61
00:04:51,191 --> 00:04:55,496
OUR SUN, WHEN IT DIES 4 1/2
TO 5 BILLION YEARS FROM NOW,
62
00:04:55,529 --> 00:04:58,165
ITS CORONA WILL GO
ALL THE WAY OUT TO MARS.
63
00:05:02,670 --> 00:05:06,840
EVERYTHING ON THE PLANET EARTH
WILL VAPORIZE.
64
00:05:13,447 --> 00:05:15,983
Narrator:
WHILE THE OUTER LAYERS EXPAND,
65
00:05:16,016 --> 00:05:17,551
IN THE CENTER OF THE SUN,
66
00:05:17,585 --> 00:05:20,020
GRAVITY WILL HAVE
THE OPPOSITE EFFECT.
67
00:05:25,125 --> 00:05:26,794
IT'LL CRUSH THE SUN'S CORE
68
00:05:26,827 --> 00:05:29,663
TO JUST A MILLIONTH
OF ITS ORIGINAL SIZE --
69
00:05:29,697 --> 00:05:31,532
ABOUT THE SIZE OF THE EARTH.
70
00:05:33,601 --> 00:05:39,106
NOW IT'S A DENSE BALL OF OXYGEN
AND CARBON CALLED A WHITE DWARF.
71
00:05:44,912 --> 00:05:46,447
IN OUR SOLAR SYSTEM,
72
00:05:46,480 --> 00:05:50,150
THIS WILL BE THE END
OF THE STORY.
73
00:05:50,183 --> 00:05:54,154
THE GAS FROM THE DYING STAR
WILL GRADUALLY DISPERSE,
74
00:05:54,187 --> 00:05:58,526
BUT THE TINY WHITE DWARF
WILL BURN FOR BILLIONS OF YEARS.
75
00:06:04,031 --> 00:06:07,167
BUT OUR SOLAR SYSTEM IS UNUSUAL.
76
00:06:07,200 --> 00:06:09,437
IT HAS JUST ONE STAR.
77
00:06:15,443 --> 00:06:20,280
THE FACT IS, THE VAST MAJORITY
OF STARS ORBIT IN PAIRS.
78
00:06:26,286 --> 00:06:30,223
WHEN ONE OF THE TWO STARS DIES
AND BECOMES A WHITE DWARF,
79
00:06:30,257 --> 00:06:31,792
IF IT'S CLOSE ENOUGH,
80
00:06:31,825 --> 00:06:34,895
IT STARTS STEALING MATERIAL
FROM THE OTHER STAR.
81
00:06:45,372 --> 00:06:49,743
Kaku: THINK OF TWO STARS
ROTATING AROUND EACH OTHER.
82
00:06:49,777 --> 00:06:54,748
ONE STAR'S SLOWLY SUCKING
ALL THE HYDROGEN AND HELIUM
83
00:06:54,782 --> 00:06:56,183
FROM ITS COMPANION STAR.
84
00:06:56,216 --> 00:06:59,687
IT'S LIKE A VAMPIRE.
85
00:07:01,855 --> 00:07:04,758
Narrator: AS THE WHITE DWARF
SUCKS MORE AND MORE FUEL
86
00:07:04,792 --> 00:07:06,627
OUT OF ITS COMPANION STAR,
87
00:07:06,660 --> 00:07:10,664
IT GETS HEAVIER AND DENSER
AND LESS STABLE.
88
00:07:13,501 --> 00:07:18,506
INSIDE, CARBON AND OXYGEN ATOMS
ARE ABOUT TO FUSE TOGETHER,
89
00:07:18,539 --> 00:07:20,407
AND THAT'S BAD NEWS.
90
00:07:26,213 --> 00:07:29,917
Krauss:
A WHITE DWARF, IN SOME SENSE,
91
00:07:29,950 --> 00:07:33,353
IS LIKE A BOMB
WAITING TO BE LIT.
92
00:07:33,386 --> 00:07:36,089
THERE'S A HUGE AMOUNT
OF ENERGY STORED IN THAT STAR --
93
00:07:36,123 --> 00:07:38,258
GRAVITATIONAL ENERGY
AND NUCLEAR ENERGY.
94
00:07:41,128 --> 00:07:44,598
Narrator: THIS WHITE DWARF
IS TURNING INTO A MONSTER --
95
00:07:44,632 --> 00:07:48,268
A TYPE 1A MONSTER.
96
00:07:48,301 --> 00:07:49,870
A TYPE 1A SUPERNOVA
97
00:07:49,903 --> 00:07:52,673
IS A 20-BILLION-BILLION-BILLION-
MEGATON
98
00:07:52,706 --> 00:07:55,442
THERMONUCLEAR CARBON BOMB.
99
00:07:55,543 --> 00:07:58,779
IT'S ONE OF THE MOST EXPLOSIVE
SUBSTANCES IN THE UNIVERSE.
100
00:08:02,382 --> 00:08:03,851
Narrator: EVENTUALLY,
101
00:08:03,884 --> 00:08:07,721
THE WHITE DWARF DRAINS SO MUCH
MATERIAL FROM ITS COMPANION,
102
00:08:07,755 --> 00:08:09,757
IT GOES INTO NUCLEAR OVERLOAD.
103
00:08:15,262 --> 00:08:17,631
THE CARBON AND OXYGEN INSIDE IT
104
00:08:17,665 --> 00:08:21,702
START TO TURN INTO A COMMON
BUT DANGEROUS ELEMENT --
105
00:08:21,735 --> 00:08:24,337
AT LEAST TO STARS.
106
00:08:26,406 --> 00:08:28,175
Dr. Thaller: YOU'VE PROBABLY
SEEN IN "STAR TREK"
107
00:08:28,208 --> 00:08:30,578
THE IDEA THAT THERE IS SOME
SORT OF SECRET TECHNOLOGY
108
00:08:30,611 --> 00:08:31,679
THAT KILLS A STAR.
109
00:08:31,712 --> 00:08:33,280
WELL, I MEAN,
IT'S IN YOUR FRYING PAN
110
00:08:33,313 --> 00:08:35,583
THAT YOU USED THIS MORNING
FOR BREAKFAST -- IRON.
111
00:08:35,583 --> 00:08:39,086
Narrator:
THE MOMENT THE WHITE-DWARF STAR
112
00:08:39,119 --> 00:08:43,724
STARTS TO FUSE CARBON AND OXYGEN
INTO IRON, IT'S DOOMED.
113
00:08:46,326 --> 00:08:50,197
SUDDENLY,
THE WHITE DWARF EXPLODES.
114
00:09:06,814 --> 00:09:10,083
Krauss: THE NUCLEAR EXPLOSION
OF A WHITE DWARF INCLUDE,
115
00:09:10,117 --> 00:09:12,653
AMONG OTHER THINGS,
HUGE AMOUNTS OF IRON.
116
00:09:12,686 --> 00:09:14,622
AND, IN FACT, TYPE 1A SUPERNOVAE
117
00:09:14,622 --> 00:09:17,424
ARE OF VITAL IMPORTANCE
TO POPULATING THE UNIVERSE
118
00:09:17,457 --> 00:09:20,393
WITH THE KIND OF ELEMENTS
THAT ARE IMPORTANT TO US.
119
00:09:27,668 --> 00:09:33,240
TYPE 1A SUPERNOVAS BLAST IRON
TRILLIONS OF MILES INTO SPACE.
120
00:09:34,808 --> 00:09:38,812
IT'S WHERE MOST OF THE IRON
IN THE COSMOS COMES FROM.
121
00:09:43,851 --> 00:09:47,888
BUT WHAT ABOUT ALL THE ELEMENTS
THAT ARE HEAVIER THAN IRON,
122
00:09:47,921 --> 00:09:49,456
LIKE GOLD AND SILVER?
123
00:09:49,489 --> 00:09:51,191
WHERE DO THEY COME FROM?
124
00:09:51,224 --> 00:09:56,263
THE ANSWER, AGAIN,
IS OTHER STARS --
125
00:09:56,296 --> 00:09:58,198
SINGLE STARS,
126
00:09:58,231 --> 00:09:59,967
BIGGER STARS.
127
00:10:16,717 --> 00:10:21,088
Narrator: SUPERNOVAS MAKE
EVERYTHING IN THE UNIVERSE.
128
00:10:21,121 --> 00:10:22,723
EVERYTHING WE SEE,
129
00:10:22,756 --> 00:10:25,058
ALL THE MATERIAL
IN PLANET EARTH,
130
00:10:25,092 --> 00:10:28,295
WAS CREATED INSIDE A SUPERNOVA.
131
00:10:28,328 --> 00:10:33,033
EVEN YOU AND I ARE MADE
FROM DYING STARS.
132
00:10:33,066 --> 00:10:37,304
Krauss: WITHOUT SUPERNOVAE,
WE WOULDN'T BE HERE.
133
00:10:37,337 --> 00:10:42,575
EVERY ATOM IN YOUR BODY WAS ONCE
INSIDE A STAR THAT EXPLODED.
134
00:10:42,609 --> 00:10:44,077
AND THE ATOMS IN YOUR LEFT HAND
135
00:10:44,111 --> 00:10:45,913
MAY HAVE COME
FROM A DIFFERENT STAR
136
00:10:45,946 --> 00:10:47,380
THAN THE ATOMS
IN YOUR RIGHT HAND.
137
00:10:47,414 --> 00:10:49,082
YOU ARE LITERALLY STARDUST.
138
00:10:54,121 --> 00:10:57,090
Narrator: ALMOST ALL OF THE IRON
IN OUR SOLAR SYSTEM
139
00:10:57,124 --> 00:10:59,392
CAME FROM
A DOUBLE-STAR SUPERNOVA
140
00:10:59,426 --> 00:11:02,896
THAT EXPLODED MORE
THAN FIVE BILLION YEARS AGO.
141
00:11:05,632 --> 00:11:09,269
FROM OUR PLANET'S MOLTEN CORE...
142
00:11:09,302 --> 00:11:11,805
TO OUR SKYSCRAPERS...
143
00:11:11,839 --> 00:11:15,308
TO THE HEMOGLOBIN
IN OUR BLOOD...
144
00:11:17,510 --> 00:11:22,149
...IT'S ALL MADE OF IRON
FROM TYPE 1A SUPERNOVAS.
145
00:11:24,985 --> 00:11:27,755
BUT THE HEAVIER ELEMENTS
IN OUR WORLD,
146
00:11:27,755 --> 00:11:29,823
LIKE GOLD, SILVER, AND URANIUM,
147
00:11:29,857 --> 00:11:32,592
COME FROM ANOTHER TYPE
OF SUPERNOVA...
148
00:11:36,930 --> 00:11:39,933
...A SINGLE-STAR SUPERNOVA.
149
00:11:42,803 --> 00:11:45,939
THIS IS OUR SUN.
150
00:11:45,973 --> 00:11:50,143
A SINGLE STAR HAS TO WEIGH
MUCH MORE THAN OUR SUN
151
00:11:50,177 --> 00:11:51,678
TO GO SUPERNOVA.
152
00:11:53,013 --> 00:11:56,950
AND THERE ARE SOME MONSTER STARS
OUT THERE.
153
00:12:00,020 --> 00:12:03,891
SOME ARE DOZENS OF TIMES HEAVIER
THAN OUR SUN.
154
00:12:05,192 --> 00:12:09,062
AND SOME ARE HUNDREDS OF TIMES
MORE MASSIVE.
155
00:12:12,933 --> 00:12:17,370
THE HEAVIER THE STAR,
THE FASTER IT BURNS.
156
00:12:17,404 --> 00:12:21,875
AND WHEN THESE MASSIVE STARS
BEGIN TO AGE AND DIE,
157
00:12:21,909 --> 00:12:25,879
THE NUCLEAR REACTIONS
INSIDE THEM SPEED UP.
158
00:12:28,315 --> 00:12:32,820
Dr. Thaller:
GIANT STARS BURN THROUGH THEIR
NUCLEAR FUEL VERY, VERY FAST --
159
00:12:32,820 --> 00:12:35,022
SORT OF THE, YOU KNOW,
THE "LIVE FAST, DIE YOUNG."
160
00:12:35,055 --> 00:12:37,825
THE MORE MASS A STAR HAS,
THE HOTTER IT BURNS INSIDE,
161
00:12:37,825 --> 00:12:39,827
THE FASTER IT BURNS
THROUGH ITS FUEL.
162
00:12:42,462 --> 00:12:45,532
Narrator:
UNLIKE DOUBLE-STAR SUPERNOVAS,
163
00:12:45,565 --> 00:12:47,534
REALLY MASSIVE SINGLE STARS
164
00:12:47,567 --> 00:12:50,904
CREATE LOTS OF ELEMENTS
BEFORE THEY EXPLODE.
165
00:12:56,877 --> 00:12:59,847
ONCE THEY TURN HYDROGEN
INTO HELIUM,
166
00:12:59,847 --> 00:13:03,283
HELIUM INTO CARBON,
AND CARBON INTO OXYGEN,
167
00:13:03,316 --> 00:13:06,719
THEY DON'T COLLAPSE
INTO WHITE-DWARF STARS.
168
00:13:14,427 --> 00:13:17,865
INSTEAD,
GIANT STARS KEEP ON BURNING,
169
00:13:17,865 --> 00:13:21,869
BUILDING UP LAYER AFTER LAYER
OF NEW ELEMENTS
170
00:13:21,869 --> 00:13:23,636
DEEP IN THEIR CORE.
171
00:13:28,075 --> 00:13:30,010
Woosley:
BIG STARS DON'T STOP
172
00:13:30,043 --> 00:13:33,013
AFTER THEY'VE BURNED HELIUM
TO CARBON AND OXYGEN.
173
00:13:33,046 --> 00:13:35,983
THEY GO AHEAD AND BURN CARBON
TO STILL HEAVIER ELEMENTS
174
00:13:36,016 --> 00:13:38,751
AND THEN NEON AND OXYGEN
TO SILICON...
175
00:13:38,785 --> 00:13:41,088
UNTIL YOU GET
THIS NESTED RUSSIAN-DOLL
176
00:13:41,121 --> 00:13:43,323
SPHERICAL LAYER CAKE
KIND OF THING.
177
00:13:45,058 --> 00:13:50,063
Narrator:
THESE ELEMENTS ARE THE BUILDING
BLOCKS OF THE UNIVERSE.
178
00:13:50,097 --> 00:13:54,301
BUT THEY'RE TRAPPED
INSIDE THE GIANT STAR.
179
00:13:54,334 --> 00:13:58,738
SOMEHOW, THEY'VE GOT TO GET OUT.
180
00:13:58,771 --> 00:14:00,974
Filippenko:
STUDYING EXPLODING STARS
181
00:14:01,008 --> 00:14:03,343
HAS TAUGHT US HOW THE HEAVY
ELEMENTS OF THE UNIVERSE
182
00:14:03,376 --> 00:14:04,677
CAME TO BE.
183
00:14:04,711 --> 00:14:08,648
THEY WERE FORMED BY
NUCLEAR REACTIONS INSIDE STARS.
184
00:14:08,681 --> 00:14:12,319
BUT IF SOME OF THOSE STARS
WERE NOT TO EXPLODE,
185
00:14:12,352 --> 00:14:16,056
THEN THOSE ELEMENTS
WOULD BE LOCKED UP FOREVER.
186
00:14:18,625 --> 00:14:21,428
Narrator: THE TRIGGER
THAT'LL RELEASE THE ELEMENTS
187
00:14:21,461 --> 00:14:24,731
IN THE SINGLE GIANT STAR
IS THE SAME ELEMENT
188
00:14:24,764 --> 00:14:28,568
THAT CAUSES THE TYPE 1A
SUPERNOVA TO BLOW UP --
189
00:14:28,601 --> 00:14:30,270
IRON.
190
00:14:32,105 --> 00:14:36,676
IRON EATS UP ALL THE ENERGY
OF THE STAR'S NUCLEAR FUSION.
191
00:14:42,182 --> 00:14:45,485
WITHOUT THE ENERGY FROM
NUCLEAR FUSION PUSHING OUT,
192
00:14:45,518 --> 00:14:49,156
GRAVITY BEGINS TO CRUSH DOWN.
193
00:14:49,189 --> 00:14:52,325
THE BIG STAR IS DOOMED.
194
00:14:55,228 --> 00:14:58,331
THE LAST MOMENTS OF A STAR
ARE REALLY PHENOMENAL.
195
00:14:58,365 --> 00:15:01,034
THE STAR MIGHT LAST
FOR 10 MILLION YEARS
196
00:15:01,068 --> 00:15:03,370
ON THE WAY
TO BECOMING A SUPERNOVA,
197
00:15:03,403 --> 00:15:06,506
BUT THE LAST LITTLE BIT
TAKES PLACE VERY RAPIDLY.
198
00:15:06,539 --> 00:15:10,343
ONCE YOU HAVE AN IRON CORE
AND ONCE IT GETS OUT OF BALANCE,
199
00:15:10,377 --> 00:15:12,645
IT COLLAPSES
IN A THOUSANDTH OF A SECOND,
200
00:15:12,679 --> 00:15:15,048
A MILLISECOND,
FROM THE SIZE OF THE EARTH
201
00:15:15,082 --> 00:15:17,350
DOWN TO THE SIZE OF MANHATTAN.
202
00:15:17,384 --> 00:15:20,453
IT'S TRAVELING ABOUT 1/3
OF THE SPEED OF LIGHT
203
00:15:20,487 --> 00:15:22,389
AS IT CRUNCHES DOWN.
204
00:15:25,492 --> 00:15:27,995
Narrator:
AS THE STAR BECOMES UNSTABLE,
205
00:15:27,995 --> 00:15:32,565
THE MASSIVE POWER OF GRAVITY
CAUSES THE CORE TO COLLAPSE.
206
00:15:32,599 --> 00:15:35,768
THIS HAPPENS
WITH SUCH INCREDIBLE POWER,
207
00:15:35,802 --> 00:15:39,406
EVEN THE ATOMS INSIDE
START TO CRUSH TOGETHER.
208
00:15:47,780 --> 00:15:50,350
AS IT GETS SMALLER AND DENSER,
209
00:15:50,383 --> 00:15:54,021
THE CORE BUILDS UP
MORE AND MORE ENERGY.
210
00:15:54,054 --> 00:15:58,491
IT'S SOMETHING WITH ABOUT
1 1/2 TIMES THE MASS OF THE SUN
211
00:15:58,525 --> 00:16:00,360
THAT IS COLLAPSED TO SOMETHING
212
00:16:00,393 --> 00:16:02,762
THAT'S ONLY
ABOUT 15 MILES ACROSS.
213
00:16:05,598 --> 00:16:08,035
IT'S GOT INCREDIBLE DENSITY.
214
00:16:08,035 --> 00:16:12,372
IT'S A THOUSAND TRILLION TIMES
THE DENSITY OF WATER.
215
00:16:12,405 --> 00:16:15,475
Narrator:
NOW THE STAR EXPLODES.
216
00:16:31,491 --> 00:16:34,461
THE BLAST RIPS THROUGH
THE STAR'S OUTER LAYERS
217
00:16:34,494 --> 00:16:35,762
AND IN THE PROCESS,
218
00:16:35,795 --> 00:16:38,498
MAKES ALL THE ELEMENTS
HEAVIER THAN IRON.
219
00:16:47,507 --> 00:16:50,610
IRON BECOMES COBALT.
220
00:16:50,643 --> 00:16:53,680
COBALT BECOMES NICKEL.
221
00:16:53,713 --> 00:16:57,784
AND ON AND ON TO GOLD, PLATINUM,
AND URANIUM.
222
00:17:04,291 --> 00:17:05,992
THE EXPLOSION IS SO BRIEF,
223
00:17:06,093 --> 00:17:09,496
IT ONLY MAKES SMALL AMOUNTS
OF THESE HEAVIER ELEMENTS,
224
00:17:09,529 --> 00:17:11,431
WHICH IS WHY THEY'RE SO RARE.
225
00:17:15,402 --> 00:17:18,971
THE SUPERNOVA
BLASTS THESE NEW ELEMENTS
226
00:17:19,005 --> 00:17:21,541
BILLIONS OF MILES INTO SPACE.
227
00:17:21,574 --> 00:17:23,376
Lee:
THE ONLY METHOD WE KNOW,
228
00:17:23,410 --> 00:17:26,813
THE ONLY MECHANISM THAT WE HAVE
FOUND ANYWHERE IN THE UNIVERSE
229
00:17:26,846 --> 00:17:28,248
FOR CREATING NEW ELEMENTS
230
00:17:28,281 --> 00:17:31,518
IS IN THE DEATH THROES OF A STAR
CALLED A SUPERNOVA.
231
00:17:31,551 --> 00:17:34,721
Narrator:
IT SEEMS INCREDIBLE
232
00:17:34,754 --> 00:17:39,726
THAT ANYTHING COULD SURVIVE
A SUPERNOVA EXPLOSION.
233
00:17:42,295 --> 00:17:47,200
BUT WE NOW KNOW THAT SOME OF THE
BIGGEST BANGS IN THE UNIVERSE
234
00:17:47,234 --> 00:17:49,136
LEAVE A CORPSE BEHIND.
235
00:17:51,371 --> 00:17:54,341
AND THESE
ARE SOME OF THE STRANGEST
236
00:17:54,374 --> 00:17:57,710
AND MOST DEADLY OBJECTS
EVER DISCOVERED.
237
00:18:08,555 --> 00:18:12,925
Narrator: WHEN A GIANT STAR
GOES SUPERNOVA AND EXPLODES,
238
00:18:12,959 --> 00:18:15,595
IT'S NOT ALWAYS THE END.
239
00:18:15,628 --> 00:18:18,865
SOMETIMES THERE'S A CORPSE.
240
00:18:26,173 --> 00:18:30,277
WHAT KIND OF CORPSE DEPENDS
ON THE SIZE OF THE STAR.
241
00:18:35,515 --> 00:18:39,819
SUPERNOVAS FROM STARS MORE THAN
EIGHT TIMES BIGGER THAN OUR SUN
242
00:18:39,852 --> 00:18:42,189
LEAVE BEHIND A NEUTRON STAR.
243
00:18:42,189 --> 00:18:46,526
AND IT'S ONE OF THE STRANGEST
OBJECTS IN THE UNIVERSE.
244
00:18:49,962 --> 00:18:51,698
Dr. Thaller: THESE THINGS
YOU CAN ALMOST THINK OF
245
00:18:51,731 --> 00:18:54,601
AS SORT OF THE ZOMBIES
OF THE STELLAR WORLD.
246
00:18:54,634 --> 00:18:57,069
THEY'RE VERY DANGEROUS,
THEY'RE VERY WEIRD,
247
00:18:57,103 --> 00:18:59,071
AND STARS MAKE THEM
ALL THE TIME.
248
00:18:59,105 --> 00:19:00,407
THEY'RE ALL AROUND US.
249
00:19:04,511 --> 00:19:07,380
Narrator:
AS A GIANT STAR GOES SUPERNOVA,
250
00:19:07,414 --> 00:19:10,483
THE CORE IS CRUSHED
FROM THE SIZE OF A PLANET
251
00:19:10,517 --> 00:19:12,084
TO THE SIZE OF A CITY.
252
00:19:15,455 --> 00:19:18,391
THE PRESSURE IN THE CORE
IS SO INTENSE,
253
00:19:18,425 --> 00:19:21,794
EVEN THE ATOMS INSIDE IT
ARE CRUSHED TOGETHER.
254
00:19:25,265 --> 00:19:27,634
WHEN THE ATOMS ARE PACKED
THAT TIGHTLY
255
00:19:27,667 --> 00:19:29,936
AND THERE'S NO SPACE
LEFT BETWEEN THEM,
256
00:19:29,969 --> 00:19:34,674
THE MASSIVE ENERGY BUILDUP
MEANS SOMETHING'S GOT TO GIVE.
257
00:19:43,750 --> 00:19:47,787
THE CORE BLASTS OFF
THE OUTER LAYERS OF THE STAR.
258
00:19:53,860 --> 00:19:59,499
AND WHAT REMAINS
IS A SUPERDENSE NEUTRON STAR.
259
00:19:59,532 --> 00:20:03,035
Dr. Kirshner: A NEUTRON STAR
HAS THE MASS OF A STAR
260
00:20:03,069 --> 00:20:05,472
CRUNCHED INTO
A VERY SMALL VOLUME,
261
00:20:05,505 --> 00:20:09,542
AND THAT MEANS THE DENSITY
IS INCREDIBLY HIGH.
262
00:20:09,576 --> 00:20:12,011
WELL, IMAGINE TAKING THE EMPIRE
STATE BUILDING HERE BEHIND ME,
263
00:20:12,044 --> 00:20:15,515
CRUSHING IT INTO THE SIZE
OF A GRAIN OF SAND.
264
00:20:15,548 --> 00:20:20,420
THAT'S THE DENSITY
OF THE ENTIRE NEUTRON STAR.
265
00:20:20,453 --> 00:20:22,822
SO IF YOU HAD SOMETHING
THAT DENSE, IF YOU DROPPED IT,
266
00:20:22,855 --> 00:20:24,724
IT WOULD FALL
STRAIGHT THROUGH THE EARTH,
267
00:20:24,757 --> 00:20:26,526
JUST LIKE A HOT KNIFE
THROUGH BUTTER.
268
00:20:29,662 --> 00:20:35,635
Narrator:
A TEASPOON OF NEUTRON STAR
WOULD WEIGH 100 MILLION TONS.
269
00:20:40,873 --> 00:20:43,976
IMAGINE SOMETHING
AS HEAVY AS A STAR
270
00:20:44,010 --> 00:20:47,046
BUT ONLY THE SIZE
OF NEW YORK CITY.
271
00:20:47,079 --> 00:20:50,717
AND IT'S SPINNING.
272
00:20:50,750 --> 00:20:53,520
SOME OF THEM MAY BE BORN
ROTATING 1,000 TIMES A SECOND.
273
00:20:53,553 --> 00:20:54,854
I MEAN, THINK ABOUT IT --
274
00:20:54,887 --> 00:20:57,056
SOMETHING 1 1/2 TIMES
THE MASS OF THE SUN
275
00:20:57,089 --> 00:20:59,225
GOING AROUND
1,000 TIMES A SECOND.
276
00:21:01,428 --> 00:21:04,697
Narrator:
SOME NEUTRON STARS SPIN SO FAST,
277
00:21:04,731 --> 00:21:07,767
THEY GENERATE HUGE PULSES
OF ENERGY...
278
00:21:09,068 --> 00:21:11,137
...BEAMS OF RADIATION
279
00:21:11,170 --> 00:21:15,808
BLASTING OUT OF THE STAR'S
NORTH AND SOUTH POLES.
280
00:21:15,842 --> 00:21:20,380
THIS NEUTRON STAR
IS CALLED A PULSAR.
281
00:21:20,413 --> 00:21:23,883
THERE'S ONE OF THESE THINGS IN
THE CENTER OF THE CRAB NEBULA --
282
00:21:23,916 --> 00:21:26,453
A PLACE WHERE THERE WAS
A SUPERNOVA EXPLOSION
283
00:21:26,486 --> 00:21:27,820
ABOUT 1,000 YEARS AGO.
284
00:21:27,854 --> 00:21:31,924
AND IT'S ONE OF THE FASTEST
SPINNING OF THESE OBJECTS.
285
00:21:33,360 --> 00:21:37,564
Narrator: THIS IS THE ACTUAL
SOUND A PULSAR MAKES,
286
00:21:37,597 --> 00:21:39,732
RECORDED BY RADIO TELESCOPE.
287
00:21:42,669 --> 00:21:47,674
IT WILL FLASH 30 TIMES A SECOND
FOR MILLIONS OF YEARS.
288
00:21:57,384 --> 00:21:59,886
BUT PULSARS
AREN'T THE STRANGEST THING
289
00:21:59,919 --> 00:22:01,888
A SUPERNOVA CAN LEAVE BEHIND.
290
00:22:05,458 --> 00:22:09,629
WHEN STARS 30 TIMES BIGGER
THAN OUR SUN EXPLODE,
291
00:22:09,662 --> 00:22:15,034
THEY PRODUCE A TYPE OF
NEUTRON STAR CALLED A MAGNETAR.
292
00:22:21,808 --> 00:22:24,777
MAGNETARS ARE EVEN WEIRDER
THAN PULSARS
293
00:22:24,811 --> 00:22:27,780
AND GENERATE POWERFUL
MAGNETIC FIELDS.
294
00:22:29,982 --> 00:22:32,619
Woosley:
NOW, IN THE MOST EXTREME CASE,
295
00:22:32,652 --> 00:22:35,221
THE MAGNETIC FIELD
CAN BE 10 TO THE 15,
296
00:22:35,254 --> 00:22:37,857
YOU KNOW, A --
A HUNDRED TRILLION TIMES
297
00:22:37,890 --> 00:22:39,892
THE MAGNETIC FIELD OF THE EARTH.
298
00:22:43,129 --> 00:22:44,831
Narrator:
THAT'S SO STRONG,
299
00:22:44,864 --> 00:22:47,834
IT WOULD SUCK THE IRON
RIGHT OUT OF YOUR BLOOD
300
00:22:47,867 --> 00:22:49,702
FROM THOUSANDS OF MILES AWAY.
301
00:22:51,270 --> 00:22:53,440
BUT EVEN PULSARS AND MAGNETARS
302
00:22:53,440 --> 00:22:55,475
AREN'T THE MOST DANGEROUS
OBJECTS
303
00:22:55,508 --> 00:22:58,110
A SUPERNOVA CAN LEAVE BEHIND.
304
00:23:00,346 --> 00:23:04,116
WHEN THE CORE OF
A SUPERMASSIVE STAR COLLAPSES,
305
00:23:04,150 --> 00:23:06,318
IT DOESN'T JUST CRUSH ATOMS,
306
00:23:06,352 --> 00:23:10,022
IT CRUSHES SPACE
AND TIME ITSELF.
307
00:23:12,124 --> 00:23:17,764
AND THAT IS WHEN A SUPERNOVA
CREATES A BLACK HOLE.
308
00:23:31,778 --> 00:23:36,716
Narrator:
WHEN STARS OVER 100 TIMES
HEAVIER THAN OUR SUN EXPLODE,
309
00:23:36,749 --> 00:23:39,952
THEY MAKE A SUPERNOVA EXPLOSION
SO BIG...
310
00:23:41,488 --> 00:23:44,491
...SCIENTISTS CALL THEM
HYPERNOVAS.
311
00:23:49,496 --> 00:23:54,400
AND IT WAS A HYPERNOVA THAT
ALMOST STARTED WORLD WAR III.
312
00:24:02,341 --> 00:24:04,877
IN 1963,
313
00:24:04,911 --> 00:24:06,646
THE U.S. AND SOVIET UNION
314
00:24:06,679 --> 00:24:09,516
AGREED TO BAN
TESTING NUCLEAR WEAPONS.
315
00:24:15,121 --> 00:24:17,790
TO KEEP TABS ON THE RUSSIANS,
316
00:24:17,824 --> 00:24:20,292
THE U.S. LAUNCHED
SPY SATELLITES.
317
00:24:23,229 --> 00:24:28,167
WHEN THEY HEARD THIS SOUND
COMING FROM DEEP SPACE,
318
00:24:28,200 --> 00:24:30,770
THEY SUSPECTED THE WORST.
319
00:24:35,341 --> 00:24:38,377
UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT
LAUNCH THE VELA SATELLITE,
320
00:24:38,410 --> 00:24:41,113
LOOKING FOR NUCLEAR DETONATIONS.
321
00:24:47,219 --> 00:24:49,622
AND THEN,
LOOKING IN OUTER SPACE,
322
00:24:49,656 --> 00:24:52,291
THEY SAW THESE MONSTER
EXPLOSIONS TAKE PLACE.
323
00:24:52,324 --> 00:24:55,294
AND THE MILITARY THOUGHT,
"OH, MY GOD, THE RUSSIANS!
324
00:24:55,327 --> 00:24:58,565
THE RUSSIANS ARE TESTING SECRET
ATOMIC WEAPONS IN SPACE."
325
00:24:59,866 --> 00:25:03,435
Narrator: BUT THESE WEREN'T
SECRET ATOMIC-BOMB TESTS,
326
00:25:03,469 --> 00:25:07,574
AND THE RUSSIANS HAD NOTHING
TO DO WITH THEM.
327
00:25:07,607 --> 00:25:10,577
THEY BEGAN TO LOOK AT WHERE
THIS RADIATION CAME FROM.
328
00:25:10,610 --> 00:25:13,580
IT CAME FROM ALL OVER
THE GALAXY, BEYOND THE GALAXY.
329
00:25:13,580 --> 00:25:17,016
NOW, THERE'S NO WAY THE RUSSIANS
COULD SHOOT EXPLOSIONS
330
00:25:17,049 --> 00:25:19,185
IN OUTER SPACE
BEYOND THE GALAXY.
331
00:25:19,218 --> 00:25:21,487
AND THEN PEOPLE BEGAN TO REALIZE
332
00:25:21,588 --> 00:25:24,957
THAT WE WERE STARING
SOMETHING NEW IN THE FACE.
333
00:25:24,991 --> 00:25:28,795
Narrator: THEY WERE
SUPER-POWERFUL EXPLOSIONS
334
00:25:28,828 --> 00:25:32,899
OF HIGH-ENERGY RADIATION
CALLED GAMMA-RAY BURSTS.
335
00:25:32,932 --> 00:25:36,603
THE QUESTION WAS,
WHERE DID THEY COME FROM?
336
00:25:38,605 --> 00:25:42,074
THE ANSWER WAS
EXPLODING HYPERNOVAS.
337
00:25:53,686 --> 00:25:56,388
DURING A REGULAR
SUPERNOVA EXPLOSION,
338
00:25:56,422 --> 00:26:01,060
GRAVITY CRUSHES A STAR'S CORE
INTO A NEUTRON STAR.
339
00:26:01,093 --> 00:26:04,096
BUT DURING
A HYPERNOVA EXPLOSION,
340
00:26:04,130 --> 00:26:06,666
THE GIANT STAR IS SO MUCH BIGGER
341
00:26:06,699 --> 00:26:11,638
THAT GRAVITY CRUSHES THE CORE
INTO SOMETHING MUCH STRANGER...
342
00:26:14,907 --> 00:26:16,643
...A BLACK HOLE.
343
00:26:18,811 --> 00:26:20,412
AND THE BLACK HOLE
344
00:26:20,446 --> 00:26:24,884
IMMEDIATELY BEGINS TO DEVOUR
THE DYING STAR AROUND IT.
345
00:26:24,917 --> 00:26:27,019
Woosley: THE REST OF THE STAR
CAN'T ALL GO
346
00:26:27,053 --> 00:26:29,055
IN THAT LITTLE BITTY HOLE
IN THE MIDDLE.
347
00:26:29,088 --> 00:26:32,258
IT STARTS TO SWIRL AROUND,
AND IT FORMS AN ACCRETION DISK,
348
00:26:32,291 --> 00:26:34,060
WHICH IS FEEDING THE BLACK HOLE
349
00:26:34,093 --> 00:26:36,663
AT ABOUT A MILLION
EARTH MASSES A SECOND.
350
00:26:36,663 --> 00:26:37,897
AND SO, AS YOU MIGHT IMAGINE,
351
00:26:37,930 --> 00:26:39,832
SOMETHING DRAMATIC
IS GONNA HAPPEN HERE.
352
00:26:42,234 --> 00:26:45,104
Narrator:
A MILLION EARTH MASSES A SECOND
353
00:26:45,137 --> 00:26:48,808
IS TOO MUCH FOR THE BLACK HOLE
TO CONSUME ALL AT ONCE.
354
00:26:53,379 --> 00:26:58,484
SO IT SPITS A LOT OF IT BACK OUT
AT NEARLY THE SPEED OF LIGHT.
355
00:27:03,555 --> 00:27:06,492
THIS CREATES TWO BEAMS
OF PURE ENERGY
356
00:27:06,525 --> 00:27:09,696
BLASTING THEIR WAY
OUT OF THE BLACK HOLE.
357
00:27:12,331 --> 00:27:15,367
TAKES IT ABOUT EIGHT SECONDS
TO BORE THROUGH THE STAR,
358
00:27:15,401 --> 00:27:18,871
KEEPING A VERY TIGHT FOCUS,
AND ERUPT FROM THE SURFACE.
359
00:27:18,905 --> 00:27:22,108
NOW, IF WE'RE STANDING
IN THE OPENING OF THIS JET,
360
00:27:22,141 --> 00:27:23,910
WE'LL SEE GAMMA-RAY BURSTS.
361
00:27:27,313 --> 00:27:30,616
Narrator: THE GAMMA RAYS
PRODUCED FROM THE BLACK HOLE
362
00:27:30,717 --> 00:27:34,153
TEAR THROUGH THE OUTER LAYERS
OF THE STAR AND INTO SPACE.
363
00:27:34,186 --> 00:27:36,588
GAMMA-RAY BURSTS
ARE THE MOST VIOLENT EVENT
364
00:27:36,622 --> 00:27:38,324
THAT WE KNOW OF IN THE UNIVERSE.
365
00:27:38,357 --> 00:27:41,493
A GIANT STAR BLOWS ITSELF TO
PIECES AND FORMS A BLACK HOLE.
366
00:27:41,527 --> 00:27:43,029
IT'S INCREDIBLY SPECTACULAR.
367
00:27:43,062 --> 00:27:45,564
THESE GAMMA-RAY BURSTS
ARE SO ENERGETIC,
368
00:27:45,597 --> 00:27:47,800
THEY LIGHT UP
THE ENTIRE UNIVERSE.
369
00:27:47,834 --> 00:27:49,635
ANY POINT IN THE UNIVERSE
370
00:27:49,736 --> 00:27:53,272
WILL EVENTUALLY PICK UP
THIS ASTOUNDING RADIATION
371
00:27:53,305 --> 00:27:55,007
COMING FROM A GAMMA-RAY BURST.
372
00:27:55,041 --> 00:27:58,644
THAT'S HOW ENERGETIC THEY ARE.
373
00:27:58,745 --> 00:28:03,449
Narrator:
THEY ARE THE BRIGHTEST THINGS
IN THE KNOWN UNIVERSE.
374
00:28:03,482 --> 00:28:05,584
Woosley:
TO PUT THINGS IN PERSPECTIVE,
375
00:28:05,617 --> 00:28:07,119
A TYPICAL SUPERNOVA EXPLOSION
376
00:28:07,153 --> 00:28:09,055
IS ABOUT WHAT THE SUN
WILL PUT OUT
377
00:28:09,088 --> 00:28:11,223
IN ITS ENTIRE
10-BILLION-YEAR LIFETIME.
378
00:28:11,257 --> 00:28:14,226
A GAMMA-RAY BURST VIEWED JET ON
379
00:28:14,260 --> 00:28:19,799
IS A HUNDRED MILLION TIMES
MORE LUMINOUS THAN A SUPERNOVA.
380
00:28:19,832 --> 00:28:22,101
THEY'RE THE CHAMPIONS
FOR BRIGHTNESS, FOR SURE.
381
00:28:27,539 --> 00:28:30,910
Narrator: THEY'RE NOT ONLY
BRIGHT, THEY'RE LETHAL.
382
00:28:34,246 --> 00:28:37,583
IF A GAMMA-RAY BURST
WERE TO HIT THE EARTH,
383
00:28:37,616 --> 00:28:41,520
IT WOULD DESTROY MOST
OF THE ATMOSPHERE IN SECONDS.
384
00:28:45,191 --> 00:28:48,027
A GAMMA-RAY BURSTER
IS LIKE A RIFLE SHOT.
385
00:28:50,830 --> 00:28:54,166
AND IF YOU'RE
IN THE LINE OF SIGHT...
386
00:28:54,200 --> 00:28:55,567
WATCH OUT.
387
00:28:55,601 --> 00:28:57,536
ONCE THE RADIATION HITS YOU,
388
00:28:57,569 --> 00:29:01,908
IT'LL BATHE THE ENTIRE SURFACE
OF THE EARTH WITH NITRIC OXIDES,
389
00:29:01,941 --> 00:29:04,610
WHICH WILL WIPE OUT
THE OZONE LAYER.
390
00:29:06,078 --> 00:29:09,849
BLISTERING RADIATION WOULD HIT
PLANT LIFE, HIT ALGAE.
391
00:29:09,882 --> 00:29:12,584
THE WHOLE FOOD CHAIN
WOULD COLLAPSE.
392
00:29:12,618 --> 00:29:14,821
Narrator:
IF THE BURST WAS CLOSE ENOUGH,
393
00:29:14,821 --> 00:29:17,356
IT WOULD CAUSE MASS EXTINCTIONS.
394
00:29:17,389 --> 00:29:20,259
Dr. Thaller: GAMMA-RAY BURSTS
TURN OUT TO BE A LOT MORE COMMON
395
00:29:20,292 --> 00:29:21,360
THAN WE THOUGHT THEY WOULD BE.
396
00:29:21,393 --> 00:29:22,694
SO IT'S POSSIBLE
THAT SOME OF THESE
397
00:29:22,728 --> 00:29:24,196
HAVE EVEN HIT THE EARTH
IN THE PAST.
398
00:29:24,230 --> 00:29:28,901
THAT'S A PRETTY SCARY SCENARIO.
IT MAY ALREADY HAVE HAPPENED.
399
00:29:28,935 --> 00:29:32,872
Narrator: THE QUESTION IS,
IF IT HAPPENED BEFORE,
400
00:29:32,905 --> 00:29:35,407
COULD IT HAPPEN AGAIN?
401
00:29:39,545 --> 00:29:42,915
A GAMMA-RAY BURSTER IS BASICALLY
A SUPERNOVA ON STEROIDS.
402
00:29:42,949 --> 00:29:45,384
YOU NEED A GIANT STAR
TO DIE VIOLENTLY.
403
00:29:45,417 --> 00:29:48,387
NOW, THE NEAREST STAR TO US THAT
MIGHT DO THAT IS ETA CARINAE,
404
00:29:48,420 --> 00:29:50,522
AND IT'S A SPECTACULAR NEBULA.
405
00:29:50,556 --> 00:29:53,292
THERE'S ALL KINDS OF MATERIAL
FLYING OFF THIS STAR.
406
00:29:53,325 --> 00:29:54,760
IT'S VERY UNSTABLE.
407
00:29:54,861 --> 00:29:58,230
IT MAY ALREADY HAVE EXPLODED
IN A GAMMA-RAY BURST.
408
00:29:58,264 --> 00:30:02,168
Narrator: BUT ETA CARINAE
MAY NOT BE THE ONLY THREAT.
409
00:30:02,201 --> 00:30:06,338
THERE ARE OTHER
DYING STARS OUT THERE.
410
00:30:06,372 --> 00:30:09,708
BELIEVE IT OR NOT, ONE OF THEM
IS POINTED IN OUR DIRECTION.
411
00:30:09,741 --> 00:30:16,315
WE ARE STARING DOWN
THE GUN BARREL OF WR104 --
412
00:30:16,348 --> 00:30:21,020
TWO DYING STARS THAT WILL ONE
DAY UNDERGO THE GAMMA-RAY BURST.
413
00:30:21,053 --> 00:30:26,225
NOT A QUESTION OF IF,
A QUESTION OF WHEN.
414
00:30:26,258 --> 00:30:29,929
THAT WR104
MAY HAVE OUR NAME ON IT.
415
00:30:29,962 --> 00:30:31,097
BUT THE GOOD NEWS IS
416
00:30:31,130 --> 00:30:33,332
WE PROBABLY WOULDN'T KNOW
ABOUT IT IN ADVANCE.
417
00:30:33,365 --> 00:30:36,302
THE SHOCK WOULD HIT US BEFORE
WE HAD A CHANCE TO DO ANYTHING.
418
00:30:36,335 --> 00:30:38,637
SO THERE'S NO SENSE
WORRYING ABOUT IT ANYWAY.
419
00:30:44,176 --> 00:30:45,711
Narrator: THE TRUTH IS,
420
00:30:45,744 --> 00:30:48,881
WE'LL NEVER KNOW IF A STAR
IS ABOUT TO GO HYPERNOVA
421
00:30:48,915 --> 00:30:50,249
AND EXPLODE.
422
00:30:53,852 --> 00:30:57,957
ANYWAY, BY THE TIME WE SEE IT,
IT'LL ALREADY BE TOO LATE.
423
00:31:01,693 --> 00:31:07,433
IN FACT, WE'RE ALREADY EXPOSED
TO RAYS FROM DYING STARS
424
00:31:07,466 --> 00:31:10,236
EVERY SECOND OF EVERY DAY.
425
00:31:21,948 --> 00:31:24,650
Narrator:
WHEN GIANT STARS EXPLODE...
426
00:31:26,485 --> 00:31:29,655
...THEY MAKE THE BIGGEST BANGS
IN THE UNIVERSE.
427
00:31:35,094 --> 00:31:38,064
BUT WHAT GIVES THEM
SO MUCH PUNCH?
428
00:31:41,133 --> 00:31:44,670
UNTIL RECENTLY, NO ONE KNEW.
429
00:31:44,703 --> 00:31:46,238
Kaku: SCIENTISTS,
430
00:31:46,272 --> 00:31:49,341
WHEN THEY TRIED TO SIMULATE
A SUPERNOVA EXPLOSION
431
00:31:49,375 --> 00:31:52,744
IN A COMPUTER, HAD A PROBLEM.
432
00:31:52,778 --> 00:31:56,615
THEY SIMPLY COULD NOT GET ENOUGH
ENERGY OUT OF THE DYING STAR
433
00:31:56,648 --> 00:31:58,117
TO CREATE A SUPERNOVA.
434
00:31:58,150 --> 00:32:00,452
THIS WAS A CALAMITY
IN ASTRONOMY.
435
00:32:08,827 --> 00:32:13,199
Narrator:
COMPUTER MODELS COULDN'T MAKE
THE SIMULATED STARS BLOW UP.
436
00:32:18,404 --> 00:32:22,274
TO BLOW UP A STAR,
YOU NEED A LOT OF ENERGY.
437
00:32:24,176 --> 00:32:28,514
THE TROUBLE WAS,
ASTRONOMERS COULDN'T FIND IT.
438
00:32:28,547 --> 00:32:31,617
Filippenko: THE VISIBLE
RADIATION THAT YOU SEE
439
00:32:31,650 --> 00:32:35,754
IS A TINY FRACTION
OF THE TOTAL ENERGY EMITTED.
440
00:32:35,787 --> 00:32:39,691
EVEN THE ENERGY OF MOTION
OF THE EXPANDING GASES
441
00:32:39,725 --> 00:32:42,161
IS ONLY 1% OF THE TOTAL ENERGY.
442
00:32:42,194 --> 00:32:46,098
Narrator: WHERE WAS
THE MISSING 99% OF THE ENERGY
443
00:32:46,132 --> 00:32:47,733
FROM THE EXPLOSION?
444
00:32:47,766 --> 00:32:49,168
THE ONLY WAY SCIENTISTS
445
00:32:49,201 --> 00:32:52,338
COULD GET THEIR SIMULATIONS
TO MATCH THE REAL THING
446
00:32:52,371 --> 00:32:57,143
WAS TO ADD IN A MYSTERIOUS
PARTICLE CALLED THE NEUTRINO.
447
00:32:57,176 --> 00:33:01,280
WITHOUT IT,
THEIR NUMBERS DIDN'T ADD UP.
448
00:33:01,313 --> 00:33:04,950
THAT WAS THE EASY BIT.
449
00:33:05,051 --> 00:33:06,518
THEIR NEXT STEP
450
00:33:06,552 --> 00:33:11,290
WAS TO PROVE SUPERNOVAS
REALLY DO PRODUCE NEUTRINOS.
451
00:33:15,161 --> 00:33:18,797
IN 1987, THEY GOT LUCKY.
452
00:33:22,634 --> 00:33:25,071
168,000 YEARS AGO,
453
00:33:25,071 --> 00:33:28,274
A SUPERNOVA EXPLODED
IN A NEARBY GALAXY
454
00:33:28,307 --> 00:33:31,177
CALLED
THE LARGE MAGELLANIC CLOUD.
455
00:33:33,645 --> 00:33:36,815
WHEN SCIENTISTS SAW THE LIGHT
FROM THE BLAST,
456
00:33:36,848 --> 00:33:40,486
THEY CALLED IT SUPERNOVA 1987.
457
00:33:43,355 --> 00:33:45,591
SUPERNOVA 1987A
IS REALLY IMPORTANT
458
00:33:45,624 --> 00:33:48,827
IN THE STUDY OF SUPERNOVAE
BECAUSE IT'S THE FIRST ONE
459
00:33:48,860 --> 00:33:51,330
SINCE THE INVENTION
OF THE TELESCOPE.
460
00:33:51,363 --> 00:33:53,965
IT'S THE ONE THAT
WE'VE BEEN ABLE TO STUDY
461
00:33:53,999 --> 00:33:56,768
RIGHT FROM THE TIME OF EXPLOSION
THROUGH NOW,
462
00:33:56,802 --> 00:33:59,671
USING ALL THE INSTRUMENTS
THAT WE'VE DEVELOPED.
463
00:33:59,705 --> 00:34:01,873
Narrator:
ONE OF THOSE INSTRUMENTS
464
00:34:01,907 --> 00:34:06,412
WAS A GIANT NEUTRINO DETECTOR
BURIED DEEP UNDERGROUND.
465
00:34:06,445 --> 00:34:09,548
AND BINGO --
WE SAW A BURST OF RADIATION
466
00:34:09,581 --> 00:34:11,617
GO THROUGH
OUR NEUTRINO DETECTORS,
467
00:34:11,650 --> 00:34:15,221
AND WE SAID,
"AHA! THAT'S THE PROOF!"
468
00:34:15,254 --> 00:34:18,624
Dr. Kirshner: THE DISCOVERY OF
NEUTRINOS FROM SUPERNOVA 1987A
469
00:34:18,657 --> 00:34:19,958
WAS A TREMENDOUS THING
470
00:34:19,991 --> 00:34:22,661
BECAUSE FOR MANY YEARS
PEOPLE HAD BEEN SAYING,
471
00:34:22,694 --> 00:34:24,963
"THAT'S WHERE 99%
OF THE ENERGY GOES,"
472
00:34:24,996 --> 00:34:26,565
BUT NO ONE HAD EVER SEEN IT.
473
00:34:26,598 --> 00:34:28,567
THIS IS NOW THE SMOKING GUN
474
00:34:28,600 --> 00:34:31,403
THAT WE CAN NOW PROVE
THAT NEUTRINOS
475
00:34:31,437 --> 00:34:33,705
CARRY THE ENERGY OF A SUPERNOVA,
476
00:34:33,739 --> 00:34:36,142
AND WE DETECTED IT
RIGHT ON THE EARTH
477
00:34:36,142 --> 00:34:39,511
AS WE SAW A SUPERNOVA
IN OUTER SPACE.
478
00:34:41,380 --> 00:34:46,852
Narrator:
NEUTRINOS ARE TRILLIONS OF TIMES
SMALLER THAN ATOMS.
479
00:34:50,021 --> 00:34:54,193
THEY'RE CREATED BY ALL SORTS
OF NUCLEAR REACTIONS...
480
00:34:55,561 --> 00:35:00,466
...FROM NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS
AND BOMBS TO EXPLODING STARS.
481
00:35:02,168 --> 00:35:07,439
IF YOU HAD "NEUTRINO-VISION,"
YOU'D SEE THEM EVERYWHERE.
482
00:35:12,278 --> 00:35:15,714
Kaku: NEUTRINOS
ARE GHOSTLIKE PARTICLES.
483
00:35:17,349 --> 00:35:20,586
LITERALLY, TRILLIONS OF THEM
ARE GOING THROUGH MY BODY
484
00:35:20,619 --> 00:35:21,953
EVEN AS WE SPEAK.
485
00:35:21,987 --> 00:35:24,956
IN FACT, NEUTRINOS COME
FROM THE BOTTOM OF THE FLOOR,
486
00:35:24,990 --> 00:35:26,492
RIGHT THROUGH THE EARTH,
487
00:35:26,525 --> 00:35:28,927
AND EVEN HIT ME
RIGHT THROUGH MY LEGS.
488
00:35:28,960 --> 00:35:32,564
Narrator: PRETTY STRANGE.
489
00:35:32,598 --> 00:35:38,204
IMAGINE SO MANY TINY PARTICLES
ZOOMING THROUGH OUR BODIES.
490
00:35:38,204 --> 00:35:42,308
BUT WHERE DO THEY GET
ALL THEIR ENERGY?
491
00:35:44,976 --> 00:35:49,781
WHEN A CORE CRUSHES DOWN JUST
BEFORE A SUPERNOVA EXPLOSION,
492
00:35:49,815 --> 00:35:52,884
THE ATOMS INSIDE IT
ARE BROKEN UP.
493
00:35:56,488 --> 00:35:58,357
THE CORE GETS SO HOT,
494
00:35:58,390 --> 00:36:02,861
IT TURNS THIS ATOMIC DEBRIS
INTO BLAZING NEUTRINOS.
495
00:36:07,233 --> 00:36:11,670
Woosley:
WE THINK THAT SUPERNOVAE PRODUCE
A STUPENDOUS SUM OF NEUTRINOS
496
00:36:11,703 --> 00:36:14,906
WHEN THE CORE COLLAPSES
TO A NEUTRON STAR.
497
00:36:14,940 --> 00:36:16,242
FOR ABOUT 10 SECONDS,
498
00:36:16,275 --> 00:36:18,944
THAT CORE SHINES
WITH A NEUTRINO LUMINOSITY
499
00:36:18,977 --> 00:36:22,147
THAT IS GREATER THAN ALL
OF THE ENERGY BEING PRODUCED
500
00:36:22,248 --> 00:36:24,716
IN THE REST OF THE UNIVERSE
AT THAT TIME.
501
00:36:24,750 --> 00:36:29,455
Narrator: IN OTHER WORDS,
IT'S REALLY BRIGHT.
502
00:36:29,488 --> 00:36:33,525
BUT GRAVITY CAN'T HOLD
THESE NEUTRINOS IN THE CORE.
503
00:36:35,627 --> 00:36:39,431
THEY BURST FREE
IN A BLINDING FLASH OF LIGHT
504
00:36:39,465 --> 00:36:42,067
THAT RIPS THE DYING STAR APART.
505
00:36:47,606 --> 00:36:49,107
THE DISCOVERY OF NEUTRINOS
506
00:36:49,140 --> 00:36:52,311
TRANSFORMED THE SCIENCE
OF SUPERNOVAS.
507
00:36:53,945 --> 00:36:56,982
BUT SUPERNOVAS
WERE ABOUT TO REVEAL
508
00:36:57,015 --> 00:37:00,018
THE MOST MYSTERIOUS FORCE
OF ALL --
509
00:37:00,051 --> 00:37:04,089
ONE THAT'S CHANGING THE DESTINY
OF THE UNIVERSE.
510
00:37:17,436 --> 00:37:20,706
Narrator: SUPERNOVA EXPLOSIONS
ARE SO BRIGHT,
511
00:37:20,739 --> 00:37:23,942
WE CAN SEE THEM
ACROSS THE ENTIRE UNIVERSE.
512
00:37:26,144 --> 00:37:28,213
THIS HAS HELPED ASTRONOMERS
513
00:37:28,314 --> 00:37:32,083
UNLOCK ONE OF THE DEEPEST
MYSTERIES OF THE COSMOS.
514
00:37:36,322 --> 00:37:38,457
THE UNIVERSE CAME TO LIFE
515
00:37:38,490 --> 00:37:41,893
IN THE BIG BANG
14 BILLION YEARS AGO.
516
00:37:45,931 --> 00:37:51,202
IT EXPANDED FROM A TINY BALL
OF ENERGY SMALLER THAN AN ATOM
517
00:37:51,236 --> 00:37:56,442
TO A UNIVERSE BILLIONS AND
BILLIONS OF LIGHT-YEARS ACROSS.
518
00:37:56,475 --> 00:37:59,545
AND IT'S STILL EXPANDING.
519
00:38:01,046 --> 00:38:03,181
I'VE OFTEN WONDERED
HOW FAR FUTURE PEOPLE
520
00:38:03,214 --> 00:38:05,150
WILL EVEN KNOW
THE BIG BANG HAPPENED,
521
00:38:05,183 --> 00:38:07,085
BECAUSE WE KNOW
THE BIG BANG HAPPENED
522
00:38:07,118 --> 00:38:09,521
FROM WATCHING ALL THE GALAXIES
FLY AWAY FROM US.
523
00:38:11,690 --> 00:38:15,727
SOMEDAY, THE GALAXIES WILL BE
SO FAR AWAY FROM EACH OTHER,
524
00:38:15,761 --> 00:38:19,531
IT WILL BE IMPOSSIBLE TO SEE
ANYTHING ELSE IN THE SKY.
525
00:38:19,565 --> 00:38:21,633
Narrator:
SCIENTISTS USED TO THINK
526
00:38:21,667 --> 00:38:24,436
THE EXPANDING UNIVERSE
WAS SLOWING DOWN,
527
00:38:24,470 --> 00:38:27,373
BUT THERE WAS NO WAY
TO PROVE IT...
528
00:38:30,376 --> 00:38:35,781
...UNTIL THEY FOUND DOUBLE-STAR
SUPERNOVAS, TYPE 1As.
529
00:38:38,183 --> 00:38:42,153
THEY ALWAYS EXPLODE
WHEN THE WHITE-DWARF STAR
530
00:38:42,187 --> 00:38:46,257
REACHES EXACTLY 1.4 TIMES
THE MASS OF OUR SUN.
531
00:38:51,563 --> 00:38:53,599
AND THEIR EXPLOSIONS
532
00:38:53,632 --> 00:38:58,404
ALWAYS RELEASE EXACTLY
THE SAME AMOUNT OF LIGHT.
533
00:38:59,838 --> 00:39:04,876
THEY ARE THE PERFECT MARKERS
TO MEASURE DISTANCE IN SPACE.
534
00:39:06,412 --> 00:39:08,079
Krauss:
TYPE 1A SUPERNOVAE,
535
00:39:08,113 --> 00:39:11,249
WHEN WE KNOW HOW BRIGHT THEY ARE
AND HOW BRIGHT THEY LOOK,
536
00:39:11,282 --> 00:39:12,684
WE CAN TELL THE DISTANCE,
537
00:39:12,718 --> 00:39:14,686
'CAUSE THE FARTHER AWAY
THEY ARE,
538
00:39:14,720 --> 00:39:17,322
THE LESS BRIGHT THEY'LL LOOK
IN THE TELESCOPE.
539
00:39:19,425 --> 00:39:22,494
AND THAT HAS ALLOWED US TO
ACCURATELY MEASURE DISTANCES
540
00:39:22,528 --> 00:39:24,095
NOT JUST TO NEARBY GALAXIES
541
00:39:24,129 --> 00:39:27,065
BUT TO GALAXIES AT THE OTHER END
OF THE VISIBLE UNIVERSE --
542
00:39:27,098 --> 00:39:29,468
BILLIONS OF LIGHT-YEARS.
543
00:39:29,501 --> 00:39:32,337
AND THAT HAS ALLOWED US TO MAKE
INCREDIBLE DISCOVERIES.
544
00:39:34,640 --> 00:39:37,443
Narrator: ASTRONOMERS
THOUGHT THEY HAD FOUND A WAY
545
00:39:37,443 --> 00:39:41,647
TO PROVE THE EXPANSION RATE OF
THE UNIVERSE WAS SLOWING DOWN.
546
00:39:41,680 --> 00:39:44,616
WHAT THEY GOT
WAS A BIG SURPRISE.
547
00:39:46,117 --> 00:39:47,586
Krauss: IN 1998,
548
00:39:47,619 --> 00:39:51,590
ASTRONOMERS MADE A REMARKABLE
AND UNEXPECTED DISCOVERY.
549
00:39:51,623 --> 00:39:53,459
IT WAS RECOGNIZED
THAT THE UNIVERSE,
550
00:39:53,492 --> 00:39:54,826
WHICH SHOULD BE SLOWING DOWN,
551
00:39:54,860 --> 00:39:56,895
'CAUSE GRAVITY, AFTER ALL,
IS ATTRACTIVE,
552
00:39:56,928 --> 00:39:59,330
AND THE MASS OF OBJECTS
SHOULD CAUSE THE EXPANSION
553
00:39:59,364 --> 00:40:00,732
OF THE UNIVERSE TO SLOW DOWN.
554
00:40:00,766 --> 00:40:04,169
BUT THE EXPANSION
IS SPEEDING UP.
555
00:40:04,202 --> 00:40:06,071
IT'S ACCELERATING.
556
00:40:08,707 --> 00:40:12,177
Narrator: THE CONSTANT LIGHT
FROM TYPE 1A SUPERNOVAS
557
00:40:12,210 --> 00:40:15,013
COMPLETELY CHANGED
THE WAY ASTRONOMERS
558
00:40:15,046 --> 00:40:16,515
UNDERSTAND THE UNIVERSE.
559
00:40:16,548 --> 00:40:19,451
Kaku: EVERY SCIENCE TEXTBOOK
ON THE EARTH
560
00:40:19,485 --> 00:40:23,088
SAYS THAT THE UNIVERSE
IS EXPANDING AND SLOWING DOWN.
561
00:40:23,121 --> 00:40:24,623
WRONG.
562
00:40:24,656 --> 00:40:27,859
WE NOW HAVE TO REWRITE
ALL THE SCIENCE TEXTBOOKS
563
00:40:27,893 --> 00:40:29,294
ON THE PLANET EARTH.
564
00:40:34,566 --> 00:40:36,702
Narrator: BUT ASTRONOMERS
STILL DIDN'T KNOW
565
00:40:36,735 --> 00:40:40,506
WHY THE UNIVERSE IS EXPANDING
FASTER AND FASTER.
566
00:40:41,740 --> 00:40:46,512
THEY BEGAN TO THINK IT'S SOME
KIND OF UNKNOWN ENERGY.
567
00:40:48,680 --> 00:40:50,549
THEY CALLED IT "DARK ENERGY,"
568
00:40:50,582 --> 00:40:52,651
BUT IT'S DIFFICULT TO PROVE
569
00:40:52,684 --> 00:40:57,322
BECAUSE IT CAN'T BE SEEN
OR TOUCHED OR DETECTED.
570
00:40:57,355 --> 00:41:01,126
Filippenko: WE REALLY DON'T HAVE
A VERY GOOD CLUE
571
00:41:01,159 --> 00:41:05,196
AS TO THE PHYSICAL NATURE
AND ORIGIN OF DARK ENERGY.
572
00:41:07,032 --> 00:41:08,834
IT'S PERHAPS THE NUMBER-ONE
573
00:41:08,867 --> 00:41:11,236
OBSERVATIONALLY MOTIVATED
PROBLEM
574
00:41:11,269 --> 00:41:15,306
IN ALL OF PHYSICS RIGHT NOW --
THE NATURE OF THE DARK ENERGY.
575
00:41:23,549 --> 00:41:26,317
Narrator:
FROM DARK ENERGY TO BLACK HOLES,
576
00:41:26,351 --> 00:41:27,919
SUPERNOVAS HAVE REVEALED
577
00:41:27,953 --> 00:41:31,389
SOME OF THE MOST PROFOUND
MYSTERIES OF THE UNIVERSE.
578
00:41:35,861 --> 00:41:37,563
THESE EXPLODING STARS
579
00:41:37,596 --> 00:41:40,398
GIVE US THE BUILDING BLOCKS
OF THE UNIVERSE
580
00:41:40,431 --> 00:41:43,468
AND SHOW US HOW IT'S ALL MADE.
581
00:41:45,436 --> 00:41:47,272
IT'S HARD TO IMAGINE,
582
00:41:47,305 --> 00:41:49,775
BUT THE ATOMS
IN OUR BODIES TODAY
583
00:41:49,808 --> 00:41:54,312
WERE MADE BY A SUPERNOVA
BILLIONS OF YEARS AGO.
584
00:41:58,349 --> 00:42:00,586
THE BIBLE SAY,
"FROM DUST TO DUST."
585
00:42:00,586 --> 00:42:04,422
ASTRONOMERS SAY,
"FROM STARDUST TO STARDUST."
586
00:42:04,455 --> 00:42:10,028
SO SUPERNOVAE ARE THE KEY LINK
IN THIS CYCLE OF LIFE.
587
00:42:10,061 --> 00:42:12,698
Dr. Thaller: PEOPLE THINK
OF SPACE AS BEING SOMETHING
588
00:42:12,731 --> 00:42:14,399
VERY DISTANT AND VERY REMOTE.
589
00:42:14,432 --> 00:42:17,603
IT'S LIGHT-YEARS AWAY,
HUGELY DISTANT FROM US.
590
00:42:17,603 --> 00:42:19,270
THAT'S COMPLETELY WRONG.
591
00:42:19,304 --> 00:42:21,072
SUPERNOVAE ARE RIGHT HERE.
592
00:42:21,106 --> 00:42:22,674
WE ARE THEIR CHILDREN.
593
00:42:22,708 --> 00:42:25,611
THEY MADE US,
LITERALLY PUT US TOGETHER.
594
00:42:25,611 --> 00:42:26,812
WE ARE STAR STUFF.
595
00:42:26,845 --> 00:42:30,315
WITHOUT THE SUPERNOVAS,
WE COULD NOT EXIST.
596
00:42:30,348 --> 00:42:33,619
SO WHEN WE WALK AROUND AT NIGHT
AND WE LOOK UP AT THE NIGHT SKY
597
00:42:33,619 --> 00:42:37,222
AND WE SEE THE STARS AND WE FEEL
SOMEHOW A PART OF THEM...
598
00:42:38,790 --> 00:42:40,792
...THE TRUTH IS, WE ARE.
599
00:42:40,826 --> 00:42:42,894
THEY ARE OUR PARENTS.
600
00:42:50,936 --> 00:42:56,742
Narrator:
SOME SCIENTISTS BELIEVE THE AGE
OF SUPERNOVAS COULD BE ENDING.
601
00:42:56,775 --> 00:43:00,311
SMALLER, SLOWER-BURNING STARS,
LIKE OUR SUN,
602
00:43:00,345 --> 00:43:02,180
WILL BECOME MORE COMMON
603
00:43:02,213 --> 00:43:05,116
AND GIANT STARS
BECOME MORE RARE.
604
00:43:10,656 --> 00:43:13,859
SUPERNOVAS
HAVE GIVEN US GALAXIES,
605
00:43:13,892 --> 00:43:17,763
SOLAR SYSTEMS, STARS,
AND PLANETS.
606
00:43:17,796 --> 00:43:21,700
THEY MADE US
AND EVERYTHING WE SEE.
607
00:43:23,869 --> 00:43:26,805
THEY ARE WHERE DESTRUCTION
AND CREATION MEET.
608
00:43:26,838 --> 00:43:28,740
THE DESTINY OF THE UNIVERSE
609
00:43:28,774 --> 00:43:33,144
LIES IN THE ASHES
OF DYING STARS.
49165
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